gimmenotes.co.zagimmenotes.co.za/.../uploads/2016/12/IOP2606-SU-7-Notes.docx · Web viewEarlier...

Study unit 7:

Individual differences in occupational choice and withdrawal behaviours

Discuss the evolving work personality as part of personality and human development, and explain which competencies are involved. 15

A career can be seen as a sense of where a person is going in their work life, and possibly also in life. The forming of requirements for adult study and work life happens during the different human and personality development stages, it is a lifelong process. During these progressive maturing and growth processes the individual acquires the necessary physical, cognitive, emotional, social and moral skills, and the accompanying work values and attitudes to be ready for occupational-related tasks in the different stages. Occupational or career readiness consists of competencies from all these areas of human functioning.

Developmental domains

All domains contribute to career choice in order to enable the individual to make appropriate career-related decisions at certain stages - whether it be to choose school subjects, a study direction or a first job, to maintain relationships at work, or to make decisions to stay in or change a job or to retire. Developing a work ethic, attitudes and values about productivity and performance, and values as to what issues in the work life to emphasise should also be facilitated in human development. Even interpersonal and affiliation needs and also emotion control which are important for employee relationships and emotional intelligence at work have their origin in the attachment behaviour formed in childhood.

Career maturity

Career maturity is the progressive maturation and growth in physical, cognitive and psycho-social domains which enables people to cope with development tasks during career development and in related work and non-work roles. Career maturity is influenced by every life stage, and differences are related to people's different attributes and circumstances.

Career self-efficacy

Career self-efficacy, refers to people's belief in their abilities and sense of self-control, and the expectations of being successful in jobs and being competent in specific career-related tasks. There may be gender differences in the development of self-efficacy because of past inequalities, and the conditioning effects and prejudiced social constructions about traditional male and female roles. Women often have lower status jobs and experience less success and encouragement, and fewer opportunities for skills development. These may have created higher anxiety levels in jobs. All these experiences may lower self-efficacy in women, because of feelings of inadequacy uncertainty and underdeveloped competencies which in turn will foster low, self-efficacy beliefs. This situation has

of 23

changed somewhat over the last decade, especially in South Africa, because of women's greater involvement in most sections of the career world.

Much of what transpires positively or negatively in adult personal and vocational behaviours may be related to the early formative years in physical, cognitive, social and emotional behaviours. Learning certain cognitive and career concepts and attachment behaviours during the critical periods in infancy and in childhood is important for adult career transitions.

Personality

As far as personality in occupational behaviour is concerned, the concept of the work personality which develops because the individual acquires, positive work behaviours and the competency to be productive. The work personality is a semi-autonomous area of the general personality. In other words, personality as expressed in the work context may manifest differently in other situations or life roles because of different requirements.

Work or productive personality

The work or productive personality consists of a set of interrelated motives and coping styles, defensive mechanisms and the like, with which an individual confronts the demands of work. Work dysfunctions or areas of work performance impairment imply some area of shortcoming or defect in the development of the work personality. There are various forms of maladjustment responses in the work context, which in some ways relate to personality disorders. He believes that psychological disorders or symptoms of them are not in themselves the reason for work maladjustment. In addition to possible emotional problems, people who are unable to work cannot tolerate or accept the demands of work. Some of the work dysfunctions may be in the form of negative work ethics and values, dysfunctional capacity to work as illustrated in under-commitment patterns of work behaviour and even over-commitment.

Socialisation influences

An important aspect of socialisation influences such as parents, school and other goal orientation agents for career performance over a person's life span is the progressive development of motivation. This is especially important if we consider that work activity together with family life and religion, is one of our most important, central life interests. Work gives meaning to life in many respects, and it is essential that people find meaning in work and are able to provide economically for themselves and their dependents. The way people learn to set life goals will also influence how they set work goals - as will be the case with the processes of task completion, which will ultimately result in certain levels of life and job satisfaction.

Conclusion: If development and changes in the various domains of human growth and development roles which are interdependent and holistic are optimal, career development will or may follow suit. Often development or change in one area will influence change or adjustment in another.

of 23

Individual differences in occupational choice behaviours evolve over various career stages. Explain this statement and list the factors which can influence career development. 25

CAREER DEVELOPMENT STAGES

Different development tasks are necessary in phase of career development and each phase provides the next stage with skills to ``build'' on. Each phase involves making personal choices and many of them prepare the individual for the next stage, such as adult career choices and decisions, work behaviour and for behaviour in other life roles. Each phase implies possible influencing factors, which will differentiate individuals in their career development and in the choices they make.

