Green Team: Taylor R. Campbell; Zoe Collier; Sabre Hill; Jake Wells

Public Science Writing: ENG A478:  Backgrounder Report

Professor: Dr. Jackie Cason

April 10, 2015

Arctic Ocean Acidification Background Report

Recent and developing research of increasing ocean acidification in the Arctic Ocean has

drawn policy makers, scientists, and stakeholders into alarming concern for the marine life and

food web of the ocean. Since the advent of the Industrial Revolution (circa, 1840), the increased

use of raw material production and manufacturing, machines, and coal fired plants have caused

the release of toxic acids and gases into the atmosphere to increase. Both the world’s  population

and the need for materials and goods has exponentially increased from the 20th and into the 21st

century.  Commercialization and commodification of goods for profit, wealth, and the need for

household comforts has become the norm and want for nearly every modern day family. This

industrial progress for worldly modernization has come at a cost to the environment, ecosystems,

and habitats in the form of man-made chemicals and toxic acids being released unto our land,

water, and air. This report will focus on the impact this has had on our oceans specifically.

Ocean acidification changes the chemical composition of the ocean and affects the

sensitive marine life and food web of the Arctic Ocean. This effort will evaluate research

findings and biological knowledge to make assumptions about how increasing ocean

acidification is impacting and will impact the food web and marine life of the Arctic Ocean in

addition to determining the consequences this could have on our national and foreign legislation.

What is Ocean Acidification?

Ocean acidification is the process by which CO2 is absorbed into seawater.  Although this

process happens naturally and the ocean is one of the biggest carbon sinks in the world, in recent

years it has been happening at an alarming rapid rate with increased CO2 emissions.  When

increased amounts of CO2 are absorbed, the chemical composition of the ocean is altered and

both the pH and saturation of Calcium Carbonate minerals (essential for survival of marine life).

Calcium carbonate minerals are the building blocks for life and are necessary for marine

creatures to produce a skeleton or shell.  As ocean acidification continues, the ocean becomes

undersaturated in calcium carbonate, having dire consequences on several species of marine life.

(PMEL)

Researchers and Arctic locals have already noted the impact of acidification on the

fishing industry.  As ocean acidification increases tiny sea creatures (such as the pteropods

pictured below) have difficulty properly developing a shell.  As the pteropods fail to survive or

properly mature, other creatures like salmon and whales that rely on these creatures for food are

in turn affected.   In an effort to better understand the effects of acidification, scientists placed

pteropods in seawater with the projected ocean pH levels of 2100 and after just 45 days the shell

saw clear signs of damage. (PMEL)

Photo credit: David Liittschwager/National Geographic Stock. National Geographic Images. Depicting pteropod degeneration after 45 days of acidic seawater.  

History of Ocean Acidification:

Though it might surprise you, there is no long, drawn-out history of ocean acidification;

in fact, the term was first coined by scientists in 2003 and effects on biological organisms have

only been studied for about the last 30 years. Although there is no magic portal that exists to take

scientists back in time to determine what exactly our oceans and atmosphere were like, scientists

have discovered ways around this dilemma. They have discovered ways to collect data that

accurately estimate physical or chemical parameters (such as temperature or pH) for time periods

where instruments were unavailable. One such method is the analysis of CO2 concentrations in

the air pockets of glacier bubbles that date back millions of years. At any given point, the

concentration of chemicals in the atmosphere is almost always in equilibrium with the

concentration of particulates in the ocean as well. Using this assumption, scientists can determine

historical pH levels or chemical concentrations in the ocean from atmospheric as well as marine

data.

A different method that scientists have used to analyze past oceanic pH levels is to study

the fossils of preserved carbonate-shell marine life; as pH level changes in the ocean, different

concentrations of elements can be found in the shells or bones of these organisms, and data

collected from such shells can therefore tell us how pH levels in past oceans differ from current

levels. In these ways, scientists have been able to create a semi-continuous timeline of changes in

both atmospheric CO2 and pH levels in our oceans.

