4 th Edition Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall8-1 Thinking, Language, and Intelligence Chapter 8.
“ The Economic Way of Thinking ” 12 th Edition
description
Transcript of “ The Economic Way of Thinking ” 12 th Edition
![Page 1: “ The Economic Way of Thinking ” 12 th Edition](https://reader034.fdocuments.in/reader034/viewer/2022051316/56814882550346895db59418/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
1
“The Economic Way of Thinking”12th Edition
Chapter 15: Economic Performance and Real-world Politics
![Page 2: “ The Economic Way of Thinking ” 12 th Edition](https://reader034.fdocuments.in/reader034/viewer/2022051316/56814882550346895db59418/html5/thumbnails/2.jpg)
2
Chapter Outline The Great Depression What Happens in a Recession? A Cluster of Errors Monetary Mismanagement, Monetary Miscalc
ulation Monetary Equilibrium When is Monetary Policy Effective?
![Page 3: “ The Economic Way of Thinking ” 12 th Edition](https://reader034.fdocuments.in/reader034/viewer/2022051316/56814882550346895db59418/html5/thumbnails/3.jpg)
3
Chapter Outline The Case for Fiscal Policy The Necessity of Good Timing The government Budget as a Policy Tool The Horizons and the Sequence of Effects Deficits Unlimited Why Not Government at All Levels? Discretion and Rules Who is at the Controls?
![Page 4: “ The Economic Way of Thinking ” 12 th Edition](https://reader034.fdocuments.in/reader034/viewer/2022051316/56814882550346895db59418/html5/thumbnails/4.jpg)
4
Introduction
What difference does it make whetheer the quantity of money in the hands of the public grows rapidly or slowly?
A comon view An excessive rate of growth in a society’s stock of
money will cause inflation
![Page 5: “ The Economic Way of Thinking ” 12 th Edition](https://reader034.fdocuments.in/reader034/viewer/2022051316/56814882550346895db59418/html5/thumbnails/5.jpg)
5
Introduction
Questions What constitutes an excessive rate of growth?
Is there such a thing as an insufficient rate of growth?
Does too little growth cause deflation (通货紧缩) , or recession?
![Page 6: “ The Economic Way of Thinking ” 12 th Edition](https://reader034.fdocuments.in/reader034/viewer/2022051316/56814882550346895db59418/html5/thumbnails/6.jpg)
6
Introduction
Even if we know the appropriate rate to prevent these undesireable outcomes, does anyone have the ability to bring it about?
Are there other (perhaps better) ways to prevent undesirable fluctations in the aggregate level of economic activity?
![Page 7: “ The Economic Way of Thinking ” 12 th Edition](https://reader034.fdocuments.in/reader034/viewer/2022051316/56814882550346895db59418/html5/thumbnails/7.jpg)
7
The Great Depression
GDP fall: 1930 - 9 % 1931 - 8% 1932 - 14% 1933 - 2%
Since WWII output declined in 2 consecutive years only once:
1974 - 0.6% 1975 - 0.4%
![Page 8: “ The Economic Way of Thinking ” 12 th Edition](https://reader034.fdocuments.in/reader034/viewer/2022051316/56814882550346895db59418/html5/thumbnails/8.jpg)
8
The Great Depression
In 1939 output reached 1929 level. Per capita after tax income fell by:
30% - 1929 to 1933 7% - 1929 to 1939
Unemployment rate= 19% average in 1930’s Unemployment rate= 25% in 1933
![Page 9: “ The Economic Way of Thinking ” 12 th Edition](https://reader034.fdocuments.in/reader034/viewer/2022051316/56814882550346895db59418/html5/thumbnails/9.jpg)
9
The Great Depression
Marx and Engels (Communist Manifesto) Predicted calamity due to epidemic of overprodu
ction (源于生产过剩瘟疫的灾难)
Claimed the epidemic would bring an end to capitalism.
![Page 10: “ The Economic Way of Thinking ” 12 th Edition](https://reader034.fdocuments.in/reader034/viewer/2022051316/56814882550346895db59418/html5/thumbnails/10.jpg)
10
What Happens in a Recession? Recession – to recede (retreat) Recession
Entail unintended and, thus, disruptive slowdowns The result of frustrated expectations (预期落空) Occurs when, for some reason, the number and d
epth of the disappointments increase without any compensating increase in the quantity and quality of delightful surprises
![Page 11: “ The Economic Way of Thinking ” 12 th Edition](https://reader034.fdocuments.in/reader034/viewer/2022051316/56814882550346895db59418/html5/thumbnails/11.jpg)
11
What Happens in a Recession? Production – undertaken in anticipation of a d
emand for the product or service
Recessions occur when demand falls short of expectations
When recession occurs, production and employment are reduced.