Career development stages

Ages and phases Tasks and transitions

0 ^14 Growth phase0^3 pre-vocational4^10 fantasy11^12 interest13^14 capacity

General physical and mental growth– no or little career interest– fantasy or games about work, based on identification with parents– likes and dislikes basis for job and career interest– abilities as basis for thinking about jobs and careers– through schoolwork learns priorities, organising time and completing tasks

15^24 Exploration phase15^17 tentative18^2122^24 trial

Broad exploration of work– various attributes (ability values, etc.) becomes, basis for occupational choices– more specific and realistic about career choices, study and job entry– study and first job entry identify as a, worker

25^ 44 Establishment phase25^30 trial31^44 stabilisation

More permanent job or career, creative years– possible changes of jobs and career– productive, stable work in a given job and career– moving ahead; maintain income, lifestyle and societal roles

45^ 65 Maintenance phase Progress and continuation in a given career line– holding job, updating and innovating– maintaining societal roles and possibly planning for retirement

of 23

65+ Decline phase65^70 deceleration71+ retirement

Preparation to retire– if working, deceleration and decline in capabilities; plan to retire– cease work, contemplates life

FACTORS WHICH CAN INFLUENCE CAREER DEVELOPMENT

Developmental domains

All domains contribute to career choice in order to enable the individual to make appropriate career-related decisions at certain stages - whether it is to choose school subjects, a study direction or a first job, to maintain relationships at work, or to make decisions to stay in or change a job or to retire. Developing a work ethic, attitudes and values about productivity and performance, and values as to what issues in the work life to emphasise should also be facilitated in human development. Even interpersonal and affiliation needs and also emotion control which are important for employee relationships and emotional intelligence at work have their origin in the attachment behaviour formed in childhood.

Career maturity

Career maturity is the progressive maturation and growth in physical, cognitive and psycho-social domains which enables people to cope with development tasks during career development and in related work and non-work roles. Career maturity is influenced by every life stage, and differences are related to people's different attributes and circumstances.

Career self-efficacy

Career self-efficacy, refers to people's belief in their abilities and sense of self-control, and the expectations of being successful in jobs and being competent in specific career-related tasks. There may be gender differences in the development of self-efficacy because of past inequalities, and the conditioning effects and prejudiced social constructions about traditional male and female roles. Women often have lower status jobs and experience less success and encouragement, and fewer opportunities for skills development. These may have created higher anxiety levels in jobs. All these experiences may lower self-efficacy in women, because of feelings of inadequacy uncertainty and underdeveloped competencies which in turn will foster low, self-efficacy beliefs. This situation has changed somewhat over the last decade, especially in South Africa, because of women's greater involvement in most sections of the career world.

Much of what transpires positively or negatively in adult personal and vocational behaviours may be related to the early formative years in physical, cognitive, social and emotional behaviours. Learning certain cognitive and career concepts and attachment behaviours during the critical periods in infancy

of 23

and in childhood is important for adult career transitions.

Personality

As far as personality in occupational behaviour is concerned, the concept of the work personality which develops because the individual acquires, positive work behaviours and the competency to be productive. The work personality is a semi-autonomous area of the general personality. In other words, personality as expressed in the work context may manifest differently in other situations or life roles because of different requirements.

Work or productive personality

The work or productive personality consists of a set of interrelated motives and coping styles, defensive mechanisms and the like, with which an individual confronts the demands of work. Work dysfunctions or areas of work performance impairment imply some area of shortcoming or defect in the development of the work personality. There are various forms of maladjustment responses in the work context, which in some ways relate to personality disorders. He believes that psychological disorders or symptoms of them are not in themselves the reason for work maladjustment. In addition to possible emotional problems, people who are unable to work cannot tolerate or accept the demands of work. Some of the work dysfunctions may be in the form of negative work ethics and values, dysfunctional capacity to work as illustrated in under-commitment patterns of work behaviour and even over-commitment.

Socialisation influences

An important aspect of socialisation influences such as parents, school and other goal orientation agents for career performance over a person's life span is the progressive development of motivation. This is especially important if we consider that work activity together with family life and religion, is one of our most important, central life interests. Work gives meaning to life in many respects, and it is essential that people find meaning in work and are able to provide economically for themselves and their dependents. The way people learn to set life goals will also influence how they set work goals - as will be the case with the processes of task completion, which will ultimately result in certain levels of life and job satisfaction.

of 23

Using Holland’s approach, illustrate how the person-organisation fit approach establishes congruence in occupational choices. 25

As mentioned, person-environment fit is measured by the usual psychometric practices, of which the approach by Holland is probably the best known. This approach and its related assessment technology are quite widely used in practical application and research which it has generated. In this approach it becomes clear how personality differences can influence the choice of careers or types of job environments.

Corresponding types of personalities and work environments

Realistic - a more shy masculine and practical personality orientation interested in more applied and practical/technical type of work in which tools and machines are used

Investigative - analytical, introspective, rational and critical, prefers the systematic observation of phenomena in research, mathematical, geological, economic work etc.

