Applied PsychologyComponent 3: Child Psychology

What is Child Psychology?

Child Psychology looks at the development of thinking and behaviour. Specifically, in children and young people. Researchers in this area may study individual children’s behaviour, environmental factors and the impact both of these have on individual’s development.

In this component, we will look at six topics:

TOPIC ONE: Intelligence TOPIC TWO: Pre-adult brain

TOPIC THREE: Perceptual development

TOPIC FOUR: Cognitive development and education

TOPIC FIVE: Development of attachment

TOPIC SIX: Impact of advertising on children

TOPIC ONE: Intelligence

Background: What Psychologists mean by intelligence and what biological factors could affect intelligence

Part one of background: What is intelligence?

Intelligence is a psychological construct with the implied meaning of the ability to acquire information, think and reason. However, as intelligence can refer to things such as creative skills, logical reasoning, originality or the ability to make critical judgement, there lacks a universal definition.

Intelligence is represented by whatever particular intelligence tests are actually testing (Boring, 1923). For instance, most modern IQ tests include logical reasoning exercises. An individual who scores highly on this type of test is considered intelligent; but only if you define being intelligent as being highly skilled at solving analogies!

Think back to core studies… what does Gould say about the use of IQ tests?

Stratum 1

Stratum 2

Stratum 3

Theory 1: Spearman (1927)

In the early 20th century, Spearman studied the relationships between cognitive factors in school children. He tested large numbers of school children, correlated all of their scores and subjected them to a statistical technique known as data analysis. Spearman proposed that intelligence could be understood by one single factor; the ‘g’ factor (general intelligence). The ‘g’ factor is an innate ability. He suggests that the ‘g’ factor is responsible for success across a range of mental tasks for each individual and is likely to account for 50% of variance across mental tasks. In an example: you are good at maths and your friend is not. Spearman would suggest half of the variance of your skills (and your friends lack of skills) could be explained by the ‘g’ factor. The remainder would be attributed to other influences such as your desire to get a top grade or because you have a more supportive teacher.

Theory 2: Carroll (1993)

The single-factor theory (above) was further developed into a model known as the three-stratum model. The model consists of a three-level hierarchy of intelligence: Stratum 1 included around 70 narrow abilities. Stratum 2 gathered these into several broad ability factors (which were over arched by the single ‘g’ factor).

The man who created Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient

Part two of background: What biological factors can affect intelligence

ONE: Gender differences

The relationship between gender and intelligence has been investigated by many researchers. In one major review of a range of intelligence measures, Halpern (1997) found evidence to indicate particular differences in cognitive abilities between males and females. For instance, women obtained higher than average scores in tests that involve tasks requiring verbal fluency and areas of knowledge such as foreign language. By contrast, he established men performed better in tasks that involve mental rotation and scientific reasoning.

Using page 60 in pink butterfly textbook…

Explain the biological explanation Haier et al. (2005) suggests for these differences.

What does Van Goozen et al. (1995) suggest?

TWO: Genetic factors

Particular genes and gene combinations are passed from parent to offspring. This allows children to inherit characteristics or traits from their parents. Researchers are interested in understanding the ‘heritability’ of traits such as intelligence. This means, they want to know the extent to which different genes (nature) and differences in environmental factors (nurture) contribute to observed variations in intelligence.

The use of twin or adoptive study methods allow researchers to see the extent to which heredity influences cognitive abilities. Using page 61-62 in the pink butterfly textbook, explain what the following studies done and what they found.

Scarr & Weinberg (1978)

Plomin & Defries (1998)

Scarr (1997) indicates that even when raised apart, identical twins shared higher concordance rates (ie. they had more similar results) than non-identical twins who were reared together. This emphasises the power of genetics (nature) over environmental factors (nurture).

Desrivieres et al. (2014)

Issues with using twin studies is…

The interaction between the environment and genes is not considered; failing to consider certain environments may ‘activate’ a particular gene

Twin studies ignore that parents pass on not only genetics but environment too. For example; two healthy fit adults play lots of sports and eat a healthy diet. They have children who are genetically predisposed towards good health, however due to lifestyle, it is difficult to establish contribution of nature or nurture.

Finally, assortative mating. This means…

THREE: Nutrition and pregnancy Schoenthaler (1991) found that children who lacked nutritious diet in the first place were able to improve their IQ scores by taking daily vitamin and mineral supplements. However, these children only improved in non-verbal tests, and did not improve in verbal tests.

