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Notes for Language Skills Course.

Recommended texts:Perfect Grammar

Dr Derek SolesPublished by Studymates Ltd, 2008ISBN  978-1-84285-136-4This will be referred to during the course.

Also very useful and easy to read is the:Penguin Guide to Punctuation, by R.L Trask,Published by Penguin, 1997ISBN 978-0-14-051366-0 You should also have Fowler’s Modern English Usage,

and a good dictionary. – I recommend an Oxford no smaller than the pocket, and preferably larger.

If you are interested in further reading, I suggest:Grammar Guide- Grammar made easy. –a thorough text with the grammatical terms clearly explained.Gordon Jarvie, A&C black Publishers Ltd2007ISBN  987-0-7136-8187-1

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My Grammar and I (or should that be me). – entertaining yet detailed.Caroline Taggart and J.A WinesMichael O’Mara Books Ltd, 2008ISBN  978-1-84317-310-6

How to write better English.- a more general text of writing, not so much on grammar, but a good resource Robert AllenPenguin Books, 2005ISBN 978-0-14-101676-4

Grammar for Lawyers. Slightly more advanced, not much detail on the grammar basics, but great if you have the basics under control.Michael Meehan, Graham TullochButterworths Guides 2007ISBN  978-0-409-32314-6

Common Errors and Problems in English. An alphabetical list of problem words and common mistakes.Robert AllenPenguin, 2008ISBN: 978-0-141-02821-7

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In these notes I will go through the principal parts of speech in some detail, and then I will look at the structure of a sentence – its syntax - and finally punctuation. This is intended as a quick reference for you; for a more thorough discussion you will need to look at the books listed above.I have also attached a list of words which are commonly misused.

PARTS OF SPEECH

The basic terms:NOUNS

The noun, in its simplest form, should be known to you all.Traditionally it is termed a ‘naming word’.There are 6 different types of nouns, which are not mutually exclusive:Common - things that share a common name, – lawyer, house, court.

Proper - refers to one individual in a wider class, - Chief Justice of Australia, Mary Smith, the High Court.

Collective - a group of things, people or animals, -committee, jury, parliament.

Concrete - something that can be seen or touched, - book, table, pen.

Abstract - something that has no physical existence, - courage, youth, freedom.

Compound nouns – a noun made up of two or more words; either paired, fairy tale; hyphenated, passer-by; or a single word, teapot.

Note the remarks by Brennan J in Theophanous v The Herald and Weekly Times Ltd and Anor ( 1994) 182 CLR 104 at 146 on the use of abstract nouns in legislation:

"Freedom" can be used in several senses and there is a danger in attempting to define a constitutional principle by use of an abstract noun of imprecise meaning, especially when the history of s.92 reveals that the corresponding adjective is extremely troublesome. At the outset, it is necessary to distinguish between an absolute freedom and a freedom which is protected or guaranteed by law.

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Nouns can also be divided into countable or non-countable.

Countable nouns are able to be counted. They can be preceded by a: a dog

They can be both singular and plural: dog/dogs

They can be counted: one dog, two dogs.

Non-countable nouns will be preceded by some rather than a: some butter, some flour.

They are not normally counted: two flours, three butters.

Non-countable nouns are generally commodities that are treated as individual objects. So another form of measure is often introduced:

Two cups of flour, three spoons of butter.

Some nouns can be either, depending on the context:

The recipe needs a cup of sugar;

or “one sugar or two?”

PRONOUNS

A pronoun replaces a noun. It takes the same number and case as the noun it replaces.Pronouns are divided into persons as follows:

SingularPlural

1st person I we2nd person you you3rd person he/she/it theyThese terms are important when discussing pronouns and also verbs (see below).You need to be able to identify the different types of pronouns.

Personal pronouns:

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These are used to refer back to something or someone already mentioned.There are three types of personal pronouns: subject: I, weyou, youhe/she/it, they

object:me, usyou, youhim/her/it, them

Possessive pronouns

These pronouns show possession. They are: mine, oursyours, yourshis/hers/its, theirsAlso, often referred to as possessive pronouns:my, ouryour, yourhis/hers/its, theirHowever, these pronouns function as adjectives and will be examined in more detail later.