Artistic - demonstrates a complex, imaginative and often more feminine personality interested in expressing and using artistic competencies in work such as, acting, music, sculpting, designing and radio/television announcing

Social - has a friendly social, cooperative and helpful personality interested in serving and helping other people, e.g. teacher, psychologist, trainer, librarian and traffic official

Enterprising - has a more adventurous, ambitious and self-confident nature, interested in influencing people and processes, such as in business, politics, managerial jobs and legal work

Conventional - demonstrating a conforming, orderly and more practical orientation, interested in handling objects and data in a more orderly and routine fashion, such as in clerical jobs, bookkeeping, secretarial work and typing

According to Holland's approach, occupational interests are measured by the self-directed search (SDS) scale on which the scores are combined to give a certain profile score. The assumption is that individuals will be more oriented to, and also differ from one another in, certain jobs because of differences in interests which have been created by the interaction between social influences (cultural, educational, etc.) and personal influences. The assessor should ensure that the person's choices of the various person-environment types are clearly defined and consistent; otherwise some choices may also indicate confusion and uncertainty about career choices. Individuals may have a dominant style, but may also have prominent interests in some other field or fields. However, the fit between various score indices will determine the congruency in a person's personality and job types.A person's occupational choice may be quite dominant in a specific aspect (for example, investigative), but may also be supplemented by other orientations (for example, conventional and enterprising). In practice, this may indicate people with an investigative orientation who want to have a business in which they do research that requires some imaginative thinking, but also controlled and routine work (for example, in journalism or market research). Any job may have a dominant activity but always also other contents - something which a job description often clearly demonstrates.When using the SDS, various scoring indices can be used to assess the correspondence of occupational choice based on personality and work environment types. This approach and its related assessment

of 23

technologies are widely used in career guidance and in research across occupations, jobs, age groups and gender, and with regard to many other personality variables.

Although considerable criticism is leveled against this approach as being too mechanical, important advantages are the objective nature of decision-making and the assessment results, which are still used in many career counselling practices. Employees get information about themselves and about jobs, which will promote self-knowledge and will provide them with alternatives before making choices or decisions. Choice uncertainty may be due to a lack of knowledge, which can be solved in this way. A lot of research is still needed on the relationship between Holland's six personality and work environment types with personality trait models (such as the three-factor, five-factor and 16-factor models).

of 23

Describe behaviours which will illustrate occupational maturity 10

Career maturity refers to the level of people's vocational development, attitudes and decision-making skills at different stages of life. Career maturity is a function of people's developmental history age, sex, behaviour styles and socio-economic factors. Their inability to make choices or to perform developmental tasks at specific points in their career development may lead to stress and emotional problems.

Vocational uncertainty has many causes, for example adjustment problems, indecision, incongruence between personal attributes and the requirements of the job, and behavioural traits such as dependence, choice anxiety a lack of information, and intrapersonal and interpersonal conflicts. These factors may determine people's career concepts, their attitudes of work or work ethic, attitudes towards learning, attitudes towards employers, and the positive or negative view about their roles which will determine their attitude and expectations on entering a job, adapting to it and developing in it.

People's job satisfaction and adaptation will also be determined by the emphasis they and their employers put on career development, and what happens to the employees in terms of work role fulfillment, task performance, job changes, promotion and status, and by events such as the organisation's life cycle, retirement, unemployment and economic recessions.

of 23

Evaluate research findings which indicate the relationship between personality and occupational choice behaviours 25

7.4 SPECIFIC CONCEPTS IN OCCUPATIONAL CHOICE BEHAVIOUR

The following concepts are derived from some of the theoretical approaches we mentioned above. In all these concepts the influence of individual differences (such as personality factors, self-concept and environmental influences on occupational development behaviour, like career choice) is indicated.

7.4.1 Person-job fit

In short: in this approach, which falls within the realm of the structural approach, a relationship is assumed between certain attributes of people and the characteristics or requirements of certain jobs (person-job fit), work environments or organisations (person-organisation fit). Without going into the differences between the two types of fit, a major assumption is that the more congruent the fit between the employee and the workplace (also assumed in selection and placement), the better the chances for effective work behaviour, good work performance and job satisfaction. The idea of person-occupational fit is based on the assumption that growing into a type of occupation is a progressive and long process influenced by many life history experiences, such as parental and family backgrounds, educational qualifications and opportunities, and experiences in various types of jobs and work environments an approach also used in the Holland approach of types of personalities and work environments.

Psychometric assessment is used mainly to test individuals with regard to their cognitive abilities, personality traits, needs, orientations (such as values and interests) and biographical factors. This is then compared to workplace requirements acquired through job and situation analysis and job descriptions in order to assess the level of congruence between what the work environment offers (opportunities) and the needs of the employee. This comparison is made by analysing employee characteristics (as measured by assessment techniques) against previous research findings which indicate that certain test scores predict success, as measured by job performance criteria, in a specific job; or by comparing measures of employee attributes on tests and workplace requirement measures; or by making a match on a more subjective basis of comparison. The latter can refer to testing contact with reality that is the correspondence between the employee's, accuracy of self-perception or awareness of his or her fit with and in the job environment and the objective assessments. The person-job fit approach really assesses whether the interaction between the employee and the workplace will not create too little or too much strain in terms of the workload, and the levels of conflict which may result from the fit between employee and organisational values (norms and how things are done).

