Unit 5: Learning & Memory Types of Memory Memory is the process by which we REMEMBER past experiences, information, and skills learned in the PAST There are THREE major types of memory: EPISODIC memory, SEMANTIC memory, and IMPLICIT memory. Episodic Memory Episodic Memory is memory of a SPECIFIC EVENT Some events are so important that we have very specific, detailed memories, called FLASHBULB memories Examples of Episodic Memories First day of school First kiss The day your mother had your brother/sister Attending a friends birthday party Semantic Memory GENERAL knowledge that people remember is called semantic memory We do not remember WHEN or WHERE we acquire information in semantic memory Examples of Semantic Memories The knowledge that fish swim in water The meaning of letters The idea of what a car is Word definitions Implicit Memory Things that are clearly stated are known as EXPLICIT. The two previous types of memory, episodic and semantic, are types EXPLICIT MEMORY The opposite of explicit memories are memories that are IMPLIED or not clearly stated, known as IMPLICIT MEMORY Implicit memories are made up of SKILLS and PROCEDURES that you have learned in the past They are remembered for MANY years, or even a LIFETIME Examples of Implicit Memories Typing on a keyboard Riding a bike Driving a car Three Processes of Memory Much like computers, our BRAINS process information in three steps: ENCODING, STORAGE, and RETRIEVAL. Encoding Encoding is the TRANSLATION of information into a form in which it can be stored. Computers encode typed letters by CONVERTING each letter into a code that can be STORED on the computers hard drive. Types of Codes Visual: in the form of a MENTAL PICTURE of what you are trying to remember Acoustic: in the form of SOUNDS that you hope to remember Semantic: represent information in terms of the MEANING of the information Storage After encoding, the second process of memory is the storage, or MAINTENANCE, of encoded information over a period of time Encoding PUTS the information in your brain, storage KEEPS it there! Computers store information by SAVING files People succeed in storing information through REHEARSAL (practice) and ORGANIZATION Retrieval After you have encoded and stored information, you must be able to FIND the information to use it again in the future, which is known as RETRIEVAL Retrieval requires good ENCODING and STORAGE You can compare retrieval to a computer; It is easy to retrieve information from a computer if you know what FOLDER it is in Tip of the Tongue Phenomenon: trouble with retrieval There are two other things that can make retrieval easier: having the same CONTEXT and the same STATE OF MIND. Context-Dependent Memory When memories return to you when you go back to the LOCATION where they took place, this is known as CONTEXT- DEPENDENT memory **We will say Switzerland THREE MORE TIMES, on the third time, you are NOT allowed to eat the candy** Research study: Two groups of students were asked to memorize a group of words. One group learned them while in a POOL, one group while DRY. Afterwards, the group that learned them in the pool recalled them better in water and the dry group recalled them better out of water. Research study 2: Students perform better on tests when they study in the SAME room where the test will be given. Application: In criminal investigations, witnesses are often returned to the SCENE of the crime to help them remember specific details. State Dependent Memory People also remember information better when they are in the same EMOTIONAL STATE as when they first stored the memories, known as STATE-DEPENDENT memory Feelings of HAPPINESS tend to bring about HAPPY memories, while SAD feelings bring about SAD memories If you learn something while in a HYPNOTIC TRANCE, you will recall that information better if you return to the hypnotic trance DRUGS also lead to state-dependent memories Classical Conditioning Unconditioned stimulus (US): a stimulus that causes a response that is automatic, not learned Unconditioned response (UR) : an automatic response to something Unconditioned stimulus (US) Unconditioned response (UR) Conditioned stimulus (CS): is a stimulus that was previously neutral or meaningless Conditioned response (CR): a response that is conditioned/learned Conditioned stimulus (CS) Conditioned response (CR) Pavlovs Dog The video shows a famous experiment involving classical conditioning!video Now your turn! Dwight From The Office Just A Recap Of Yesterday! There are three different types of memories: Episodic, Semantic and Implicit Episodic: Specific Events Semantic: General Info. Tough to remember exact date you learned it Implicit: Skills/Procedures Our brain is like a computer: Encode, Store, Retrieve Context Dependent Memory: You recall memories better when you are in the location they were formed in State Dependent Memory: You recall memories better when you are in the same emotional state as when you formed them Lets Practice Our Knowledge of Classical Conditioning Classical Conditioning was first discovered by IVAN PAVLOV when he discovered that he could condition dogs to salivate at the sound of a bell. Stimulus something that CAUSES a reaction or response Response - a person or animals REACTION to something Conditioning learning that occurs through the PAIRING of stimuli Classical Conditioning form of learning in which one stimulus leads to a response that is usually caused by a DIFFERENT stimulus Unconditioned