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Demonstrative pronouns

These are mainly used to specify a person or thing already mentioned. They are: this these

that thoseThis and these refer to something (or someone) nearby or close, whereas that and those refer to something (or someone) further away.

Interrogative pronouns

These introduce a question.They are:who whom what whose whichThese possessive, demonstrative and interrogative words can also function as adjectives – see below.

Reflexive pronouns

These refer back to a noun or pronoun already referred to in a sentence.For example: The child must learn the lessons himself.The reflexive pronouns are:myself, ourselves, yourself, yourselves, himself/herself/itself, themselves

Reciprocal pronouns

Each other, one anotherThese show a two way relationship.Reciprocal pronouns can only be used as the object of a verb or following a preposition.

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Indefinite pronouns

These refer to people or things unknown or unspecified They are: anybody everybody nobody somebody

anyone everyone no one someone anything everything nothing something

Distributive pronouns

These refer to members of a class.All both each either neither none

Relative pronouns

These introduce a relative clause. More will be said about relative clauses later.The five relative pronouns are:who whom whose that which

ADJECTIVES

An adjective qualifies, or modifies a noun or a pronoun.For example: The tiresome class...The complicated judgement...

Adjectives can be placed close to the noun: the noisy students were removed from the class. These are called attributive adjectives.Or they can be placed after the verb: The class was noisy. These are called predicative adjectives. Numbers are often used as adjectives:Five judges sat on Friday.He was the third judge from the left.

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Adjectives can follow the noun: the people concerned were gathered in the garden.There are certain fixed expressions which have the adjective follow the noun: Attorney-General; Governor-General.When these are made plural, it is the first word – the noun- that is made plural: Attorneys-General; Governors-General.Comparison of adjectives.Adjectives compare in three ways: They can compare the qualities up, as equal, or down.For example: Comparing up:The Appellant’s submissions were more detailed than the Respondent’s. (comparative)The Appellant’s submissions were the most detailed. (superlative)They are older than the usual Defendant. (comparative)The oldest Defendants were allowed to sit. (superlative)Equal:The house was as clean as a pin.Comparing down:Her comments were less useful than her sisters.Her comments were the least useful of all.Regular comparative and superlative adjectives are formed by either adding –er/ -est, or preceding the adjective by more/most. In general, short, one syllable words, use the –er/-est form and words with three or more syllables require the additional word. Words with two syllables can go either way.Some adjectives do not compare as they have an absolute meaning.For example: unique, right, perfect.

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Interrogative, demonstrative and possessive adjectives

Interrogative adjectives are what, whose, which. These are used to acquire more information about a noun.For example:Which book did you study from?What subjects did you pass?Whose car did you drive today?Note that each question asks for more information about a stated noun.Compare these to the interrogative pronouns:Which do you want?What are these? Whose is the car in the street?Note that the adjectives must have a noun which they are qualifying, whereas the pronouns take the place of the noun.Similarly the demonstrative adjectives; this, that, these and those, demonstrate or point out the noun they are qualifying.For example: That book was very detailed. (adjective)That was very detailed. (pronoun)These classes are very long. (adjective)These are very long classes. ( pronoun)Note also the possessive adjectives:my ouryour yourher/his/its their

But also:mine oursyours yours

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hers/his/its theirs

When the adjective is being used attributively, the first set of words is used; My book is great.But when used predicatively the latter are used; The great book is mine.When adjectives precede a noun, it may be necessary to hyphenate them in order to make your meaning clear.Consider the difference, for example:Five-year-old boys will be included in the study.Five year-old boys will be included in the study.

ARTICLES

There are two types of article:the definite article and the indefinite article.The definite article restricts the meaning of a noun making it more specific, or definite. The definite article is the.The indefinite article is to show that there is not a specific item of the noun that is indicated. The indefinite articles are an before a vowel, and a before a consonant.