An example of a match or fit between a person variable and a workplace variable is Furnham's findings that extroverts, who have a high need for arousal and stimulation, perform better in open-plan offices with a lot of noise, excitement and variety, but poorly in closed offices where employees are more isolated from stimulation and arousal of noise, movement and other activities. Introverts, on the other

of 23

hand, have been found to perform better in closed offices with conditions of low arousal than in open-plan offices with high levels of arousal.As mentioned, person-environment fit is measured by the usual psychometric practices, of which the approach by Holland is probably the best known. This approach and its related assessment technology are quite widely used in practical application and research which it has generated. In this approach it becomes clear how personality differences can influence the choice of careers or types of job environments.

Corresponding types of personalities and work environments

Realistic - a more shy masculine and practical personality orientation interested in more applied and practical/technical type of work in which tools and machines are used

Investigative - analytical, introspective, rational and critical, prefers the systematic observation of phenomena in research, mathematical, geological, economic work etc.

Artistic - demonstrates a complex, imaginative and often more feminine personality interested in expressing and using artistic competencies in work such as, acting, music, sculpting, designing and radio/television announcing

Social - has a friendly social, cooperative and helpful personality interested in serving and helping other people, e.g. teacher, psychologist, trainer, librarian and traffic official

Enterprising - has a more adventurous, ambitious and self-confident nature, interested in influencing people and processes, such as in business, politics, managerial jobs and legal work

Conventional - demonstrating a conforming, orderly and more practical orientation, interested in handling objects and data in a more orderly and routine fashion, such as in clerical jobs, bookkeeping, secretarial work and typing

According to Holland's approach, occupational interests are measured by the self-directed search (SDS) scale on which the scores are combined to give a certain profile score. The assumption is that individuals will be more oriented to, and also differ from one another in, certain jobs because of differences in interests which have been created by the interaction between social influences (cultural, educational, etc.) and personal influences. The assessor should ensure that the person's choices of the various person-environment types are clearly defined and consistent; otherwise some choices may also indicate confusion and uncertainty about career choices. Individuals may have a dominant style, but may also have prominent interests in some other field or fields. However, the fit between various score indices will determine the congruency in a person's personality and job types.A person's occupational choice may be quite dominant in a specific aspect (for example, investigative), but may also be supplemented by other orientations (for example, conventional and enterprising). In practice, this may indicate people with an investigative orientation who want to have a business in which they do research that requires some imaginative thinking, but also controlled and routine work (for example, in journalism or market research). Any job may have a dominant activity but always also other contents - something which a job description often clearly demonstrates.When using the SDS, various scoring indices can be used to assess the correspondence of occupational choice based on personality and work environment types. This approach and its related assessment technologies are widely used in career guidance and in research across occupations, jobs, age groups and gender, and with regard to many other personality variables.

of 23

Although considerable criticism is leveled against this approach as being too mechanical, important advantages are the objective nature of decision-making and the assessment results, which are still used in many career counselling practices. Employees get information about themselves and about jobs, which will promote self-knowledge and will provide them with alternatives before making choices or decisions. Choice uncertainty may be due to a lack of knowledge, which can be solved in this way. A lot of research is still needed on the relationship between Holland's six personality and work environment types with personality trait models (such as the three-factor, five-factor and 16-factor models).

7.4.2 Developmental processes, self-concept and occupational choiceWe mentioned that various authors have formulated developmental theories, as part of personality theories, as theories on specific aspects of development (for example, cognitive development) and as separate career development or choice theories views occupational choice as a lifelong process of decision-making in which the individuals seek to find the optimal fit between their career preparation (and goals) and the realities of work. Earlier vocational choices influence later occupational behaviour, and occupational behaviour can change where the individual changes through work and life experiences.

Developmental theories do not necessarily contain specific concepts about occupational choice. However, they refer to necessary conditions, influencing factors, certain critical growth processes and stages, and developmental tasks which will prepare people to be sufficiently mature to manifest certain behaviour at certain times in their lives. In a way, these progressive developmental behaviours provide timelines or norms against which people can be compared. In developmental theory for example, mention is made of the, hierarchical evolution in development which refers to the progressive development in biological and physical functions; cognitive development which in general arises from having a general cognitive sense of knowing and recognising to use specific cognitive processes and skills when applicable; and growing from a more concrete way of thinking to a more complex, abstract and integrated way of using mental capacities in association with other personal abilities. According to Ginzberg, the most important developmental skills that an individual should acquire are reality testing, self-evaluation and a relevant time perspective. The final vocational choice is then an indication of the individual's level of vocational maturity.

Accompanying these mostly biologically determined functions are progressive developments in people's emotional, social and moral functions, which should ensure appropriate emotional and social responses in their environments.