Stimulus (US) stimulus that causes an AUTOMATIC response Unconditioned Response(UR) REACTION to unconditioned stimulus Neutral Stimulus(NS) stimulus WITHOUT any automatic response Conditioned Stimulus (CS) stimulus that leads to a NEW response (used to be NS) Conditioned Response (CR) REACTION to a previously meaningless stimulus (CS) Lets Practice! Ivan Pavlovs famous experiment US: UR: NS: CS: CR: Our sour patch experiment from class US: UR: NS: CS: CR: Dwight From The Office US: UR: NS: CS: CR: Taste Aversion Taste Aversion is a learned AVOIDANCE of certain foods Example: Mean babysitter makes you eat applesauce as a child You ate shrimp for the first time and all of a sudden you got the flu. Now you hate shrimp Note: Taste Aversion can occur with only one association of two stimuli Extinction Over time, when a conditioned stimulus is NO LONGER paired with an unconditioned stimulus, the conditioned response will go away, called EXTINCTION Example: After awhile of only hearing the bell and receiving food, Pavlovs dogs no longer get hungry when they hear the bell. Spontaneous Recovery When an extinguished response COMES BACK after a period of being gone, it is called spontaneous recovery Sometimes, the response will come back but WEAKER Example: Pavlovs dogs respond to the bell like they were conditioned to Generalization The process of responding in the same way to STIMULI that seem to be SIMILAR is called generalization Example: Little AlbertLittle Albert Discrimination Discrimination is responding DIFFERENTLY to stimuli that are not similar to one another Example: If bell tone were the conditioned stimulus, discrimination would involve being able to tell the difference between the bell tone and other similar sounds Case Study: Little Albert Little Albert was a child that was conditioned by JOHN WATSON to be afraid of WHITE RATS US = ________________, UR = _______________________ CS = __________________________, CR = __________________________ Generalization and Little Albert: Operant Conditioning Pavlovs model for learning was called CLASSICAL conditioning. A different type of learning is OPERANT conditioning, in which people learn based on the RESULTS of what they do. Example: If you study really hard and get a good grade after you study, you will likely study hard again in the future. Project Pigeon The founder of operant condition was B.F. SKINNER and he developed Project Pigeon during World War II. Project Pigeon was designed to train pigeons to guide missiles The equipment was bulky and the plans were abandoned, but it demonstrates operant conditioning The pigeons would be rewarded for pecking at targets and then peck at targets on a screen inside the missile to hit a real target Reinforcement Reinforcement is the process by which a stimulus INCREASES the chances that the preceding behavior will occur again Skinner used what is now called a Skinner Box to test reinforcement with rats Description: A rat was deprived of food and only given food when they pressed a lever in the box. The first time the rat pressed a lever was by accident, but it quickly learned that it would get food for pressing the lever and pressed it more and more frequently. The food is considered reinforcement for hitting the lever. Examples of Reinforcement Praise Candy Increased pay Types of Reinforcers Primary Reinforcers Food, water, and warmth are PRIMARY reinforcers because they function based on an organisms BIOLOGICAL makeup You DO NOT need to be taught the value of primary reinforcers Secondary Reinforcers These are reinforcers whose value must be LEARNED Some secondary reinforcers are MONEY, SOCIAL APPROVAL, and GOOD GRADES Positive and Negative Reinforcement Reinforcers are called POSITIVE if they increase a behavior by being APPLIED Examples: Giving a child candy after picking up their toys Dog gets a treat for rolling over or sitting Getting paid for a completed task Dolphin gets a fish for doing a trick Watching favorite tv show after finishing all of your homework Reinforcers are called NEGATIVE if they increase a behavior by being REMOVED Examples: Loud buzz in car when ignition key is turned on; driver must put on seatbelt in order to eliminate the irritating buzz Note: Both of these are still reinforcers, so they lead to an INCREASE in a certain behavior The opposite of reinforcement is PUNISHMENTS, which is a process by which a stimulus DECREASES the likelihood of a behavior. Examples: Speeding ticket, being grounded, extra chores Types of Punishment POSITIVE punishment decreases the likelihood of a behavior by ADDING something Example: You fail a class, so your parents give you extra chores around the house. This hopefully will decrease your likelihood of failing again so you dont have to keep doing more chores. Your Own Examples: You speed so you get a speeding ticket. NEGATIVE punishment decreases the likelihood of a behavior by TAKING AWAY something Examples: Taking your phone away, reducing playing time, lowering pay Your Own Examples: You are out past curfew so your parents ground you and take away the tv/internet/phone Problems with Punishment Punishment alone does not teach acceptable ALTERNATIVE behaviors so that you dont repeat the mistake Example: Two siblings are fighting. Simply taking away the toy they are fighting over does not teach them how to communicate in a more productive manner Punishment tends to only work if it is applied EVERY time If you are only punished sometimes, you will try to get