![Page 12: “ The Economic Way of Thinking ” 12 th Edition](https://reader034.fdocuments.in/reader034/viewer/2022051316/56814882550346895db59418/html5/thumbnails/12.jpg)
12
A Cluster of Errors (错误的集群) Recessions – accumulated mistakes
A cluster of errors among participants throuthout the economy
Thousands of entrepreneurs misread price signals provided by the market process
Recessions – correction to prior period accumulation of mistakes Production curtailed Workers laid off Capital liquidated at a loss
![Page 13: “ The Economic Way of Thinking ” 12 th Edition](https://reader034.fdocuments.in/reader034/viewer/2022051316/56814882550346895db59418/html5/thumbnails/13.jpg)
13
A Cluster of Errors
Questions Why would mistakes accumulate in an economic
system? Why wouldn’t overly pessimistic decisions roughly
cancel out overly optimistic decisions? How could so many people be mistaken?
![Page 14: “ The Economic Way of Thinking ” 12 th Edition](https://reader034.fdocuments.in/reader034/viewer/2022051316/56814882550346895db59418/html5/thumbnails/14.jpg)
14
A Cluster of Errors
Great Depression Worldwide in scope
US – deeper and longer
Great Depression questions: Cause of the cluster of errors Length and severity
![Page 15: “ The Economic Way of Thinking ” 12 th Edition](https://reader034.fdocuments.in/reader034/viewer/2022051316/56814882550346895db59418/html5/thumbnails/15.jpg)
15
A Cluster of Errors
Authors contend the cause of errors Expansionary monetary policy of 1920’s
Credit expansion Boom to Bust
![Page 16: “ The Economic Way of Thinking ” 12 th Edition](https://reader034.fdocuments.in/reader034/viewer/2022051316/56814882550346895db59418/html5/thumbnails/16.jpg)
16
A Cluster of Errors
Milton Friedman
(1912-2006)
University of Chicago
Nobel Prize Winner 1976
Murray N. Rothbard
(1926-1995)
University of Nevada
Dean of the Austrian School economics
![Page 17: “ The Economic Way of Thinking ” 12 th Edition](https://reader034.fdocuments.in/reader034/viewer/2022051316/56814882550346895db59418/html5/thumbnails/17.jpg)
17
A Cluster of Errors
Rothbard’s America’s Great Depression and Friedman’s A Monetary History of the US Chanllenge the popular perspective
That the Great Depression was caused by the collaplw of the self-organizing properties of the market system
Provide arguments and evidence That the cause, and length and severity of the Great De
pression was a consequence of government policy
![Page 18: “ The Economic Way of Thinking ” 12 th Edition](https://reader034.fdocuments.in/reader034/viewer/2022051316/56814882550346895db59418/html5/thumbnails/18.jpg)
18
Monetary Mismanagement, Monetary Miscalculation Credit expansion fueled by money expansion
lowers interest rates Over-investment Unsustainable boom If savings increase generated - sustainable
Recessionary bust Investment projects revealed as mistakes
![Page 19: “ The Economic Way of Thinking ” 12 th Edition](https://reader034.fdocuments.in/reader034/viewer/2022051316/56814882550346895db59418/html5/thumbnails/19.jpg)
19
Monetary Mismanagement, Monetary Miscalculation Credit expansion by central bank
Lowers market rate of interest Investors engage in projects previously unprofitabl
e (at higher cost of capital)
The investment bite is bigger than the economy’s chew, so the system chokes
![Page 20: “ The Economic Way of Thinking ” 12 th Edition](https://reader034.fdocuments.in/reader034/viewer/2022051316/56814882550346895db59418/html5/thumbnails/20.jpg)
20
Monetary Mismanagement, Monetary Miscalculation There is no logic reason why the bust need be lengt
hy and severe The adjustment process, while painful, can be relatively qui
ck
During the Great Depression, this process of adjustment was thwarted by government policies that slowed down the process of adjustment or actually set in motion new disturbances
![Page 21: “ The Economic Way of Thinking ” 12 th Edition](https://reader034.fdocuments.in/reader034/viewer/2022051316/56814882550346895db59418/html5/thumbnails/21.jpg)
21
Monetary Mismanagement, Monetary Miscalculation
The Great Depression should be viewed Not as an indictment (控诉) of the market econ
omy