An important aspect of growing into maturity is the development of an integrated personal identity or having a healthy self-concept. According to the literature, the many words or concepts associated with the self are often at best or mostly related, but still do not have exactly the same meaning. However, it seems that the self is not a good concept to replace the concept and meaning of personality or person (these concepts do it well enough!). Self (and all related concepts) should rather refer to our capacity for reflective thinking (to take ourselves as the object of our attention and thought) - that is, ways to think consciously about various aspects of ourselves. A number of theories (for example, those of Erickson and Allport) describe personality development toward a complete sense of self, which also

of 23

include self-concepts with regard to work. In self-development, the concept of core self-evaluations is used to value or appraise the appropriateness of events and conditions in the existing sense of self. People use these core self-evaluations which they make about themselves, their environments and the relationship between themselves and their environments. According to Judge et al, core self-evaluations are made up of four personality traits: self-esteem, locus of control, emotional stability (neuroticism) and generalised self-efficacy.

Super developed a theory that can be seen as a combination of self-image and developmental concepts. It boils down to a theory whereby interaction between personal and environmental variables in vocational behaviour is emphasised. Super regards vocational choice as a dynamic and continuous developmental process where the individual forms a progressive synthesis of his or her self-concept, vocational concepts and the economic and social requirements of society. The individual's self-image relates to his or her abilities, interests, values, needs and expectations. The individual's vocational concept is the knowledge and impressions that he or she has acquired from experience.

From childhood, the individual imitates his or her parents and other people, and identifies with them and the occupations and occupational concepts that they represent. At the same time, these experiences serve as an extension of the individual's self-image, and the child tests his or her self-image and vocational concepts in play fantasy and during, interaction with friends and family. The individual's vocational choices or decisions are aimed at those roles that correspond to the developing self-image concept. In psychological assessment aimed at placing people in certain situations or training them (for example, making study choices, job selection and in promotion of employees to higher level jobs), the level of development and readiness to act in such positions is considered. An important aspect of development is whether the individual has grown to be mature, that is able to be independent and responsible at different stages in life. In the work context of potential assessment (for example, in assessment centres), managerial potential is assessed for promotion - also with a view to developing managers to a next level of competence before promoting them to such a level. Individual differences in occupational choice will be illustrated by the following types of behaviour, which may have developmental determinants.

7.4.3 Expectancies and valuesWe indicated before that cognitive and other appraisal processes have a strong influence on how people make career-related choices and decisions. It is for this reason that theories which emphasise cognitive processes (such as cognitive development, expectancy, perceptions, decision-making and problem-solving) are classified as process theories. The assumption here is that people have the ability to appraise information about themselves and their environments in order to decide on action or to make assumptions. People form cognitive constructs or schemata that include their own attributes, what they can do and cope with, and about the attributes of the world - which will include schemata and constructs about their work life and workplaces. Part of this cognitive appraisal process is people's valuing of events according to aspects which they value most or are most important. What is significant here is that people will form expectancies that their needs and goals will be fulfilled or rewarded if they make the effort to pursue a certain career or select a certain job or organisation. This cognitive valuing process of expectancies arguably also forms part of an employee's decisions and choices when an organisation is accepted after the selection process, and during and after an employee's orientation

of 23

and socialisation into an organisation.

Research indicates the validity of this approach in occupational choice. However, much still needs to be done, for example to relate specific individual difference factors to specific aspects of expectancies (valences and values associated with certain attributes in the work environment).

7.4.4 Self-controlled career choicesIn career counselling practices and career management an accepted assumption now is that employees should in the first place proactively take responsibility for their career development, while employers have a function to encourage development and to provide opportunities which employees can use.The idea of self-responsibility and self-management of occupational choices in life coincides with the assumptions implied in motivational concepts, such as intrinsic motivation and the idea that people should be free to make their own choices in life. In educational practices this may translate to allowing young people to explore for themselves, and to be creative and entrepreneurial. In behaviouristic and social cognitive learning theories the ideas of self-regulation and self-efficacy indicate people's abilities to have control over behaviour and to believe in their ability to be successful in specific endeavours. Self-controlled occupational choices can also be related to positive psychological concepts which emphasise the intrinsic potential to develop optimally and achieve self-actualisation (see study unit 6), and concepts which emphasise personal control in life (such as internal locus of control, self-efficacy learned resourcefulness, sense of coherence and personal, hardiness). These concepts contain the idea of self-control and also that people have (or can be taught to have) intrinsic resources to cope and to adapt, to face challenges and to be able to deal with problems positively and meaningfully. The underlying developmental processes emphasised in these concepts are criticised for being too subjective and for forgetting that many career choices are based on the objective knowledge of the person and the workplace. Another consideration is that too much emphasis is placed on the individual's subjective expectations and aspirations in vocational choice vocational choice often depends on the opportunity structures to which individuals are exposed, first in education and subsequently in employment.

of 23

Write a profile to illustrate what type of personality you will not select for your company to avoid withdrawal behaviours. 25

Withdrawal behavioursWithdrawal behaviours imply the opposite to the choice to be or stay in a workplace.These are choices which refer to a misfit or non-fit between employee and organisation, because one or both of them cannot meet the expectations of the psychological contract and would thus prefer to escape the unsatisfactory work and work relationship.