Goldschmidt (2008) found that heavy cannabis use (one or more cigarettes a day) during the first 3 months of pregnancy was linked to lower verbal reasoning when the child was measured at 6 years old. Heavy use during the second 3 months had effects on memory skills, and heavy use in the last 3 months was associated with low scores on IQ tests.

Glover (2009) studied 250 women during pregnancy and got them to complete anxiety questionnaires and they took blood samples to measure cortisol (stress hormone). The children exposed to high levels of cortisol tended to have lower IQ, especially on verbal and linguistic tests.

Answer the following exam question:Assess the role of biological factors in intelligence [15 marks]

Research: Van Leeuwen et al (2008) A twin-family study of general IQ

Before we get started, you must be clear on the following key terms:

Genetic transmission: transfer of genetic information from genes to another generation.

Cultural transmission: is the way a group of people within a society or culture tend to learn and pass on information.

Assortative mating: individuals with similar genes or observable characteristics mate with one another more frequently than those who do not

Gene–environment (GE) interaction: the theory that certain environments ‘activate’ a particular gene

Gene-environment (GE) correlation: parents transmit their genes and their environment to their children. For example, parents may be predisposed to good health and fitness, but also share this lifestyle to their children. Therefore, it makes it difficult to establish the contribution of nature or nurture.

Heritability: the extent to a parents genes are responsible for a phenotype

Phenotypic assortment: assortative mating occurs because individuals choose one another because they have similar intelligence levels.

Social homogamy: people with similar intelligence levels are clustered together in the same environment they are more likely to end up having children together.

Aim

1. The researchers wanted to separate shared genetic from shared environmental effects on intelligence. (They wanted to find out; is intelligence nature or nurture). They aimed to measure the relative influence of assortative mating, cultural transmission, and GE interaction and GE correlation (see key terms above).

2. The researchers also wanted to investigate why spouses have similar intelligences scores to one and other

Method

The sample were drawn from…

Number of participants…

Breakdown of participants…

Mean age…

The following factors were included…

Complete the grid based on the sample used…

Twin type Monozygotic (identical) Dizygotic (non-identical)

MaleFemaleOpposite sex

Design and procedure

Results

Conclusions

1. The main influence on IQ level is genetic factors. However, genes do interact with environmental factors to influence intelligence in significant ways.

2. Cultural transmission does not have a significant influence on variance in IQ.

3. Phenotypic assortment better explains spousal resemblance than social homogamy.

Answer the following exam question:Explain how the research by Van Leeuwen et al. (2008) could be used to understand similarities and differences in the intelligence of twins [10]

Application: At least one method of assessing intelligence

In this topic, we have seen a mixture of factors determine the intelligence of a given individual. As previously discussed, intelligence is represented by whatever particular intelligence tests are actually testing. In this section, we will consider one commonly used, modern IQ test. We will also look at how effective the test is at assessing intelligence.Raven’s Progressive Matrices (RPM)What is it?This IQ test is one of the most popular non-verbal tests of intelligence in current use. In 1936, John Raven introduced the test, which he claims would be easier to administer and interpret, compared to other existing IQ tests which were very long and difficult to deliver. The test measures ‘fluid intelligence’. Fluid intelligence is the ability to think and reason. The test requires the participant to work out an answer based on only the information given. The test presents an incomplete, novel pictorial stimuli which those completing the test have to make meaningful. This means, participants have to select the missing ‘piece’ of the ‘puzzle’ to complete the pattern.

Nowadays, the test comes in three different versions – two of which were used in the key study by van Leeuwen et al. (2008). What are the three versions? (Page 66)Version 1:

Version 2:

Version 3:

What is the application of the test?Using page 66 of the pink butterfly textbook, answer the following…