Goold v Commonwealth of Australia (1993) 114 ALR 135 at 139 -140, Wilcox J:So far as language is concerned, it is significant that the drafter of the paragraph used the indefinite article “an” rather than the definite article ‘the’. The word “an” suggests an intention that it be enough that the intention was to meet the needs of any “acquiring authority”; that is, any entity falling within the defined meaning of that term.

VERBS

Known traditionally as the ‘doing’ words. In fact they are more accurately described as the ‘doing’, ‘having’ or ‘being’ words. The categories are of some significance because the so-called ‘being’ verbs: the verbs: to be, to become, to feel, to seem, to appear, to get, to grow and to remain, are copula verbs. These verbs link the two parts of a sentence. More will be said about this below.

Types of verbs

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Verbs, in their ‘raw’ form are called the infinitive. This is when the action of the verb is clear – to run, to jump, but you are not told who is performing this action or when it is performed. These verbs are in the form to.... When the subject of the verb is known or understood the verb is being used in its finite form. (He) runs, (you) jump. The finite verb has a tense – jump/jumped and agrees with its subject in person and number. Simple verbs are verbs of only one word; walk, talk, write.Compound verbs consist of two or more words. The additional word alters the usual meaning of the verb.For example: he washed up the dishes. They hand washed their clothes. He had to make do in the circumstances. She got rid of the pests.Many verbs are made up of more than one word. They consist of the ‘action’ word and an auxiliary word. The main auxiliary verbs are the verb to be, to have and to do. I am reading, do you read, she has read...A specific and common type of auxiliary verb is the modal verb. These give a range of meanings to the main verb, such as possibility, certainty, instruction, request, want and obligation. The main modal verbs are:can could must shall should be able to will would may might have to

For example:Possibility – You might study harder.Request – Could you please study harder?Obligation – I must study harder if I am to pass the exam.

Tense

The tense of the verb tells when the action of the verb is taking place. In the present and the past tense, there is some inflection of the word: I run, she runs. An inflection is a change to the word which expresses different persons or tenses.However, a change in tense is often shown by the use of an auxiliary verb, such as: She runs every day (present tense). Yesterday she ran (past tense). Tomorrow she will run (future tense).

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There are many tenses in English, and using them correctly is important as tense has a marked effect on meaning.The most common tenses are:Present:This shows an action that is occurring now. Most verbs are regular in form in the present tense:I work we workYou work you workHe/she/it works they work.However many of the most common verbs are irregular in their present form:I am we areYou are you areHe/she/it is they are

Past:This shows an action that has already occurred.The past is often formed by adding –ed to the regular verb:I worked we workedYou worked you workedHe/she/it worked they workedHowever, there are many irregular forms of the past:I was we wereYou were you wereHe/she/it was they were.

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Future:This shows an action that will occur later. It is formed by adding an auxiliary. I will work we will workYou will work you will workHe/she /it will work they will work.

I will be we will beYou will be you will beHe/she/it will be they will beThese are the main three divisions of the tenses. However there are many more tenses used to express more precisely the timing of the action.For example: Present continuous – she is running along the path.Perfect – I have studied all night.Past perfect (pluperfect) - I had studied all night.Future perfect – By tomorrow, I will have studied all night.

The complete tense is often formed by an auxiliary verb and a participle. There are two kinds of participle:the present participle of regular verbs is formed by adding –ing to the root of the verb,For example: draft – draftingstudy – studyingrun – running.The tense is shown by the auxiliary and the present participle – The student is studying; the lawyer was drafting the will.

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The past participle of regular verbs is formed by adding –ed to the verb,For example: draft – draftedstudy – studied.Note there are many irregular past participles:know – knewsay – said.

Participles are used in many ways in a sentence, not just as a part of a compound verb. As with most words the part of speech being employed will depend on the way the word is being used in the sentence.For example: The door is opening (participle).The opened door is a good sign (adjective).The opening speech was very long (adjective).