Organisational withdrawal, which eventually results in physically leaving the workplace, can manifest in lateness, absenteeism and personnel turnover, resignation, job change and retirement, whilst non-voluntary withdrawal can manifest in lay-offs and dismissals. Another form of withdrawal is ``psychological absence'' and is reflected in attitudes and emotions such as dissatisfaction, lack of commitment, loafing, wasting time and daydreaming. In other words, the employees are present at the workplace but merely as ``silent partners'' in order to still reap the work benefits. Yet they do not enjoy their work and do not contribute wholeheartedly to organisational goals. Destructive forms of this type of passive withdrawal may manifest in drinking, drug abuse and malicious gossip at work, and retirement decisions may leave employees demotivated and not actively involved in many work activities.

1. Biographical factors

AgeIn general, age seems to have a negative correlation with turnover and various indices of absence behaviour which, according to developmental theory can be attributed to greater job involvement, responsibility and wisdom that comes with older age. Period of service may also come into play in the sense that older employees may have to ``set an example'' to younger employees and they do not want to lose their accumulated benefits. These findings suggest that age may bring changes in values and behaviour which are related to personality traits, for example being more emotionally stable, rule-bound and persistent.

GenderRegarding gender, previous beliefs that women are more absent or are responsible for more staff turnover, also in relation to their family responsibilities, seem to be invalidated. This is especially true in smaller families, and if many friends and relatives are available to help with family care. In bigger families and when there is little support for child and family care, women may be absent more often.

2. Can cognitive abilities Research indicates no systematic relationship between general cognitive ability (IQ) or specific cognitive factors and withdrawal behaviours. Cognitive factors may influence withdrawal behaviours indirectly if employees are getting bored because their jobs are too easy or routine, or they are experiencing too much stress because their tasks are too difficult.

of 23

3. Personality traits

Certain personality traits can predict withdrawal behaviour like the following

Absence pronenessAbsence proneness; in other words, certain people just have the consistent tendency to be absent. Research indicates that absence patterns across certain people and times are quite consistent. Past evidence of absence behaviours should therefore be a good predictor of possible future absences.

External locus of controlEmployees with a strong external locus of control may withdraw more easily because they may feel less in control or less self-sufficient to solve problems themselves, and would rather avoid possible problem situations.

ExtroversionExtroversion may be related to absence behaviour, because it has been shown that extroverted individuals may leave jobs on a more regular basis and after shorter periods - which may be related to getting bored with routine tasks.

IntroversionAs a rule, introverts will use less withdrawal behaviours, perhaps because they have a stronger perception of self-control. However, they may withdraw from jobs in which the person-job fit is poor and job satisfaction is low, for example in sales and managerial jobs where interaction with other people is emphasised.

Openness to experienceOpenness to experience may relate to withdrawal, because people with this trait may find it difficult to stay in one place for long or to get used to routine. These employees may also be more intrinsically motivated and may want autonomy in decisionmaking and movement. They may find it difficult to achieve job satisfaction in the usual job, may view their rewards differently and would, for example, see leisure time as a way to supplement their existing remuneration.

AgreeablenessEmployees who are very agreeable may be “stayers” because they interact well with others and usually also experience job satisfaction. These employees may not want to miss work because of their loyalty to their colleagues, and may have a role as ``caretaker'' in their work groups.

ConscientiousnessThe trait of conscientiousness (achievement-oriented, responsible, serious, persevering, hardworking, reliable, etc.) seems to predict withdrawal behaviours, since people who lack this trait are inclined to withdraw more easily in difficult work situations and employees in whom this trait is strong cannot fulfil their achievement orientation in their workplaces.

of 23

4. Various orientations: interests and values

Strong interests and values have been shown to predict job satisfaction and are important variables in employee-job-organisational fit. It seems logical that these employees will have a strong work ethic and will avoid withdrawal behaviours.

5. Affective dispositions and moodsPositive and negative affective dispositions and moods influence work-related attitudes and therefore job satisfaction. Employees with enduring positive emotional dispositions will have feelings of wellbeing, will experience work more positively and will have little reason to use withdrawal behaviour. In contrast, employees with more negative dispositions will experience negative emotions and moods which will influence their work-related attitudes and may result in job dissatisfaction.

of 23

Give examples to explain problems in occupational development and choice behaviours. 15

Use your own experiences, or talk to an experienced employed person, to explain how or why occupational choices are made according to certain theoretical explanations and why withdrawal or certain career-related problems may develop or exist. 25

Below are career development tasks and subtasks, and possible problems during four career development stages.