1. Who is the test best suited to?

2. Where are the RPM used nowadays?

3. What does this allow for?

How does RPM compare to ‘the Flynn effect’‘The Flynn effect’ is a frequently observed trend in IQ scores. James Flynn compared data from 14 nations, which revealed an overall increase in IQ scores. He found from 1952 to 1982 the mean IQ score increased from 100 to 121. One explanation for the intergenerational increase in IQ scores is the improved access to education and literacy rates across the later half of the 20th century. However, Flynn indicated the largest increase in IQ scores occurred on culturally-reduced tests and tests of fluid intelligence (RPM). Because these tests are based on individuals ability to think and reason (not knowledge), improved access to education and literacy cannot be used to explain this increase. Instead, Flynn suggests an increase in problem solving abilities has sparked the increase in IQ scores. He concluded that IQ tests (such as RPM) do not offer a direct measure of the ‘g’ factor (general intelligence). This would explain why, even though the tests give an indication of intelligence, they do not produce stable results across generations.If schools placed greater emphasis on teaching patterns and mental rotation of shapes this would develop the skills in all children. The most intelligent children would be more likely to develop the skills at a more advanced level as it is linked with intelligence. Hence the scores on the tests involving mental rotation would improve overtime as a result of educational focus, whilst still giving an indication of who the brightest children are. Flynn noted the problem with IQ tests is not that they fail to directly measure intelligence itself, but that they correlate too weakly with intelligence to offer a convincing measure of IQ.

Answer the following exam question:

Thelma is worried about her son. He seems very bright in some ways; he is generally making excellent progress at school. However, in three subjects his report was terrible and Thelma is wondering whether an intelligence test would help her to understand why. Discuss how an intelligence test might be conducted and what the results might, or might not, tell Thelma about her son. [10]

EvaluationHow is the topic socially sensitive?

What methodological issues exist with regards to the van Leeuwen et al. (2008) study?

Debates - How does the topic link to the following debates?Usefulness of research

Nature vs nurture

Freewill vs determinism

Reductionism vs holism

Individual vs situational explanation

Psychology as a science

Quick question(s)

In childhood, where do synaptic connections occur in the brain?

What do these connections signal the development of?

What is synaptic pruning?

What attributes are the pre-frontal cortex associated with?

TOPIC TWO: Pre-adult brainBackground: Brain development and the impact of this on risk taking behaviour

The human brain grows at an amazing rate. Much of this development occurs in the first three months of life, during which time a new-borns brain grows at an average rate of 1% per day! It was once believed that virtually all important brain changes had occurred by the time a child reached the age of 3. However, thanks to modern neuroimaging techniques (MRI scanning), we now know that significant changes to the brain continue right through childhood, adolescence and into adulthood. Part one of background: Brain developmentEarly brain developmentAt the time of birth, much of the spinal cord and brain stem are well developed. However, upper regions such as the limbic system and cerebral cortex are fairly immature. Within the first few years, a number of synaptic connections are made in the cerebral cortex, signalling the development of conscious actions, memories, thoughts and emotions. Adolescent brain developmentA dramatic change in synaptic production occurs in adolescence. Grey matter (which contains synaptic connections) reaches peak volume and begins to decrease in density across several cortical regions. This process is called ‘synaptic prunning’. This is where the connections which are not used enough are eliminated. In effect, this allows the brain to become more efficient in its use of energy by removing weaker, less essential synaptic connections in favour of strengthening those that are required. The prefrontal cortex is one of the last areas of the brain to undergo this key process of maturation. This process continues to develop throughout adolescence as individuals gradually get better at abstract reasoning and anticipating outcomes.

Freewill vs determinism

Individual vs situational

Reductionism vs holism

Part two of background: The impact of brain development on risk takingThe hormonal changes which occur during puberty, alongside the way in which adolescents brain develops, can have a significant impact on their decision-making and behaviour. This process is combined with major environmental changes:

Moving schools/going to college or university Sitting exams Increased responsibility such as part time jobs or caring for younger

siblings Greater independence in socialising and leisure activities

In many ways, adolescents are expected to behave in a grown-up way and make responsible adult choices, yet their brains are still functioning quite differently from those of their elders.Adolescents are more prone to risk-taking and impulsivity than any other age group. Examples of this include more frequent drug use, injuries/accidents and unprotected sexual activity. One reason for this is to do with the order in which various regions of the brain mature. The limbic system (which is involved in the processing of social and emotional information) develops earlier than the prefrontal cortex. For a period it dominates the executive controls of the prefrontal cortex, making risky decisions more common and more likely to occur under higher levels of social influence. For example, this means that adolescents might make poorer, riskier decisions about getting into fights than adults would.

From the following debates, could any of these factors influence risk-taking behaviour? If so, explain how.