But as the major lesson in history on how monetary policy disturb the coordination process in economic life, both through expansion and contraction of the money supply
![Page 22: “ The Economic Way of Thinking ” 12 th Edition](https://reader034.fdocuments.in/reader034/viewer/2022051316/56814882550346895db59418/html5/thumbnails/22.jpg)
22
Monetary Equilibrium Coordination central to the economic system Although there may be macroeconomic questions, th
ere are in the end only microeconomic answers
What matters is the incentives and information that individuals face That will lead them to successfully coordinate their actions w
ith others in the market Or direct them to activities which result in coordination failur
es
![Page 23: “ The Economic Way of Thinking ” 12 th Edition](https://reader034.fdocuments.in/reader034/viewer/2022051316/56814882550346895db59418/html5/thumbnails/23.jpg)
23
Monetary Equilibrium The monetary system is at the center of any advanc
ed economy
Money by its nature cannot be “neutral” (中立) because It provides the link to all exchange relationships throughout
the economy
Imbalance of the monetary system Have an impact on the pattern of exchange and production
in an economy
![Page 24: “ The Economic Way of Thinking ” 12 th Edition](https://reader034.fdocuments.in/reader034/viewer/2022051316/56814882550346895db59418/html5/thumbnails/24.jpg)
24
Monetary Equilibrium
From a monetary equilibrium perspective Goal of monetary policy should be to strive for:
Monetary neutrality by keeping Quantity supplied = quantity demanded
Then Price stability, or stability of the purchasing power of mo
ney No seriously relative price distortions
![Page 25: “ The Economic Way of Thinking ” 12 th Edition](https://reader034.fdocuments.in/reader034/viewer/2022051316/56814882550346895db59418/html5/thumbnails/25.jpg)
25
When Is Monetary Policy Effective? The dominant opinion among economicsts
Monetary policy might be effective in preventing inflation
But it is largely ineffectively in countering recession
![Page 26: “ The Economic Way of Thinking ” 12 th Edition](https://reader034.fdocuments.in/reader034/viewer/2022051316/56814882550346895db59418/html5/thumbnails/26.jpg)
26
When Is Monetary Policy Effective? Monetary authorities can increase excess res
erves,but cannot compel banks to extend loans
Larger money stock may not produce increase in spending
Recession can create a confidence crisis
Central Bank efforts may be for naught
![Page 27: “ The Economic Way of Thinking ” 12 th Edition](https://reader034.fdocuments.in/reader034/viewer/2022051316/56814882550346895db59418/html5/thumbnails/27.jpg)
27
The Case for Fiscal Policy (财政政策) How can the the central bank or some other a
gency of government persuade people to borrow and spend?
One way would be to enhance confidence of households and busines
s decision makers
![Page 28: “ The Economic Way of Thinking ” 12 th Edition](https://reader034.fdocuments.in/reader034/viewer/2022051316/56814882550346895db59418/html5/thumbnails/28.jpg)
28
The Case for Fiscal Policy
How can the government help stimulate spending at a time when fear and timidity rule? Public policy designed to enhance public confiden
ce Increase spending directly with fiscal policy
![Page 29: “ The Economic Way of Thinking ” 12 th Edition](https://reader034.fdocuments.in/reader034/viewer/2022051316/56814882550346895db59418/html5/thumbnails/29.jpg)
29
The Case for Fiscal Policy
Fiscal Policy Using government budget to bring about desired l
evels of spending. The Keynesian Revolution
The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money (1936)
Proposed controlling aggregate demand for fiscal policy to counteract recessions
![Page 30: “ The Economic Way of Thinking ” 12 th Edition](https://reader034.fdocuments.in/reader034/viewer/2022051316/56814882550346895db59418/html5/thumbnails/30.jpg)
30
The Case for Fiscal Policy
Fiscal Policy options Changing government spending
Changing taxes
![Page 31: “ The Economic Way of Thinking ” 12 th Edition](https://reader034.fdocuments.in/reader034/viewer/2022051316/56814882550346895db59418/html5/thumbnails/31.jpg)
31
The Case for Fiscal Policy
Questions: Did WWII confirm the power of fiscal policy? How? Why?