1. Problems in making career decisions

1.1 Starting worka. lack of awareness of the need for a decisionb. lack of the knowledge for the decisionmaking processc. awareness of the need to make a decision but avoiding personal responsibility for decisions

1.2 Gathering informationa. inadequate, contradictory and/or insufficient informationb. information overloadc. lack of knowledge of how to gather information d. unwillingness to accept the correctness of the information because it does not agree with the

person's self-concept

1.3 Generating, evaluating and selecting alternativesa. difficulty in deciding because of conflicts between multiple career options b. failure to generate sufficient career options because of personal limitations such as health,

resources, ability or educationc. inability to decide because of the threatening effects of anxiety such as fear of failure in

attempting to fulfil the choice, fear of social disapproval and/or fear of commitment to a course of action

d. unrealistic choice (aspiring to goals that are either too low or too high, based on criteria such as aptitudes, interests, values, resources and personal circumstances)

e. interfering personal constraints that impair choices f. inability to assess alternatives because of lack of knowledge of the evaluation criteria

1.4 Formulating plans to implement decisionsa. lack of knowledge of the necessary process and steps to formulate plansb. inability to use a future time perspective in planningc. unwillingness and/or inability to obtain the necessary information to formulate a plan

of 23

2. Problems in implementing career plans

2.1 Personal attributes of the individuala. failure to take the steps necessary to implement the planb. failure or inability to successfully complete the steps necessary for goal achievementc. adverse conditions of or changes in family situation

2.2 Characteristics external to the individuala. unfavourable economic, social and cultural conditionsb. unfavourable conditions in the organisation, central to the implementation of career plansc. adverse conditions of or changes in the individual's family situation

3. Problems in organisation/institutional performance

3.1 Shortcomings in skills, abilities or knowledgea. insufficient skills, abilities and/or knowledge on position of entry post b. deterioration of skills, abilities and/or knowledge in the position over time because of

temporary assignment to another position, leave and/or lack of continual practice or development of the skill

c. failure to modify or update skills, abilities and/or knowledge to stay abreast of job changes

3.2 Personal factorsa. personality characteristics incongruent with the job (for example, values, interests and work

habits)b. debilitating physical and/or emotional disordersc. adverse off-the-job personal circumstances and/or stressors (for example, family pressure,

financial problems and personal conflicts)d. occurrence of interpersonal conflicts on the job specific to performance requirements (for

example, getting along with supervisor, co-workers, customers and clients)

The following is a discussion of some specific issues about occupational choice and withdrawal.

Vocational choice uncertainty

Vocational uncertainty has many causes, for example adjustment problems, indecision, incongruence between personal attributes and the requirements of the job, and behavioural traits such as dependence, choice anxiety a lack of information, and intrapersonal and interpersonal conflicts. People's job satisfaction and adaptation will also be determined by the emphasis they and their employers put on career development, and what happens to the employees in terms of work role fulfilment, task performance, job changes, promotion and status, and by events such as the organisation's life cycle, retirement, unemployment and economic recessions.

of 23

Make written suggestions for the improvement of occupational choice behaviours 15

To improve occupational development and choice skills, the following suggestions can be considered. However, this is not a manual for specific methods and techniques.

Assist young adults and employees in general to discover themselves by knowing themselves and all their attributes, including cognitive abilities, personality traits, values, preferences, work ethics and work attitudes (also during transitions in their lives).

Assist young adults and employees to have realistic knowledge and expectations of the world of work and different occupations (also as the world of work changes).

Assist people to understand how they and their attributes fit certain career choices (jobs and study directions), and how this fit may change over time and situations.

Allow people or employees to apply self-management in order to be in control of their own occupational choices and development.

Facilitate self-control in young and experienced people by improving their self-efficacy beliefs and other resiliency factors so that they will be ready for and able to cope with work demands (also in more difficult situations).

Facilitate and foster positive emotionality in people to be able to assess life and work more positively which may bring more job satisfaction.

Make early assessment of incongruent choices and reasons for job dissatisfaction and withdrawal behaviours, and also other work and career adaptation problems in order to be proactive.

Provide counselling or guidance to employees who tend towards and manifest withdrawal behaviours in order to give them other mechanisms for coping with and adapting to job dissatisfaction or other issues.

Use selection processes more effectively as person-job fit procedures by finding out more about each individual's background (history), values, personality traits, interests, attitudes, emotions and expectations, as well as the same factors in the organisation.

Allow newcomers in organisations to have a realistic orientation and socialisation, and allow for possible changes in the original person-organisation fit arrangement as determined by the selection procedure and placement.

Use effective motivational and work design strategies to ensure optimal person-organisation fit and work behaviours, which will lead to job satisfaction and will avoid withdrawal and other counterproductive behaviours.