Nature vs Nurture

Key Research: Barkley-Levenson and Galvan (2014) Neural representation of expected value in adolescent brain

Aim: Investigate whether adolescents attach more

value to rewards than adults do Seek to identify neural development of

expected value (EV) in the brain of adolescents

Sample:Group 1:

_______ adult participants Aged between _______ and _______ Mean age of _______ Gender breakdown________

Group 2: ______ adolescent participants Aged between ______ and ______ Mean age of______ Gender breakdown________

The sampling technique used was __________________

Design and procedureWhat type of experimental method was used? Why was this used?

IV= DV=

Experimenters collected information on participants source and amount of income per month. Why was this?

Key term:

Expected value (EV) is the sum of all of the possible outcomes of a particular choice multiplied by

their probabilities.

A person uses this to judge whether the risks involved in a

certain course of action are worth taking in order to gain a reward

The gambling task Each participant was given 20 US dollars to use as ‘playing’ money

during the fMRI task. They were informed there was an opportunity to win up to $20

more, however there was a possibility they would lose it during the gambling

Participants had to decide for each trial whether they would be willing to gamble

Participants were told one of the trials they accepted would be selected and played at the end of the scan for real money

The participants were also told the amount after the gamble would be added or subtracted from their overall payment of $20.

This was done to encourage participants to risk-take as they would normally

In actuality, all participants were assigned a payment of between $5 and $10, to ensure no participants had to return money

Participants were taught how to use the computerised gambling programme prior to testing

In the task, participants were presented with a series of gambles across 144 trials.

On screen, they saw a ‘spinner’ with a 50% probability of gaining the amount shown on one side, and a 50% probability of loosing the amount shown on the other side.

The amounts were given in whole dollars ranging from losses of -$5 to -$20, and gains from +$5 to +$20.

Below is an example of the three trials from the gambling task. You should complete the diagrams using page 74 from the pink butterfly textbook.

The experimenters collected both neural and behavioural data.1. In what way was neural activation recorded?

2. Why were the researchers interested in the ventral striatum(VS)?

3. How were behavioural responses were measured?

Results:Neural activation

Behavioural differences

Conclusion

Answer the following exam question: Use the study by Barkley-Leveson and Galvan (2014) to explain how neuroscience can help us to understand differences between adolescent and adult brains [10 marks]

The researchers concluded that…

1. ___________ place greater value rewards than __________ do

2. Neural representations of values in __________ are linked to _________

Important: There is nothing defective with adolescent’s ability to reason about outcomes. But rather, adolescents chose to take more risk when the chance of reward is greater.

Application: At least one strategy to reduce the risk of taking behaviours using knowledge of brain development

The key research by Barkley-Levenson & Galvan (2014) has shown that adolescents and adults are both able to reason about risks in similar ways. As adolescents chose to take more risks, this makes them more vulnerable to harm. For many years, heightened risk-taking behaviours were thought to be due to the information adolescents use when making decisions. And so, a range of interventions were introduced to reduce risk-taking behaviour in adolescents. These were designed to alter knowledge, attitudes and beliefs. This includes; educating adolescents about the risks of substance use, reckless driving and unprotected sex. While these programmes improved knowledge about these activities, it was not effective in changing the behaviour. This may be because adolescents lack the cognitive control to resist sensation-seeking, no matter how much information they are given about the high-risk activities.Graduated driver licensing schemesWhy has this scheme been introduced? (Include statistics)

What are graduated driver licensing schemes?

Why might these be useful? (Link to brain regions)

What countries are these implemented? Give information on… The minimum age to pass test The probationary period Restrictions for the probationary period.

Country 1:

Country 2:

Country 3:

Is this scheme effective?

Evaluate the topicWhat issues are there with examining brain activity and function?

Ethics?

What issues are there with the way in which risk-taking behaviour is measured?

What methodological limitations are there with the key research?

How does the topic link to the following debates?Usefulness of research

Nature vs Nurture

Freewill vs Determinism

Answer the following exam questions: 1. Assess the reliability of research into brain development and risk-

taking [15 marks]

2. Dr Shah’s Research team studies risky behaviour in adolescents. She has a young research student called Dan who is designing a new project. He has to choose a topic other than gambling. Choose any risk-taking behaviour other than gambling and discuss how Dan might plan and conduct a new piece of research and what he might find [10 marks]

Psychology as a Science