The tense used in writing is very important and affects the meaning of the sentence.

Consider the comments by Mason J in considering s 301 of the Navigation Act 1912 (Cth): Robinson v Western Australian Museum (1977) 138 CLR 283 at p 334:The section provides for the receiver ......., to conduct an examination of witnesses on oath in relation to certain matters "Where any ship is or has been wrecked, stranded, or in distress". The use of the perfect as well as the present tense does not indicate that the present tense is intended to signify only those ships which became wrecked, stranded or distressed after the commencement of the Act. The employment of the perfect tense in this section - a usage not repeated elsewhere in the provisions now under consideration - appears to me to be designed to authorize an examination of witnesses in relation to a maritime casualty or emergency which occurred before the commencement of the Act, where the condition of the ship no longer continues to answer the statutory description. No doubt it was considered necessary or desirable to provide for the examination of witnesses to a past maritime casualty or emergency, though it did not result in a ship being wrecked,

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stranded or in distress after the commencement of the Act, e.g. a ship in distress which was saved before that date.

Transitive and Intransitive verbs.A transitive verb is one which takes a direct object. (see below for discussion of subjects and objects)For example: I study my notes – study is a transitive verb; my notes is the object of the verb.I hear voices – hear is transitive, voices is the object.An intransitive verb does not take a direct object.For example: The volcano erupted – there is no object.I listen to the voices – to the voices is an indirect object.

Many verbs can function either transitively or intransitively.I play football (transitive).I play every day (intransitive).Note carefully the correct use of to lay and to lie.These irregular verbs are very often confused.To lie is an intransitive verb:I lie down. (no object)To lay is a transitive verb:The hen lays the eggs. (object is eggs)The confusion arises because of the similarity of the irregular forms of the verbs:Present tense: I lie down I lay the bricksPast tense: I lay down I laid the bricksPast participle: I had lain down I had laid the bricks.

Mood

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The mood of the verb tells the attitude of the verb. The three most common moods are: indicative – when the verb is being used in a statement or to state a fact; imperative – when an order is being given; subjunctive – when it is a non-factual statement, such as a wish or supposition. For example:Indicative: She speaks very quietlyImperative: Speak quietly!Subjunctive: If I were you, I would speak quietly.

Voice

There are two voices which help to establish the relationship between the subject and object of a sentence.The active voice is when the subject of the sentence is performing the action of the verb.For example: The student understands all the legal principles.The student is the subject and is doing the understanding.The passive voice is when the action of the verb is performed upon the subject of the sentence.For example: Each legal principle is clearly understood.Each legal principle is the subject and is being understood. To provide as much information as in the active sentence it is necessary include more information – Each legal principle is understood by the student.

Adverbs

Adverbs qualify verbs, other adverbs, and adjectives.They generally tell the time, manner or place of a verb. They answer the questions:When, where, why and how?For example: they answered the questions confidently (qualifies the verb telling how)they answered the questions yesterday (qualifies the verb telling when)

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they answered the questions upstairs (qualifies the verb telling where).Also:She carried very heavy books (qualifies the adjective)She answered the questions very confidently (qualifies the adverb)

Comparative/ superlative adverbsThese are generally formed by adding – more and most:He answered the questions more distinctly than she did;He answered the questions most carefully;although there are irregular adverbs:for example:well – better – best.

Prepositions

Prepositions are difficult to define, but not hard to identify. They are words like on, at, over, which show the relation of a noun, or pronoun to the rest of the sentence.For example: The cat sat on the mat.The examiner put the papers beside his bag.The child jumped through the looking-glass, down the well and into the magic land.It is very important to use the correct preposition. Many are often idiomatic and need to be known as there is no obvious way to deduce which word is correct.For example: He is angry with me. (not at)Be careful when using to or with in the following – there is a difference in meaning!I am speaking to you.I am speaking with you.