The above infographic shows data collected off the coast of Hawaii; ocean acidification

in the Arctic is far more serious and is changing at a faster rate than in oceans at the equatorial

level. This is due to the fact that cooler water absorbs CO2 at a faster rate than warmer waters.

Science indicates that since the industrial era, the entire ocean has absorbed about 525 billion

tons of CO2 from the atmosphere. In addition to this, the current levels of oceanic CO2 absorption

are about 22 million tons per day. About half of the anthropogenic , or human-caused, CO2

(which is increasing as well) in the ocean is found in the upper 1,200 feet of the water column,

while the other half has been absorbed into deeper waters. In the past 200 years, ocean water has

become 30 percent more acidic; this rate of change is faster than any known change rate in the

last 50 million years. Though effects to deep-marine life are also a concern, the acidic changes in

the upper 1,200 feet have the potential to drastically affect vagrant (mobile) marine life that are

unable to migrate and survive in the lower, cooler waters at depth. The surface acidity changes

are also likely to cycle and impact marine life quicker than the acidity changes in colder, slower-

moving waters. The rate of change of acidification in the Arctic as well as the rest of the world

may very well be too fast for marine life to adapt, which is why ocean acidification is such a

serious and pressing issue.

Using atmospheric data collected from the Industrial Revolution (a period lasting from

1790 to 1840), scientists have determined that the pH of the ocean as a whole has dropped from

8.2 to it’s current pH level of 8.1 and is expected to fall another 0.3 to 0.4 pH units by the end of

the century. A decrease in pH level of 0.1 may not seem like a lot, but the pH scale is

logarithmic; this means that, for example, a pH of 5 is ten times more acidic than a pH of 6, and

100 times more acidic than pH 7. If the ocean continues to absorb CO2 at its current levels,

seawater pH has the potential to drop another 120 percent to a 7.8 or 7.7 by the year 2100. This

would create an ocean more acidic than any seen for the past 20 million years. Though we can’t

predict in detail what will happen to our oceans and the marine life that inhabits them, we can do

as much as possible to limit our own carbon footprint and help fight against ocean acidification.

What Does Ocean Acidification Mean to the Arctic Ocean and its Ecosystems?

        Ocean acidification is one of the most pressing issues facing the global community today.

While it may seem to be a far off problem that only concerns scientists, this issue is relevant not

only to scientists but to policymakers, fishermen, and even the general consumer.  Considering

the impacts and implications of how exactly ocean acidification can affect different populations

is key to learning how best to mitigate any potential disasters.

        A key area of impact is the Arctic.  While the increasing acidity of the ocean has

potentially dire consequences for the global economy, Arctic regions are likely to be hit hardest.

This is displayed in a study conducted by the University of Alaska Fairbanks Ocean

Acidification Research Center.  A team of researchers developed a survey to determine the

literacy of Alaskans on the problem of ocean acidification.  This survey was distributed to 311

full-time Alaskan residents.  They found that “Alaska seafood is a primary annual source of

protein for 30 to 46% of respondents” (Frisch et. al, 2014).  While this may seem like a random

statistic, Alaskan seafood could be forever changed by the acidification process.

        A 2013 study conducted by the U.S. Department of Commerce looked at how “near-

future” levels of acidification would affect several different species of crab.  They found that the

mortality rate of the red king crab was 100% after 97 days in increased acidity.  Both species of

crabs grew slower, and while ultimately able to make up for the calcium change, it came at a

“high energetic cost” (Long et al, 2013).  These findings do not bode well for the crabbing

industry in Alaska as we currently know it.

.

Credit: NOAA PMEL Carbon Program. This info-graphic represents the future of calcifying organisms

should ocean acidification continue at its current rate.