away with behavior Punished people may AVOID the situation rather than change behavior Ex: Running away from home rather than accepting punishment from parents, skipping school rather than dealing with punishment from teachers Punishment can lead to ANGER Children may learn to USE punishment techniques themselves Example: If parents hit children as punishment, those children are more likely to become violent themselves Punishment might actually be BENEFICIAL Example: A person may desire attention and so they act out to get the attention through the punishment Reinforcement vs. Punishment Examples ExamplesPositiveNegative Reinforcement (stimulus INCREASES the chances that a behavior will occur again) **Adding something****Taking away something** Punishment (stimulus DECREASES the chances that a behavior will occur again) **Adding something****Taking away something** An example of operant conditioning from The Big Bang Theoryexample So what is the difference between classical conditioning and operant conditioning?difference Which do you think is more effective, punishment or reinforcement? Schedules of Reinforcement/Punishment Continuous Schedules A behavior is reinforced or punished EVERY time it occurs Example: Pros: Cons: Partial Schedules A behavior is reinforced or punished SOME OF THE TIME it occurs Example: Pros: Cons: Shaping Shaping is a process of teaching complex behaviors by reinforcing small steps in the right direction Researchers have been able to teach animals to perform complex tasks through shaping Example of Shaping Example: A child does not clean his/her room. Dont expect them to all of a sudden one day clean the whole thing. First focus on making the bed and reinforce them each time. Then focus on picking up clothes off the floor and reinforce them. Finally focus on picking up all of their toys, followed by reinforcement. This will eventually lead to a clean room Forgetting and Memory Improvement So far, we have talked about how we REMEMBER things. Today, we will talk about the opposite of memory, which is FORGETTING, as well as how to IMPROVE memory. Basic Memory Tasks Recognition The easiest memory task is recognition, which is IDENTIFYING objects or events that you have seen before Even after a long time, people are still pretty good at RECOGNITION tasks and do not forget things very quickly Example: Picking the correct answer in a multiple choice question Recall A more involved task than recognition, RECALL occurs when you have to bring something to your mind ON YOUR OWN If you are asked to do a recall task, it may seem like you have FORGOTTEN more because they are more difficult to do Example: Coming up with an answer for a fill in the blank question on a test Relearning Relearning occurs when you study OLD information that you once learned Relearning is much QUICKER than initial learning This is a technique to use when you have ALREADY forgotten something Types of Forgetting Repression As we studied with Freud in our consciousness unit, REPRESSION occurs when you push painful memories OUT of your consciousness Amnesia Amnesia is SEVERE MEMORY LOSS caused by brain injury, shock, fatigue, illness, or repression Infantile Amnesia This is the term for the forgetting of EARLY CHILDHOOD events People who claim to remember their BIRTH have probably constructed memory from other memories Possible causes for the memory loss are a lack of brain development, a lack of interest in remembering events, and a lack of language Anterograde Amnesia Anterograde amnesia occurs after a serious brain trauma and PREVENTS formation of NEW memories Retrograde Amnesia Retrograde Amnesia occurs after a traumatic event and leads to forgetting of events BEFORE the trauma, while memories can be formed afterwards Many times, retrograde amnesics slowly regain their memories Clive Wearing: The man living without memory Improving Memory Drill and Practice The most basic way to remember things is to REPEAT them again and again Example: Relate to Things You Know It is much easier to remember things if you repeat them but also CONNECT them to other ideas you already understand Example: Form Unusual Associations By connecting two UNRELATED ideas together, it may be easier to remember facts People can ENHANCE their memory by connecting ideas to specific PARTS OF THE BODY or PLACES IN THEIR HOUSE Example: Mnemonic Devices Mnemonic devices are SYSTEMS for remembering information Examples: ROYGBIV, HOMES, PEMDAS Cognitive Factors in Learning Latent Learning Some learning can occur WITHOUT reinforcement or conditioning One common example of non-reinforced learning is knowledge of MENTAL MAPS of places like your house or your school This knowledge would often be LATENT LEARNING, which is hidden until you need it Example: A child observes others using proper manners but does not show that until prompted to use the manners Observational Learning As we saw with the BOBO DOLL study, Albert Bandura was able to prove that people learn by watching others Skills like SPEAKING, EATING, and PLAYING are learned by observing others Summarize the Bobo Doll study in two to three sentences below: Social Learning and Violence Research shows that violent behavior can be learned in part from watching violent television or playing violent video games Now, Lets See How Amazing Your Memory Is! https://public.psych.iastate.edu/glwells/theeyewitnesstest.htm l Take A Look At The Following Article When Memory Fails An Eye WitnessMisidentification.php