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石 油 工 程(Petroleum Engineering)

林再興( 研究室 4328B)

2007 年 9 月 ~ 2008 年 1 月

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Chapter 1 Introduction ( 前言 )

What is pe·tro·le·um (pə-trō'lē-əm)?

• Oil from rock

• A thick, flammable, yellow-to-black mixture.

• Being gaseous, liquid, and solid hydrocarbons that occurs naturally beneath the earth's surface.

• Could be separated into fractions including natural gas, gasoline, naphtha, kerosene, fuel and lubricating oils, paraffin wax, and asphalt and is used as raw material for a wide variety of derivative products.

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石油的分子結構 石油是碳氫化合物。 通常以 C 代表碳，以 H 代表氫。

烷烴 ( 石蠟烴 ) 、環烷烴、烯烴及芳香烴，其分子結構均不相同。

甲烷即是含有一個碳原子，乙烷含兩個碳原子，丙烷含三個碳原子，依此類推。

烯烴類有一組雙鍵結構 ( 請比較異丁烷與異丁烯 ) ，

芳香烴為六隅體結構等。

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Petroleum( 石油 ) and Energy( 能源 )

• 能源 (Energy Sources) 是什麼 ?

具有可以使用之熱能 (heat) 或功率 (power) 的物質或資源。

例如，石油、煤，及太陽能等。

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能源的分類• 傳統能源或非再生能源 (Non-renewable Energy) 這類資源的循環時間極長 – 用完之後，難以在短 期內補

充，會”耗盡”。 包括：石油、天然氣、煤及核能。

• 再生能源 (Renewable Energy) 資源可以快速循環或補充 – “不會用完” ，”不會枯竭

耗盡”。 包括：太陽能、風力能、潮汐能、水力能、波浪能、地熱

能及生質能等。

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傳統能源 ( 或 非再生能源 )

• 化石燃料能 (Fossil Fuel Energy)

－石油、天然氣、煤炭

• 核能 (Nuclear Energy)

－鈾 (Uranium)

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再生能源 (Renewable Energy) 種類

• 太陽能 (Solar Power)

• 風力能 (Wind Power)

•

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再生能源 (Renewable Energy) 種類• 潮汐能 (Tidal Power)

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再生能源 (Renewable Energy) 種類• 水力能 (Hydro-electric Power)

• 波浪能 (Wave Power)

•

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再生能源 (Renewable Energy) 種類• 地熱能 (Geothermal Energy) 生質能 (Biomass Energy)

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人類如何使用能源 ?

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世界消費能源總量之中各類能源所佔比例

Source: EIA, Annual Energy Review, 2002

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^ BP Statistical review of world energy June 2006 (XLS). British Petroleum (June

2006). Retrieved on 2007-04-03. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k

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石油能源• 石油及天然氣是動、植物之殘骸在地層中，於適當地層溫

度及壓力條件下所分解之碳氫化合物而形成。

• 1970 年代的二次全球能源危機是 因石油供應短缺所造成， 又稱為石油能源危機。

• 1990 年代波斯灣戰爭也是 因為石油而引起。

• 石油價格的升降，直接影響全球經濟。

• 大多數的研究，都預測石油短缺即將來臨︰四十年 ?

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天然氣能源• 天然氣是一種氣態的碳氫化合物 ( 註：石油是液態碳氫化合物 ) 。

• 天然氣的燃燒效率高，而且乾淨。

• 液化天然氣 ( 簡稱 LNG) 是把礦區產出的天然氣冷凍至零下 162°C ，成為一種無色、無臭的液體，體積也縮減為氣態時的六百分之一左右，以便於儲存及越洋運送。

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石油分類• 物理性質 -- relative weight (API gravity) or -- viscosity ("light", "intermediate" or "heavy");

-- impurity --"sweet," which means it contains relatively little sulfur, or -- "sour," which means it contains substantial amounts of sulfur and

requires more refining in order to meet current product specifications

• 化學性質 石油的分子結構

• 產地 by the location of its origin (e.g., "West Texas Intermediate, WTI" or "Brent")

• 市場商品 產地 (& 物理性質 )

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API Gravity

API <=> American Petroleum Institute

)5.131(

5.141

5.1315.141

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APISGor

SGAPI

o

o

For API = 10o => water API < 20o => heavy oil 30o < API < 40o => intermediate oil (light to

medium) 40o < API => light oil API > 45o => volatile oil API ~ 60o ~ 70o => condensate liquid

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The world reference Crude (oil)

• Brent Crude, comprising 15 oils from fields in the Brent and Ninian systems in the East Shetland Basin of the North Sea. The oil is landed at Sullom Voe terminal in the Shetlands. Oil production from Europe, Africa and Middle Eastern oil flowing West tends to be priced off the price of this oil, which forms a benchmark.