Although Alaska is one area of the globe that would be heavily influenced, it is certainly

not the only part.  Ocean acidification is a very real problem facing all the world’s oceans.  There

is not a singular place that will be most affected, nor a single known method that will reverse the

damage already done.  This problem is incredibly relevant and pressing.  While it does not seem

as though the increasing acidity of the ocean could affect the everyday consumer, imagine a

simple supply and demand curve.  If there are significantly fewer shellfish available (and those

that are available have decreased in quality), the price for that good will skyrocket.  If awareness

and collaboration on ocean acidification does not become more widespread, there are some

inevitably huge social and economic changes that are headed our way.

Implications of Arctic Acidification:

Arctic ocean acidification has become a hot environmental topic in less than a decade.

The science behind ocean acidification has really only emerged out of the last 5-10 years of

research.  However, learning about the impacts of the acidification process is not only crucial to

the arctic marine ecosystem, but our economy as well.  Ocean acidification is one of the largest

concerns of our time.  Action needs to be taken to protect our fragile Arctic marine ecosystem.

Since the industrial revolution, carbon dioxide (CO2) concentration has steadily been

increasing in Earth’s atmosphere.  In turn, as CO2 is absorbed the world’s oceans feel a

considerable impact in the form of acidification (Cheek 2014).  The Arctic Ocean is left

particularly vulnerable to increased CO2 for several reasons.  First, the Arctic receives a massive

input of freshwater from melting glaciers, ice, and rivers.  The additional fresh water has lowered

the oceanic pH as well as decreased the concentration of calcium carbonate present, which is

crucial for shell bearing sea creatures’ survival.  Second, CO2 is more soluble in colder water than

warmer waters, making the Arctic a prime candidate for increased rates of acidification.  Cooler

water also supplies less nutrients than warmer low lying latitudes, leaving Arctic marine life at a

higher disadvantage (Shadwick 2013).  Finally, the Arctic has a lot of trapped CO2 primarily

locked up in glaciers that is being released more quickly as global temperatures rise.  All of these

implications are quickly adding to the problem and are seemingly irreversible.  Continued

research is crucial in understanding the level of CO2 the Arctic Ocean can absorb before the

damages are too dire and the marine ecosystem collapses.    

        Based on the research to date, it is difficult to predict an exact tipping point or ecosystem

collapse.  Instead, it is much more feasible to monitor individual species that have been affected.

Currently, researchers can monitor the threshold for species, and they all differ (Cheek 2014).  It

has been found that almost all species are impacted the hardest in early developing stages.  As

shell bearing crustaceans and mollusks fail to produce a viable shell they not only develop at a

much slower rate, but they are left vulnerable to predation as well.  Still, scientists are unclear

about the point at which the effects of acidification will be irreversible.  Presently, it is crucial

for scientists to continue research and make the issue a public concern.

        Marine chemist, Jeremy Mathis, is a lead scientist for NOAA’s Pacific Marine

Environmental Laboratory (PMEL) research project on the effects of ocean acidification.  Based

on current research the primary ways to collect acidification data – shore based, buoys, gliders,

and tour boat mounted instruments collect millions of points.  This data can be used to improve

models for the future of acidification.  As technology continues to advance research will

continue to improve and further our understanding of the consequences of Arctic acidification.

However, proper funding in these early stages of technology development and research will be

essential.  Although a majority of the funding comes from the National Ocean and Atmospheric

Administration (NOAA) and the National Science Foundation (NSF), major projects like this

will start to rely more on local state and federal support. (Ocean Acidification in Alaska)

The future of research and understanding of this issue should be one of the top

environmental concerns for all people that live in the Arctic, especially the some 46% of

Alaskans that rely on seafood for their livelihood and survival (Frisch et. al, 2014).  It is

important to keep this issue on the front burner for the state of Alaska and keep them involved in

the prospect of increased research funding.  It is advised we further research and community

involvement on curbing CO2 emissions as well as protecting the fragile Arctic marine ecosystem.