![Page 32: “ The Economic Way of Thinking ” 12 th Edition](https://reader034.fdocuments.in/reader034/viewer/2022051316/56814882550346895db59418/html5/thumbnails/32.jpg)
32
The Necessity of Good Timing Effective fiscal policy requires knowledge
Status of the economy Recognition time lag (认识上的时滞)
Where the economy is headed Diagnostic time lag (诊断上的时滞)
When policy will impact the economy Implementation time lag (实施方面的时滞)
![Page 33: “ The Economic Way of Thinking ” 12 th Edition](https://reader034.fdocuments.in/reader034/viewer/2022051316/56814882550346895db59418/html5/thumbnails/33.jpg)
33
The Necessity of Good Timing Effective fiscal policy requires knowledge of t
he future, but… Predicting the future changes the future, because
people read the predictions and act accordingly
This is the paradox with which sciences of human behavior must live
![Page 34: “ The Economic Way of Thinking ” 12 th Edition](https://reader034.fdocuments.in/reader034/viewer/2022051316/56814882550346895db59418/html5/thumbnails/34.jpg)
34
The government Budget as a Policy Tool Congress has little control over the budget
Fiscal Policy requires agreement Congress President
Haste makes for increased risk of mistakes
![Page 35: “ The Economic Way of Thinking ” 12 th Edition](https://reader034.fdocuments.in/reader034/viewer/2022051316/56814882550346895db59418/html5/thumbnails/35.jpg)
35
The government Budget as a Policy Tool Question
Why not give the President and Council of Economic Advisors the authority to implement fiscal policy?
![Page 36: “ The Economic Way of Thinking ” 12 th Edition](https://reader034.fdocuments.in/reader034/viewer/2022051316/56814882550346895db59418/html5/thumbnails/36.jpg)
36
Time Horizons and Politics (任期与政治) The time horizons of those who are entrusted
to construct and implement public policy is important for the selection of the economic policies that will in fact be pursued by the government
![Page 37: “ The Economic Way of Thinking ” 12 th Edition](https://reader034.fdocuments.in/reader034/viewer/2022051316/56814882550346895db59418/html5/thumbnails/37.jpg)
37
Time Horizons and Politics
Changes in Aggregate Demand Affects output and employment before affecting pr
ices
Politically Expansionary policy is preferred over contractiona
ry policy because…
![Page 38: “ The Economic Way of Thinking ” 12 th Edition](https://reader034.fdocuments.in/reader034/viewer/2022051316/56814882550346895db59418/html5/thumbnails/38.jpg)
38
Time Horizons and Politics Politically
Favor policies yielding benefits on Well organized and well informed interest groups In the short run At the expense of costs borne by unorganized and ill-inf
ormed mass of voters
The standard pattern in democratically governed societies More frequent and severe recessions along with a
rising rate of inflation
![Page 39: “ The Economic Way of Thinking ” 12 th Edition](https://reader034.fdocuments.in/reader034/viewer/2022051316/56814882550346895db59418/html5/thumbnails/39.jpg)
39
Time Horizons and Politics
Milton Friedman (Nobel Prize winner in 1976) and James Buchanan (Nobel Prize winner in 1986) Both suport “tying the government’s hands” Both argued that rules would outperform discretio
n in generating good economic policy Friedman argued for a monetary rule Buchanan argued for constitutional rules that calle
d for a balanced budget
![Page 40: “ The Economic Way of Thinking ” 12 th Edition](https://reader034.fdocuments.in/reader034/viewer/2022051316/56814882550346895db59418/html5/thumbnails/40.jpg)
40
Deficits Unlimited (无限赤字) Why do budget deficits persist when there is
a majority support for a balanced budget?
Answer There is no way to reduce the total budget while e
xpanding each individual item in it.
![Page 41: “ The Economic Way of Thinking ” 12 th Edition](https://reader034.fdocuments.in/reader034/viewer/2022051316/56814882550346895db59418/html5/thumbnails/41.jpg)
41
Why Not Government at All Levels? Why don’t local governments do not produce
chronic (长期的) deficits?