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• West Texas Intermediate (WTI) for North American oil.

• Dubai, used as benchmark for Middle East oil flowing to the Asia-Pacific region.•

• Tapis (from Malaysia, used as a reference for light Far East oil)

• Minas (from Indonesia, used as a reference for heavy Far East oil)

• The OPEC basket used to be the average price of the following blends: – Arab Light Saudi Arabia – Bonny Light Nigeria – Fateh Dubai – Isthmus Mexico (non-OPEC) – Minas Indonesia – Saharan Blend Algeria – Tia Juana Light Venezuela

• OPEC attempts to keep the price of the Opec Basket between upper and lower limits, by increasing and decreasing production. This makes the measure important for market analysts.

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What is a "barrel" of oil?• 1 barrel = 0.158987 cubic meters

1 barrel = 34.99089 Imperial gallons1 barrel = 42 U.S. gallons1 barrel = 158.987146 liters

• Now-a-days, oil volumes are measured in cubic meters or "cubes" as they are referred to in the "oil patch"

• 1 cubic meter = 6.28994 barrels1 cubic meter = 1,000 liters

• 1 barrel = 158.987146 liters

• Brent Crude Brent Crude is one of the major classifications of oil consisting of Brent Crude, Brent Sweet Light Crude ... per barrel is about $3 less than WTI, and $3 more than OPEC Basket. Brent Crude has an API gravity of around 78. ...

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Bibliographic EntryResult

(w/surrounding text)StandardizedResult

"Energy." Science & Technology. Gale Research Inc., 1993.

37 MJ

"Heat of Combustion." Handbook of Chemistry & Physics. Chemical Rubber Co. Press LLC, 2001.

40 MJ

Natural Gas Facts. naturalgas.com."A cubic foot of natural gas gives off

1000 Btu, but the range of values is 500 to 1500 Btu."

37 MJ(average)

19 - 56 MJ(range)

"Fuel Gas." McGraw Hill Encyclopedia of Science & Technology. McGraw Hill, Inc., 1982.

"The net heating value of natural gas served by a utility company is often 1000 to

1100 Btu/ft3."37 - 41 MJ

Approximate Heat Content of Natural Gas. Energy Information Administration.

39 MJ(1949)

38 MJ(2000)

Fuel BTU Unit of Measure

Natural Gas 1000 cubic feet

Molecular Formula Hydrocarbons kJ/mol

CH4 methane (g) 890.8

Year Total Consumption

1949 1035 Btu/ft3

2000 1027 Btu/ft3

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NYMEX Light Sweet Crude

+0.94 $81.51

IPE Brent +0.61 $77.59

RBOB Gasoline NY Harbor

+0.0161 $2.0603

Heating Oil NY Harbor

+0.0136 $2.2423

NYMEX Natural Gas

-0.085 $6.568

Crude Oil, Gasoline and Natural Gas Futures

NYMEX Prices for September 18, 2007

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IPE BRENT CRUDE OIL PRICEInternational political economy (IPE)

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What is Petroleum Engineering

• Petroleum Engineering is a creative technology

• The function of petroleum engineering– to provide a basis for the design and implementation

of techniques to recover commercial quantities of natural petroleum.

• Broadly based technology of petroleum engineering– Engineering; geology; mathematics; physics; chemistr

y; economics; geostatics.

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Major fields in Petroleum

• Drilling Engineering

• Production Engineering

• Reservoir Engineering

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• The design of petroleum techniques is based on– observation of production performance,– a representation of reservoir inferred from very limited sampling.

• Reservoirs cannot be designed to fulfill a particular task, but rather an ill-defined naturally occurring reservoir is induced to produce some fraction of its contents for as long as is considered commercially attractive.

• With the passage of time and cumulative production, more information on the nature of the reservoir can be accumulated and the production methods can modified.

The design of petroleum techniques

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• Thus petroleum engineering can represent an exercise in the application of uncertainty to design.

• The terminology of the subject contains varying degrees of confidence in representation of the in-place and recoverable resource base.

• We will discuss the representation of “proven” quantities of hydrocarbon in terms of availability of information and the existence of technology to exploit recovery on commercially attractive terms.