Despite the new age in work and organisational cultures characterised by downsizing and mergers, and discouragement of longstanding careers at one employer or in one job, the idea of a career still exists, and people still have dreams of developing and adapting successfully in a career.

of 23

Discuss five concepts which can be used to explain occupational development 15

APPROACHES TO CAREER DEVELOPMENT AND OCCUPATIONAL CHOICE

There is not really total agreement about how occupational choices are made and which processes are involved in these decisions. There are, however, many theories and, if classified, a number of approaches about occupational choices and the way in which occupational development takes place. Some of these classifications, which may be mutually inclusive, are the following:

Structural approaches deal with career development behaviour, such as career choice uncertainty according to personality traits, styles, types, needs and ability factors. In this approach (often used in career guidance and counselling) the said factors are assessed, and the person's choice uncertainty is alleviated by feedback and exploration on the person-environment fit between personal attributes and job requirements or work environments. Assessment results can also be used for career development in more in-depth counselling/therapy or for study and training purposes.

Process theories emphasise the developmental phases and processes of career development.

Developmental theories deal with specific phases of development or the processes of career development in a person's lifespan. Well-known psychological theories and career development theories postulate development theories across stages - some critical - in which certain physical, cognitive, emotional, social and moral changes and behaviour occur, which are important for adult and work life.

Psycho-analytical theories explain vocational choices according to personality dynamics such as unconscious motives, but also how an employee will function and adapt in an organisation according to his or her underlying dynamics.

Sociological approaches use the influence of social factors and circumstances during development (for example, geographical location, socio-political influences and developmental opportunities in the environment) to explain career development behaviour.

Decision-making theories specifically focus on the decision-making process, emphasising certain cognitive processes, how people make choices, how they obtain and process information, and how they arrive at career decisions.

Cognitive perspectives, which can include the said decision-making theories but also the more recent emphasis on appraisal, may include concepts like cognitive control, self-regulation, locus of control, self-efficacy and expectancy.

Learning theories, including social learning theories, emphasise choice behaviours as a result of the

of 23

type of learning by conditioning, modeling and imitation, and the types of rewards which learning has facilitated.

Existential approaches, which are not written about much, may link occupational career development and related choices to concepts like the will-to-meaning, freedom of choice, intrinsic motivation and the tendency in people to self-actualise or to reach a state of optimal functioning.

of 23

Briefly illustrate how at least five theoretical occupational choice concepts may be used to explain people’s occupational choices and related consequences. (10 marks – assign 3)

1. Vocational choice uncertainty

Vocational uncertainty has many causes, for example adjustment problems, indecision, incongruence between personal attributes and the requirements of the job, and behavioural traits such as dependence, choice anxiety a lack of information, and intrapersonal and interpersonal conflicts. People's job satisfaction and adaptation will also be determined by the emphasis they and their employers put on career development, and what happens to the employees in terms of work role fulfilment, task performance, job changes, promotion and status, and by events such as the organisation's life cycle, retirement, unemployment and economic recessions.

2. Difficult transitions in career development

Throughout career development and in life, employees and people have to go through critical phases of development although some changes may be voluntary. Differences between people in the many changes will be in the fact that some people seem to go through certain changes more easily than others, but it will also depend on their readiness and willingness to change, specific personality profiles and related behaviours, what they think about changes and adjustment, and their previous experience with and coping mechanisms to deal with the change processes and its consequences. One such change which is still quite debatable (and which supposedly manifests in all people or differently in all people, or maybe only in some people) is the so-called mid-life crisis in the adult life stage.

3. Various orientations: interests and values

Strong interests and values have been shown to predict job satisfaction and are important variables in employee-job-organisational fit. It seems logical that these employees will have a strong work ethic and will avoid withdrawal behaviours.

4. Affective dispositions and moodsPositive and negative affective dispositions and moods influence work-related attitudes and therefore job satisfaction. Employees with enduring positive emotional dispositions will have feelings of wellbeing, will experience work more positively and will have little reason to use withdrawal behaviour. In contrast, employees with more negative dispositions will experience negative emotions and moods which will influence their work-related attitudes and may result in job dissatisfaction.

5. Biographical factors

AgeIn general, age seems to have a negative correlation with turnover and various indices of absence

of 23

behaviour which, according to developmental theory can be attributed to greater job involvement, responsibility and wisdom that comes with older age. Period of service may also come into play in the sense that older employees may have to ``set an example'' to younger employees and they do not want to lose their accumulated benefits. These findings suggest that age may bring changes in values and behaviour which are related to personality traits, for example being more emotionally stable, rule-bound and persistent.

GenderRegarding gender, previous beliefs that women are more absent or are responsible for more staff turnover, also in relation to their family responsibilities, seem to be invalidated. This is especially true in smaller families, and if many friends and relatives are available to help with family care. In bigger families and when there is little support for child and family care, women may be absent more often.

of 23

gimmenotes.co.zagimmenotes.co.za/.../uploads/2016/12/IOP2606-SU-7-Notes.docx · Web viewEarlier...

Documents

Transcript of gimmenotes.co.zagimmenotes.co.za/.../uploads/2016/12/IOP2606-SU-7-Notes.docx · Web viewEarlier...