Answer Local governments do not have control over the m
edium of exchange
![Page 42: “ The Economic Way of Thinking ” 12 th Edition](https://reader034.fdocuments.in/reader034/viewer/2022051316/56814882550346895db59418/html5/thumbnails/42.jpg)
42
Why Not Government at All Levels? Why did national governments not produce s
uch chronic deficits within peacetime before 1970?
Why has it only been within recent years that other industrialized democracies started to make deficits the rule rather than the exception?
![Page 43: “ The Economic Way of Thinking ” 12 th Edition](https://reader034.fdocuments.in/reader034/viewer/2022051316/56814882550346895db59418/html5/thumbnails/43.jpg)
43
Why Not Government at All Levels? Answer
The demise of the once-strong prejudice against government deficits (i.e., regarded as immoral)
Strong majority convictions influence public policy
![Page 44: “ The Economic Way of Thinking ” 12 th Edition](https://reader034.fdocuments.in/reader034/viewer/2022051316/56814882550346895db59418/html5/thumbnails/44.jpg)
44
Why Not Government at All Levels?
How did Keynesian economics impact our willingness to accept federal budget
deficits?
![Page 45: “ The Economic Way of Thinking ” 12 th Edition](https://reader034.fdocuments.in/reader034/viewer/2022051316/56814882550346895db59418/html5/thumbnails/45.jpg)
45
Why Not Government at All Levels?
Keynesian (凯恩斯主义) analysis budgets don’t have to be balanced from year to year they need noly to be balanced over the course of the busines
s cycle, with surpluses in periods of prosperity making up for deficits in periods of recession
Popular belief among economists in 1960s and 1970s Anyone insisting on a balanced government budget just did n
ot understand “modern economics”
![Page 46: “ The Economic Way of Thinking ” 12 th Edition](https://reader034.fdocuments.in/reader034/viewer/2022051316/56814882550346895db59418/html5/thumbnails/46.jpg)
46
Why Not Government at All Levels? The trouble with the new doctrine
Its effect is to permit perennial (持久的) deficits There is no fiscal period that can be identified with “t
he course of the business cycle” The surplus that is supposed to balance the deficit n
ever has to be balanced, it can always be promised for the next year or the year after
The bias of the democratic political process takes over and makes deficits the rule rather than the exception
![Page 47: “ The Economic Way of Thinking ” 12 th Edition](https://reader034.fdocuments.in/reader034/viewer/2022051316/56814882550346895db59418/html5/thumbnails/47.jpg)
47
Why Not Government at All Levels? Milton Friedman
Inflation is everywhere and always a monetary phenomenon
We can modify Friedman’s dictum (名言) Hyperinflationa are everywhere and always the co
nsequences of fiscal imbalances
![Page 48: “ The Economic Way of Thinking ” 12 th Edition](https://reader034.fdocuments.in/reader034/viewer/2022051316/56814882550346895db59418/html5/thumbnails/48.jpg)
48
Discretion and Rules (自行决定和规则) Evidence from US in the 1970s suggest that
The use of discretionary fiscal and monetary policy to stabilize the economy actually increased its instability
But many people still believe that We do posses the knowledge and skills required to achieve
milder recessions and greater price stability through aggregate-demand management
It failed only cecause the right people won’t in charge
![Page 49: “ The Economic Way of Thinking ” 12 th Edition](https://reader034.fdocuments.in/reader034/viewer/2022051316/56814882550346895db59418/html5/thumbnails/49.jpg)
49
Discretion and Rules However, institutions should be evaluated
Not on the assumption that angels (天使,品行高尚的人) will run them
Rather on the assumption that Government policies wil be controlled by politicians Monetary and especially fiscal policies will be formulated i
n the same political context that produces decisions on import tariffs, highway construction
![Page 50: “ The Economic Way of Thinking ” 12 th Edition](https://reader034.fdocuments.in/reader034/viewer/2022051316/56814882550346895db59418/html5/thumbnails/50.jpg)
50
Discretion and Rules
An Alternative to Discretionary Fiscal and Monetary Policy
1. Government expenditures without reference to a stabilization goal
![Page 51: “ The Economic Way of Thinking ” 12 th Edition](https://reader034.fdocuments.in/reader034/viewer/2022051316/56814882550346895db59418/html5/thumbnails/51.jpg)
51
Discretion and Rules
An Alternative to Discretionary Fiscal and Monetary Policy
2. Tax rates set to balance the budget over a normal period
![Page 52: “ The Economic Way of Thinking ” 12 th Edition](https://reader034.fdocuments.in/reader034/viewer/2022051316/56814882550346895db59418/html5/thumbnails/52.jpg)
52
Discretion and Rules
An Alternative to Discretionary Fiscal and Monetary Policy
3. The Fed should maintain a steady hand on the stock of money, either holding it constant or allowing it to increase by some definite, known, uniform, and moderate rate
![Page 53: “ The Economic Way of Thinking ” 12 th Edition](https://reader034.fdocuments.in/reader034/viewer/2022051316/56814882550346895db59418/html5/thumbnails/53.jpg)
53
Who Is at the Controls?