Uncertainty of Design

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• In the current climate of deeper reservoir exploration and increased exploitation of offshore reservoirs in the world’s sedimentary basins (Fig. 1.1), costs of production are significant.

For example, in terms of pre-tax cost of oil production from a 2000 m ss onshore well compared with a 3000 m ss offshore well, a ratio of 1:10 might be expected.

• Current exploration in maturing hydrocarbon provinces is centered on more subtle trapping mechanisms than structural highs and on smaller accumulations.

Costs of production

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• The further recovery of hydrocarbons from reservoirs approaching the end of conventional development process requires the cost-effective application of enhanced (EOR) or improved (IHR) hydrocarbon recovery process.

• The exploitation of heavy oil (API gravity less than 20o API) and of gas condensate and volatile oil reservoirs (API gravity greater than 45o API) requires special petroleum engineering effort, particularly in high-pressure or offshore reservoirs.

Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) and Improved Hydrocarbon Recovery (IHR)

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• Developments in the recovery of hydrocarbon from oil sands and oil shales require that petroleum engineering methods are combined with the technologies of mining engineers and chemical engineers.

• The prices of oil in world markets are partly controlled by agreement amongst producing nations.

Fig. 1.2 shows the fluctuation in the average official Middle East Crude oil price.

The effect of the exchange rate fluctuation between the pound sterling and the US dollar is also clearly seen.

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Text Books• Textbook 1 Fundamentals of Petroleum, Petroleum Extension Service, The Univers

ity of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas,1979.

• Textbook 2 Archer, J. S., and Wall, C.G., Petroleum Engineering—principles and pr

actice, Graham & Trotman, MD, 1986.

• TextBook 3 Donohue, D.A.T., and Lang K.R., A First Course in Petroleum Technolo

gy, International Human Resources Development Corporation, Houston,1986.

• Textbook 4 Hyne,N.J., Nontechnical Guide to Petroleum Geology, Exploration, Drill

ing and Production, Penn Well Co., Tulsa, Oklahoma, 2001.

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Text Books

• 林國安等人，石油探採 (第一冊 ) – 石油地質，，中國石油股份有限公司訓練教材叢書，中油訓練所，嘉義市， 2005 。

• 林國安等人，石油探採 (第二冊 ) – 地球物理探勘，，中國石油股份有限公司訓練教材叢書，中油訓練所，嘉義市， 2005 。

• 林國安等人，石油探採 (第三冊 )– 油井鑽鑿，中國石油股份有限公司訓練教材叢書，中油訓練所，嘉義市， 2005 。

• 林國安等人，石油探採 (第四冊 ) – 油氣生產，中國石油股份有限公司訓練教材叢書，中油訓練所，嘉義市， 2005 。

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References• Web sites

石油教室 Classroom (http://www.cpc.com.tw/big5/content/index.asp?pno=108)

???SPE Energy Education (Introduction to Oil and Natural Gas)??? ???(http://www.spe.org/spe/jsp/basic/0,,1104_1008218,00.html)???

石油工程實驗室 (http://www.ncku.edu.tw/~source/home/teacher_lin_personal.htm)

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石油教室 Classroom (http://www.cpc.com.tw/big5/content/index.asp?pno=108)

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SPE Energy Education (Introduction to Oil and Natural Gas) (http://www.spe.org/spe/jsp/basic/0,,1104_1008218,00.html)

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石油工程實驗室 (http://www.ncku.edu.tw/~source/home/teacher_lin_personal.htm)

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石油工程 講授大綱 1. 前言 (Introduction) Textbook 2– chapter 1 石油教室 Classroom SPE Energy Education

2. 石油地質及儲油層 (Petroleum Geology and Reservoir) Textbook 1– chapter 1 石油教室 Classroom Textbook 2– chapter 2 SPE Energy Education Textbook 3– chapter 4.1; 4.2

3.石油探勘 (Petroleum Prospecting) Textbook 1– chapter 2 石油教室 Classroom SPE Energy Education

4. 鑽井工程 (Drilling Engineering) Textbook 1– chapter 4 石油教室 Classroom Textbook 2– chapter 3 SPE Energy Education Textbook 3– chapter 1

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石油工程 講授大綱 5.地層評估 (Formation Evaluation) Textbook 4– chapter 19

6.油層工程 (Reservoir Engineering) Textbook 2– chapter 4; 5; 8; 12 7.生產工程 (Production Engineering) Textbook 1– chapter 5 Textbook 3– chapter 3 石油教室 Classroom SPE Energy Education