(AMAP 2014)                

Communication Strategy and Policy Landscape of the Arctic Issue

The Arctic Council is the premier high-level intergovernmental authority regarding the Polar

Arctic regions. In order to establish environmental protection strategies to support it’s

declaration, the Arctic Council established a working group called the Arctic Monitoring and

Assessment Programme (AMAP). AMAP is tasked to provide scientific and traditional

information on threats to the Arctic environment, as well as make efforts to take action relating

to contaminants and the adverse effects caused by climate change. Another environmental

working group under the Council is the Protection of the Arctic Marine Environment (PAME),

which provides a forum and collaboration on a wide range of Arctic marine environmental

issues. Under the auspices of these two working groups of the Council, including other related

efforts, collaborative scientific research has been underway and continues to better understand

the Arctic Ocean’s environment and the ecosystem’s biotic and marine life. Arctic Council

working groups PAME and AMAP have to date been focused primarily on monitoring and

assessment, and have not yet recommended adaptive or mitigating actions.

With respect to ocean acidification, AMAP produced its first comprehensive ocean

acidification analysis of the Arctic Ocean in its report entitled: Arctic Ocean Acidification 2013:

An Overview. This assessment report was compiled by 60 international experts, identified gaps in

certain data sets, and improved scientific understanding of acidification in the Arctic Ocean

(AMAP, 7). The findings of the report were presented to the Ministers of the Arctic Council,

including suggestions for advancing the knowledge of potential consequences of Arctic Ocean

acidification on the people and marine life of the Pan-Arctic (AMAP, 7).

As an effort to compliment concurrent efforts, the PAME working group’s objective is to

integrate the management of human activities in relationship to knowledge of ecosystem

dynamics, and to utilize the resources in a manner that protects and sustains the health of marine

systems. Guiding this principle is a framework of six key elements to ensure the overall

protection of the environment and marine ecosystem, which are: identify the ecosystem, describe

the ecosystem, set ecological objectives, assess the ecosystem, value the ecosystem, and thus

manage human activities that would leave the least environmental footprint on the marine

system. As part of the identification and description of the ecosystem, the management system is

identified to empower responsible agencies and their jurisdictional control of defined areas. It

also identifies the legitimate stakeholders within the defined jurisdictional area (PAME, 2). It is

under this purview that this report seeks to join the discussion and vary research efforts to greater

understand how ocean acidification would impact the sensitive biota and food web of the Arctic

Ocean.       

The authority of the Arctic Council, the objectives and tasks of the Working Groups, and

the parameters that they have established in outlining the research strategies/protection values of

the marine systems all set targets and thresholds to seek and maintain an equilibrium between the

environment and humans. This research presentation, findings, and analysis seeks to compare

with other research conclusions how ocean acidification has changed or impacted marine life and

biota. This provides an example of how ocean acidification changes the water’s chemical

composition (decreased calcium carbonate and pH alkalinity) and keeps certain marine life from

properly producing their outer organs. The comparative analysis between AMAP and PAME’s

research findings and this report clearly show the potential negative effects on the Arctic Ocean’s

sensitive marine life. Clearly, the increasing ocean acidification of the Arctic Ocean is a global

problem with greater implications to the nations and residents of the Pan-Arctic who depend on

the Arctic Ocean and its vast food web for their livelihood and sustenance. Richard Bellerby, a

Research Scientists with the Norsk Institutt for Vannforskning (NIVA) of Norway echos the

need for the world community to place its attention to the changing environment of the Arctic

Ocean by emphasizing that “If we continue to push the balance, then we will see consequences”

(AMAP-Video: 11:43). Ottmar Edenhofer one of the three chairs of the Intergovernmental Panel

on Climate Change reiterates this message by Bellerby by stating that “There is a clear message

from science: To avoid dangerous interference with the climate system, we need to move away

from business as usual” (IPCC).    

Despite the international attention this problem is receiving, even more needs to be done

to ensure that our oceans as we know them do not disappear forever.  Mitigation efforts such as

geoengineering and CO2 emissions regulations will help realize our goals of remedying the

current situation.  If everyone viewed this as an issue that they can help change on an individual

basis rather than perceiving the situation as one to be fixed by scientists and politicians, the

likelihood of actual change being implemented would increase tenfold.  This environmental

concern is not too late to act on if the global community collaborates to form and implement

policy changes that include monitoring, new technologies, and mitigation techniques.