Would a balanced budget amendment eliminate deficit spending and help stabilize the economy?
Answer A difficult task
![Page 54: “ The Economic Way of Thinking ” 12 th Edition](https://reader034.fdocuments.in/reader034/viewer/2022051316/56814882550346895db59418/html5/thumbnails/54.jpg)
54
Who Is at the Controls?
A budget is a prediction Also, it wouldn’t prevent politicians from timin
g and allocating transfer payments, government purchases, or tax-law changes in ways that destabilize the economy but improve the reelection prospects of incumbents
![Page 55: “ The Economic Way of Thinking ” 12 th Edition](https://reader034.fdocuments.in/reader034/viewer/2022051316/56814882550346895db59418/html5/thumbnails/55.jpg)
55
Who Is at the Controls?
The functioning of the economy, along with the functioning of government and every other social institution, depends finally on Our mutual ability to secure cooperation
![Page 56: “ The Economic Way of Thinking ” 12 th Edition](https://reader034.fdocuments.in/reader034/viewer/2022051316/56814882550346895db59418/html5/thumbnails/56.jpg)
56
Who Is at the Controls? Some instability seems to be an inherent char
acteristic of a free enterprise system in which Decisions are decentralized No one knows what everyone else is doing or will
do Most transactions occur throuth the medium of mo
ney
![Page 57: “ The Economic Way of Thinking ” 12 th Edition](https://reader034.fdocuments.in/reader034/viewer/2022051316/56814882550346895db59418/html5/thumbnails/57.jpg)
57
Who Is at the Controls? Big-picture questions:
How smoothly and quickly do prices adjust to changing conditions of demand or supply?
How smoothly and quickly do resources move about in response to the new information that changing prices present?
These kinds of questions are notoriously hard to answer to everyone’s satisfication
Our judgements about what is possible are subtly colored by our visions of what is desirable
![Page 58: “ The Economic Way of Thinking ” 12 th Edition](https://reader034.fdocuments.in/reader034/viewer/2022051316/56814882550346895db59418/html5/thumbnails/58.jpg)
58
Once Over Lightly
The Great Depression (1930) and changes in economic theory.
Uncertainty Economic collapse – recession Changes in the volume of money Cluster of errors – miscalculations Policy of monetary equilibrium
![Page 59: “ The Economic Way of Thinking ” 12 th Edition](https://reader034.fdocuments.in/reader034/viewer/2022051316/56814882550346895db59418/html5/thumbnails/59.jpg)
59
Once Over Lightly
Post WWII recessions and government policies.
Federal Funds Rate Fiscal Policy and Monetary Policy Time Lags and Fiscal Policy Economic forecasting and people behavior Political delays cause timing problems
![Page 60: “ The Economic Way of Thinking ” 12 th Edition](https://reader034.fdocuments.in/reader034/viewer/2022051316/56814882550346895db59418/html5/thumbnails/60.jpg)
60
Once Over Lightly
Policymakers controlled by political processes
Stabilization policies affected by short time horizons
Unanticipated change in rate of growth of demand will affect output and employment before costs and prices
![Page 61: “ The Economic Way of Thinking ” 12 th Edition](https://reader034.fdocuments.in/reader034/viewer/2022051316/56814882550346895db59418/html5/thumbnails/61.jpg)
61
Once Over Lightly
Political process tends to produce chronic budget deficits
Government contribution to economic stability might be to do “less”
Discretion stabilization policy vs. fixed rules Economic failures in late 1990’s renewed deb
ate over roles of governments and markets