Conjunctions

These are the joining or linking words.There are two types:

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Co-ordinate conjunctions, - which join words, or clauses (discussed below) of equal status.They are:and,but, or,then,so,yet.They ordered fish and chips.They sat the exams and they passed well.They may go home or they may stay until tomorrow.

Subordinate conjunctionsThese join subordinate or dependent clauses to the main clause of a sentence.Some of the common ones are:after,because,when,where,while.They studied hard after they knew what was in the exams.They studied hard because they needed to pass.They celebrated when they heard the results.

SYNTAX

Syntax is the construction of a sentence and its rules. It looks at the way words are combined to form sentences correctly.

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The parts of a sentence can be broken down into clauses and phrases.

Phrases

A phrase is a small collection of words that functions as a grammatical unit.The most commonly used phrase is one which begins with a preposition and does not contain a finite verb.For example: on the floor; up the creek; over the top.A phrase cannot be a complete sentence as a sentence requires a finite verb.

Clauses

A clause is a group of words containing a finite verb. Clauses may be independent and so can stand alone: often as a complete sentence. For example:the cat sat on the mat. Or they may be dependent and so reliant upon a subordinate conjunction or a relative pronoun. For example:When the cat sat on the mat...The man who saw the cat...- in which case it cannot be a complete sentence.Sentences

A sentence is a complete thought. It will usually consist of a subject, a finite verb, and an object.Consider:The student studies her books.The subject is the person, or thing, performing the action of the verb. Here – the student.The finite verb here is studies.The object is the thing or person that receives the action performed by the verb. Here – her books.There are two types of object: the direct object, which is the direct recipient of the action of the verb, and the indirect object, which receives or takes the object of the verb. It is easiest understood by considering examples.

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The teacher gives good marks to the student:the subject is teacher;the direct object is good marks;the indirect object is the student.

The child takes the books from the lady:the subject is the child;the direct object is the books;the indirect object is the lady.

She described the incident to him:the subject is she;the direct object is the incident;the indirect object is him.

One deviation from this rule is when the verb is a copula verb (see above).When a sentence uses a copula verb it does not take an object but takes a complement. The complement is in the same case as the word before the verb.So in the sentence:Michael walks the dog, Michael is the subject and the dog is the object of the walking; However, in the sentence: Michael is the dog, Michael and the dog are in the same case – the dog is the complement to Michael.

For example:I am the teacher.I and the teacher are both in the subjective case. This only poses a problem when pronouns are used.I am she.I and she should be in the same case – here the subjective case.

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The subject

The subject of a sentence must agree with its verb. So, a singular subject will have a singular verb, and a plural subject will have a plural verb.Generally this is not a problem. However there are some occasions when it is not obvious, and there are a few subjects for which the rule is no longer so strictly adhered to. Difficulties can arise when the subject is separated from its verb. It is important, in such sentences, to be able to identify the subject correctly.Consider the sentence: The cost of books reflects the market.The subject of this sentence is the cost and so it requires a singular verb. The prepositional phrase of books is not the subject and so does not influence the verb.Be particularly careful when there are many intervening words. For example: One of the men, who visited the schools in the districts mentioned, is writing a report.The subject is one and one is a singular noun and so requires a singular verb.

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Consider the following chart:

Type of Noun Singular/plural verb Example

Singular Singular The lawyer is clever.

Plural Plural The lawyers are clever.

Collective Singular – but can be plural if the items are considered separate.

Cabinet has decided to act.

Cabinet have decided to act.

“Number” Singular, if preceded by ‘the’; plural if preceded by ‘a’.

The number of girls is reduced.

A number of girls are early.

Compound subjects Plural The Plaintiffs and Defendants are ready

Alternatives Singular A dismissal of charges or withdrawal of the case is necessary.

Indefinite pronouns ending in –body,-one, -thing.

Singular Everybody is able to write well.

Anything is easier than this.

Indefinite pronouns, eg. any, either

Should take singular, (plural is becoming acceptable, particularly where the noun immediately preceding the verb is strong.)