References

1. AMAP, 2014. Arctic Ocean Acidification 2013: An Overview. Arctic Monitoring and

Assessment Programme (AMAP), Oslo, Norway. xi + 27 pp.

http://www.amap.no/documents/doc/Arctic-Ocean-Acidification-2013-An-Overview/

1061 [SH]

Arctic Council’s Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme (AMAP) working group

released its Arctic Ocean Acidification Overview Report in 2014.  This overview is

written at a high school science level so it makes it easy to understand a complex topic.

The overview introduces the idea of acidification as well as breaks down the results that

AMAP discovered.  They went on to make a short documentary of the findings, which

makes it even easier to communicate with a general audience.  I think the report will be

extremely helpful for our research because it focuses on the Arctic and it is done by a

credible organization. AMAP is one of the six working groups of the Arctic Council that

focuses on science and policy based suggestions for Arctic issues.  The report is very

comprehensive and the overview is easy to understand and suggests future

recommendations on the issue.          

2. AMAP, 2013. Arctic ocean acidification (2013) full 12 minute version. Video documentary.

       Arctic Monitoring Assessment Programme (AMAP), Oslo, Norway,       https://vimeo.com/65512340. [JW]

The Arctic Monitoring Assessment Programme working group (AMAP) of the Arctic

Council produced and disseminated a video entitled “Arctic Ocean Acidification (2013).”

The central theme of this video describes how increasing CO2 levels in the Arctic

Ocean will and are beginning to impact the food web of the Arctic Ocean. The scope of

the increasing acidification of the ocean is changing the chemical composition affecting

all levels of the food web from the lowest to the highest strata, and eventually affecting

the very food resources used for human consumption. The main thesis of the video is the

scientists raising an alarm of the increasing acidification affecting the ability of the food

web to self-sustain its services throughout the food chain. The Arctic scientists who are

studying how acidification will impact the food web and the ecosystem services are at the

forefront of this scientific field in the world. This documentary will help establish the

scientific basis how acidification is effecting the Arctic Ocean biota and its ecosystem

services. Using the varying and supporting scientific knowledge this information will

be used to correlate and support other peer-reviewed journals and media to establish the

increasing chemical changes and effects to the food web of the Arctic Ocean

3. Anonymous. (Jul 3, 2010). Science and technology: the other carbon-dioxide problem;

ocean acidification. The Economist. 396(8689). 46-77.http://search.proquest.com.proxy.consortiumlibrary.org/. [JW]The purpose of this article summarizes a basic research taken in the waters of Konigsberg

to determine the effects of different levels of carbon dioxide (CO2) places on the ecology

of the Arctic Waters. The article posits the research objectives how the increase of

hydrogen ions means an increase in bicarbonate ions resulting in fewer carbonate ions.

Carbonate ions allows corals, shells in shellfish, and the outer layers of plankton and

other microbes as the basis of their composition. If this chemical decreases, the ability of

the lower food web to construct its membranes and structures dissolves. The scope of the

article is to link the increase of CO2 with the alteration of the waters chemical

composition affecting the lower food webs body structures and their ability to reproduce.

Though the article is anonymous in writing, the magazine is a reputable and well known

source providing economic related news and how resources may affect economic

viability and growth. The relevance of this article is to connect how the decrease

of carbonates affects the growth of carbonate shells and cover for the lower strata of the

waters food web. This article will be used to connect previous research efforts to

determine how CO2 changes the chemical compositions of the waters thereby affecting

and altering the chemicals needed for the zooplankton and plankton’s outer shells and

covers.

4. Arctic Council. (Sept. 19, 1996). Declaration on the establishment of the arctic council.

       Ottawa, Canada. http://www.arctic-council.org/index.php/en/document-archive . [JW].

The Declaration of the Establishment of the Arctic Council between the eight nations of

the Pan Arctic recognizes the Arctic Council as the premier intergovernmental

organization that has jurisdictional authority and control of the decision making of the

Pan Arctic. The purpose of this document establishes the Arctic Council as the premier

international governing body of the Arctic sphere. The eight nations surrounding the Pan

Arctic affirms, recognizes, and desires that cooperation, coordination, and interaction are

the best methods and ways to protect and use the resources of the Arctic. This document

is the sole source that establishes the creation and recognition of the Arctic Council as the

premier authority and body regarding Pan Arctic affairs and international governance.

This source helps to seek out the authority within the document that pertains to

environmental and ecosystem protections and research controls. This document will be

used to establish who the recognized authorities and working bodies of the Arctic

Council are in relevance to environmental affairs of the Arctic.

5. Branch, T. A. (2013). Impacts of Ocean Acidification on marine Seafood. Trends in

Ecology and Evolution, Vol. 28 Issue 3. [ZC]

This article discusses how ocean acidification (low pH levels caused by higher CO2

levels) has affected and could affect fish, mollusk, and crustacean populations, as well as

seaweed and kelp populations. Though it does not discuss impacts on Arctic fish

populations specifically, the relevancy of this article to our research is high on account of

the fact that its research touches on direct impacts of ocean acidification on marine life.

Considering the fact that a high percentage of Alaska’s state revenue comes from

commercial fishing, this topic is of great importance and relevance to the future of Alaska

and its marine populations. The author, Trevor A. Branch is a professor at the School of

Aquatic and Fishery Sciences at the University of Seattle, Washington and has written

numerous publications concerning marine life around the world. I believe this aptly

represents the authority and background he has on our topic. Our team will use the

relevancy of this research to help form future Arctic policy changes and to show the

impacts of ocean acidification on marine life populations.

6. Cheek, J. (2014, March 31). Explaining ocean acidification and consequences for Arctic

marine ecosystems. Retrieved April 1, 2015, from

http://www.sciencepoles.org/interview/explaining-ocean-acidification-and-consequences-

for-arctic-marine-ecosystem [SH]

This article is posted on Science Poles and focuses on an interview of Dr. Agneta

Fransson who is a chemical oceanographer.  She is a research scientist at the Norwegian

Polar Institute in Tromsø, Norway.  Her main focus is climate change and Arctic Ocean

acidification and the role of sea ice.  She is a leading scientist on two acidification

projects in Norway.  This is written as an interview so it is easy to understand and has a

lot of good information.  I think we could use some of these statistics in our paper.  She is

a very knowledgeable scientist and brings up several important points about acidification.

Although this isn’t a scholarly article, I still think it is from a credible source and would

contribute some useful facts to our paper.

7. European Project on Ocean Acidification.

http://www.epoca-project.eu/index.php/what-is-ocean-acidification/faq.html [ZC]

Though the format of this page was somewhat informal, I found it to be very helpful in

the sense that it was very informative and used colloquial language so that it could be

easily understood by the reader. This article focused on things like scientific data behind

past atmospheric/oceanic conditions, effects on coral reefs/other algae flora, mitigation,

and policy development/decision making. I chose to focus on the geologic history of

ocean acidification for the purposes of my research, but I found the rest of the article to

be very interesting and informative.

8. Frisch, L. C., Mathis, J. T., Kettle, N. P., & Trainor, S. F. (2015). Gauging perceptions of

ocean acidification in alaska. Marine Policy, 53, 101. [TC]

This source is proving very useful in looking at the exact ways that ocean acidification

can affect something we are all very familiar with.  This source comes from UAF, a

credible institution. This paper discusses how the impending acidification of the ocean

will directly affect not only the Alaskan economy, but also the diets of all Alaskans.  This

paper will be useful in regards to our backgrounder report because it displays one way in

which ocean acidification is terribly relevant to everyone, not only scientists.

9. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. (2014). IPCC: greenhouse gas emissions

accelerate despite reduction efforts. [Press release]. Retrieved from

https://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/ar5/pr_wg3/20140413_pr_pc_wg3_en.pdf [JW]

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change issued a press release on April 13, 2014

that despite a growing number of policies to decrease climate change, the period from

2000 to 2010 saw carbon emissions grew exponentially than each of the previous three

decades. This release inferred that scientist warned that we need to change our behaviors

to avoid disrupting and interfering with the world’s climate systems. A two percent

Celsius threshold had been targeted for temperature increases, however there is

speculation that this target may be above what is needed to help arrest the increasing

climate warming and changes. The scope of this article is to show that despite global

efforts of the world’s nations and governments adopting climate change policies and

mitigation efforts, the actual emissions rose to unprecedented levels for the first decade of

the 21st century. This article further posits that the need to stabilize gas concentrations into

the atmospheres, that energy usages and productions (electricity, transport, buildings,

etc.) need to be reduced and mitigated to arrest the increasing gases into the atmospheres.

This article also recognized that deforestations need to be stopped along with planting

forests habitats, of which these two policies would help reverse emissions from land use.

The relevance of this article shows that despite policies to decrease emissions, the actual

increasing positive feedback of global warming may be increasing as shown in the first

decade of the 21st century. This article will be used as supporting data and documentation

to show that despite mitigation measures and policies, greenhouse gases has risen to

unprecedented levels from the past.      

10. Logan, C. A. (2010). A review of ocean acidification and america's response. Bioscience,

60(10), 819. [TC]

This article has given some good insight about different ways that ocean acidification

could be mitigated.  It provides some interesting ways that this process could be

remedied.  While our paper deals with the process of and potential problems resulting

from ocean acidification, this allows us to also segue into our arctic policy memo by

looking at how these problems could be reversed.

11. Long, W. C., Swiney, K. M., Harris, C., Page, H. N., & Foy, R. J. (2013). Effects of

ocean acidification on juvenile red king crab (paralithodes camtschaticus) and tanner crab

(chionoecetes bairdi) growth, condition, calcification, and survival: E60959. PLoS One,

8(4) [TC]

This paper is very important in our research.  This article gives a lot of intriguing

information about how crabs could be affected by the continuing rise of acidity and,

subsequently, how the fishing economy could be devastated. While we had assumed that

the ocean acidification would affect crabbing populations in some negative way, it was

really interesting to be able to see exactly how much acidification would affect certain

species in immediate terms.  This article provided us not only with a frame of reference

and perception, but also with a timeline of how bad things could get however quickly.

12. Narita, D., Rehdanz, K., & Tol, R. S. (2012). Economic costs of ocean acidification: A

look into the impacts on global shellfish production. Climatic Change, 113(3-4), 1049.

[TC]

I originally was not looking for a paper such as this, but this article is actually incredibly

useful especially when looking at the relevance of ocean acidification.  This article deals

with a model situation looking at the global economy and how it would be affected if

shellfish production were to dwindle substantially.  This gave our paper a scope of

relevance that we previously did not have; it allowed us to project legitimate concerns

that could face people as a whole.  

13. Ocean Acidification in Alaska. (n.d.). Retrieved April 9, 2015, from

http://www.aoos.org/ocean-acidification/  [SH]

This site provided a summary of the December 2014 workshop regarding ocean

acidification.  The workshop was co-hosted in Anchorage by the Alaska Ocean

Observing System and focused on research, technology and further scientific advances in

oceanic concerns.  This was a helpful piece for me to see specific advances in research.

In addition, particular focuses that were highlighted in the workshop.  This site brought

up a lot of good information about Jeremy Mathis, who is a leading researcher on Arctic

acidification.  Overall, the site gave a good opportunity to see what is actually being

discussed in meetings with professionals in the topic.   