Any of the judges is able to understand this.

Neither of the defendants is available.

None, all Should take singular but again can be overruled by the object of the preposition.

None of the witnesses is reliable.

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When a pronoun is the subject of a sentence, the subject pronoun must be used.I saw the book.I is the subject.My brother and I saw the book. There are two subjects in this sentence; my brother, and I.He and I saw the book. Again there are two subjects in the sentence; he, and I.To confirm that the correct pronoun is used when there are multiple subjects, remove all but the doubtful pronoun and say the sentence. It will be clear which is the correct pronoun. For example in the third example above:He saw the book--- I saw the book. It is clearly not: Him saw the book---Me saw the book. Him and me saw the book. Clearly wrong.

The object

As mentioned above the object can be direct or indirect.It is important to be able to identify the object of the verb, particularly when using pronouns.Consider the following:

I (subject pronoun) gave the book to her.Her is the indirect object of the verb, and so the object pronoun is used.The sentence could be phrased: I gave her the book. Her is still the indirect object even though the to is no longer there.

Consider also:I (subject pronoun) followed him (object pronoun).I followed John and him.

I is the subject.John is an object.Him is also an object.

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The same method of checking applies as used to determine the subject pronouns.Remove the additional nouns/pronouns and say the sentence:I followed John.I followed him.

Note also:Be careful when using than as a comparative, it introduces a second element in the comparison. If you use the wrong case, the meaning may change:Consider this sentence;She gave him more money than me. She gave him more money (than she gave) me.She gave him more money than I (gave him).In the first example the subject of the second part of the sentence is she(understood). In the second example the subject of the second part of the sentence is I. Put in the missing verb or words to be sure you are using the correct pronoun for your meaning.

Relative Clauses

A relative clause is a clause providing more information about a noun or pronoun.It is a dependent clause and so cannot stand alone as a sentence.For example:the man, who has a dog, lives in that house over there.The clause – who has a dog- is a relative clause introduced by the relative pronoun, who. The relative pronoun will take its case from its position in the clause; this may not be the same case as the noun it is qualifying.So consider the clause alone: who has a dog. The who is clearly the subject of has.

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The man, whom I saw, has a dog.The relative clause is: whom I saw – whom (that is - the man) is the object of saw. Turning it around; I saw the man. So the object pronoun is used – whom.The man, to whom I gave the dog, lives in the house over there.The relative clause is to whom I gave the dog. The verb is this clause is gave; the subject is I since it is I who did the giving; the object (here indirect) is whom since this is the object of the giving. Accordingly the object pronoun is used. The object pronoun will always be used if it is governed by a preposition; this is an indication that it is an indirect object.Note also:The relative pronouns which and that can cause difficulty.When the antecedent noun (i.e. the noun to which the relative pronoun refers) is inanimate, which or that should be used.Restrictive and non-restrictive clauses

A relative clause can be restrictive or non-restrictive. A restrictive clause is one which restricts the meaning of the antecedent noun. For example: Cases that are very long are often difficult to read.The relative pronoun, that, is restricting the subject of the sentence, the cases, to those which are long. In this type of clause either which or that can be used.For example: The printer which/that is in the corner is not working properly. The relative clause distinguishes the broken printer from other printers which are working.

The non-restrictive clause is not essential to the meaning of the subject. It merely provides additional information of interest.For example: Cases, which are often very long, can be difficult to read.The description of the cases is not necessary to the sentence: Cases can be difficult to read.A non-restrictive clause must use which as its relative pronoun, not that.For example:

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The printer, which is in the corner, is not working. Note here that the relative clause provides additional information about the only printer. It is not distinguishing one printer from others.Note also the different punctuation. This will be discussed under commas below.

Punctuation

It is important to remember that punctuation is intended to help ease the reading and understanding of a piece of work. The reader should not be in any doubt as to what the writer intended to say. For this reason it is crucial to know the accepted rules of punctuation and to understand what confusion can result when they are not properly followed.This is particularly true when preparing legal documents and when reading sections of a statute.This is a summary of the principal points in the Penguin Guide to Punctuation (see recommended books above).

The Full Stop

The full stop marks the end of a sentence. There are two common mistakes made with full stops:1. Putting the full stop when the sentence is not finished. For this, it is necessary to identify when a sentence is complete (see syntax above).For example: When the documents are prepared. This is not a complete sentence. Similarly: Only after arguing the case for several days and yet, still not covering all the important points. is not a complete sentence. 2. Not putting the full stop when the sentence is complete. For example: Law students work very hard, they do not get much time to socialise. This is two complete statements joined by a comma (see below). This is wrong. It can be corrected in several ways:Law students work very hard. They do not get much time to socialise. Two separate sentences.

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Law students work very hard, and they do not get much time to socialise. One sentence but with a conjunction joining them.Law students work very hard; they do not get much time to socialise. One sentence separated by a semicolon (see below).

The Comma

There are four main ways the comma is used.1. In a list. It is used to separate words in a list. It replaces the words and or or. So if you can replace the comma with and or or it is correct.For example: In this Statute, animals include all creatures with two, three, four or six legs.The students studied contracts, torts and property.2. To join two complete sentences when followed by one of the conjunctions – and, or, but, while and yet.For example: The teachers were tired, but the students kept talking.As stated above the comma cannot be used to join two sentences together. It also cannot be used to join two sentences connected by other connecting words.You must not write: The teachers are at a conference, therefore classes are cancelled. This is two sentences and needs a full stop, a semicolon or one of the correct joining words, for example, and.3. To show that words have been omitted when the missing words merely repeat words already used in the sentence.For example: Lawyers are always on the move; solicitors are often rushing to meetings, barristers, to court and judges, to chambers.4. To isolate a minor interruption in a sentence. These commas occur in pairs, unless they are identifying an interruption at the beginning or at the end of a sentence. The interruption being isolated could be removed from the sentence and a complete sentence would remain which made good sense.For example: Exams are, I think, very stressful.She searched for her notes and, finding them, worked through the night.

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Consider the following:Students who work very hard usually pass their exams.Students, who work very hard, usually pass their exams.In the first sentence the relative clause is restrictive (see above); only those students who work hard usually pass their exams. In the second sentence, the relative clause is non-restrictive. It is a minor interruption in the sentence, giving additional information about the students, and can be excluded without affecting the meaning.

The Colon

The colon is used to introduce an explanation or elaboration to a general sentence.It is always preceded by a complete sentence, but may be followed by a sentence or a fragment of a sentence.For example: Universities are struggling to maintain standards: student behaviour is at an all time low.Several students were asked to leave the room: John, Mary, Richard and Harry.

The semicolon

The semicolon is used to join two complete sentences into a single sentence when the two sentences are so closely connected that a full stop is too decisive and when there is no connecting word which would require a comma.For example:The floods in Queensland were devastating; whole towns were lost.

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The Apostrophe

The apostrophe has two main uses:1. to show that letters have been omitted from a word. For example: can’t – cannotwe’ll – we willthey’re – they areand note particularly:could’ve – could have ( and not could of)should’ve – should haveit’s – it is or it has.Contractions should never be used in formal writing. So you should never be using any of the above.2. To indicate possession. The easiest way to decide where to put the apostrophe is to write the noun in its raw form and then put the apostrophe.For example:Mary’s house,The parent’s retreat,The children’s room.The ladies’ dresses – when the noun is a plural and ends with ‘s’ an additional ‘s’ after the apostrophe is not required.the judges’ reasons (more than one judge)the judge’s reasons (one judge)

Note particularly that pronouns do not take the apostrophe to show possession. Whose book is it?Its cover is torn.

Capital letters

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Capital letters are used, inter alia:at the beginning of a sentence, for the name of a day or month,the name of a language,the name of a nationality,a proper nounthe name of a holiday.They should be used carefully and consistently.

Katherine Jolley (2011)