14. Ocean Portal Team, The. Bennett, J. (2013). Ocean Acidification. Published by the

Smithsonian National Museum of History. Retrieved on April 5, 2015 from

http://ocean.si.edu/ocean-acidification [ZC]

This article discussed a broad range of ocean acidification-related topics. They included

acidification chemistry, the historical context behind acidification, the relevance to our

planet, the biological organisms that have been/will be impacted, and more. Jennifer

Bennett from NOAA reviewed the piece after the Ocean Portal Team created it. This

piece was retrieved from the Smithsonian National Museum of History, and is therefore

qualified as a credible source for the information it presented. This article was of great

relevance to our topic in the sense that it detailed scientific methods for ascertaining past

oceanic and atmospheric history, which was very helpful in learning about the history of

ocean acidification.

15. PAME. The ecosystem approach to management: concept paper. Protection of the Arctic

Marine Environment. (2013). Nordic Council of Ministers. Oslo, Norway.

       http://pame.is/index.php/document-library/all-documents. [JW].

The purpose of this concept paper is to establish the management principles of the Arctic

Ocean’s ecosystem and its dynamics while utilizing it in a manner that protects the

overall resources and biodiversity. This concept paper outlines six management strategies

that will be used as guides in how the member nations will use, access, and develop its

       resources in their defined areas. From an international perspective and authority, PAME

is one of the working groups who are tasked with establishing and setting management

principles and authorities for the Arctic Ocean’s environmental, ecological health, and

sustainability. This source provides this research effort to understand the parameters and

scope on how the Arctic Council will ensure ways on how the ecosystem and

environment will be protected while seeking to utilize its resources. Understanding these

integrative management principles enables this research effort on how human use will be

curtailed to ensure that threats of increasing ocean acidification will be monitored.  

16. What is Ocean Acidification? (n.d.). Retrieved April 11, 2015, from

http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/co2/story/What is Ocean Acidification? [SH]

PMEL is a branch of NOAA that is focused on pacific marine life.  However, this gave

some good insight into the process of  acidification and how it is already impacting the

oceans.  I thought it was very easy to understand and it broke down the process of the

complicated acidification process.  

17. Shadwick, E. H., Trull, T. W., Thomas, H., & Gibson, J. A. E. (2013). Vulnerability of

Polar Oceans to Anthropogenic Acidification: Comparison of Arctic and Antarctic

Seasonal Cycles. Scientific Reports, 3, 2339. doi:10.1038/srep02339 [SH]

This report highlighted the difference between cold climate oceans of the Arctic and

Antarctic.  It especially focused on how Arctic regions are more vulnerable to seasonal

changes and more affected by anthropogenic climate change.  This type of science may

be important in understanding how regions absorb CO2 differently.  Thus far, the Arctic

doesn’t seem as capable of buffering CO2 as the Antarctic.  Although acidification

research is still in its early stages, it is important to understand how different regions are

affected differently.  This report offered much more in-depth analysis and science behind

carbon absorption and alkalinity.       

18. Wood, H. L. (2011, February 2). Ocean Warming and Acidification; Implications for the

Arctic Brittlestar Ophiocten sericeum. [ZC]

This article discusses how warming Arctic waters and ocean acidification can impact true

Arctic species that are adapted to inhabit cold Arctic waters. It specifically studied

changes in the Arctic Brittle Star's ability to grow and form calcium carbonate structures,

as well as the ability of other Arctic marine life to adapt to rapidly-warming Arctic waters

and lower pH levels. The author Hannah Wood is a researcher at the Department of

biological and Environmental Sciences and a member of the Center of Marine

Evolutionary biology at the University of Gothenburg, Sweden. She has a Doctorates

degree and because of these requirements I believe she is highly qualified to provide

source material for our Arctic research project. Though it may seem too specific to meet

the needs of our assignment, this research is of relevance because it details the

implications of higher CO2 levels and low pH levels on Arctic marine life. Our group

plans to use this research to support the claim that reducing CO2 levels before they reach

a critical level is important in maintaining the diversity of our marine life.