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Transcript of -Part 4 - Leading & Directing
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S O U R C E : M A N A G E M E N T - A G L O B A L
P E R S P E C T I V EB Y W E I H R I C H A N D K O O N T Z 1 1 T H E D I T I O N
Directing/Leading
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Leading/Directing
It is defined as the process of influencingpeopleso that they will contributeto organizational andgroup goals.
Managing requires the creation andmaintenance of an environmentin whichindividuals work together in groups towardthe accomplishmentof common objectives.
The managers job is not to manipulate peoplebut, rather, to recognizewhat motivatespeople.
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Human Factors in Managing
Through the function of leading, managershelp peoplesee that they can satisfy theirown needs and utilize potential while
contributing to the aims of the enterprise.
Managers should thus have an
understanding of the roles assumed bypeople and the individuality andpersonalities of people.
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Multiplicity of Roles
Individuals are much more than a productivefactor in managements plans.
They are membersof social systems of many
organizations; they are consumersof goods andservices, schools, churches, trade associations, andpolitical parties.
In these different roles, they establish lawsthatgovern managers, ethicsthat guide behavior, and atradition of human dignity that is a majorcharacteristic of our society.
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No Average Person
People act in different roles, but they are alsodifferent themselves.
There is no average person.
It is equally important to acknowledge that
individuals are uniquethey have differentneeds, different ambitions, different attitudes,different desires for responsibility, different levelsof knowledge and skills, and different potentials.
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The Importance of Personal Dignity
The concept of individual dignitymeans thatpeople must be treatedwith respect, no matter whattheirposition is in the organization.
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Consideration of the Whole Person
We cannot talk about the nature of people unlesswe consider the whole person, not justseparate and distinct characteristics such asknowledge, attitude, skills, or personality traits.
A person has them all to different degrees.The human being is a total person affected by
external factors.People cannot divest themselves of the impactof
these forces when they come to work.Managers must recognizethese facts and be
prepared to dealwith them.
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Motivation
A general termapplying to the entireclass of drives,desires, needs,
wishes, and similarforces.
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Motivation Models/Theories
1. Douglas McGregors Theory X and Theory Y
Two sets of assumptions about the nature ofpeople.
Theory X is pessimistic, static, and rigid.Control is primarily external, imposed on thesubordinate by the superior.
In contrast, Theory Yis optimistic, dynamic,
and flexible, with an emphasis on self-directionand the integration of individual needs withorganizational demands.
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Motivation Models/Theories
Under the assumptions of theory X:
Employees inherently do not like work and wheneverpossible, will attempt to avoid it.
Because employees dislike work, they have to be forced,coerced or threatened with punishment to achieve goals.
Employees avoid responsibilities and do not work fillformal directions are issued.
Most workers place a greater importance on security overall other factors and display little ambition.
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Motivation Models/Theories
In contrast under the assumptions of theory Y:
Physical and mental effort at work is as natural as rest orplay.
People do exercise self-control and self-direction and if theyare committed to those goals.
Average human beings are willing to take responsibility andexercise imagination, ingenuity and creativity in solving theproblems of the organization.
That the way the things are organized, the average humanbeings brainpower is only partly used.
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Motivation Models/Theories
2. MaslowsHierarchy ofNeeds Theory
When one set ofneeds is satisfied,this kind of needceases to be a
motivator. Physiological Needs
Security or Safety Needs
Affiliation or Acceptance Needs
Esteem Needs
Need
For
Self-Actualization
Maslows hierarchy of
needs
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Motivation Models/Theories
3. Clayton Alderfers ERG Theory
People are motivated by existence needs,relatedness needs, and growth.
Existence - concerned mainly with providing basicmaterial existence.
Relatedness - individuals need to maintaininterpersonal relationship with other members in the
group. Growth - the intrinsic desire to grow and develop
personally.
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Motivation Models/Theories
4. FrederickHerzbergs Motivation-HygieneTheory
Satisfiersare motivators and are related to job contentwhile dissatisfiers, also called maintenance,
hygiene, or job-context factors, are not motivators. He states that presence of certain factors in the
organization is natural and the presence of the samedoes not lead to motivation. However, their nonpresence
leads to demotivation. In similar manner there are certain factors, the absence
of which causes no dissatisfaction, but their presencehas motivational impact.
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Motivation Models/Theories
Self-actualization
Esteem or status
Affiliation or
acceptance
Security or safety
Physiological needs
Motivators
Maintenancefactors
Challenging work
Achievement
Growth in the job
ResponsibilityAdvancement
Recognition
Status
Interpersonal relations
Quality of supervision
Company policy and administration
Job security
Salary
Maslows
Needs Hierarchy
Herzbergs
Two-factor theory
Comparison of Maslowsand Herzbergs theories of
motivation
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Motivation Models/Theories
5. Vrooms Expectancy Theory
People will be motivatedto do things to reacha goal if they believe in the worth of the goal
and if they can see that what they dowill helpthem in achievingit.
An employee can be motivated to perform betterwhen there is a belief that the better performance
will lead to good performance appraisal and thatthis shall result into realization of personal goal inform of some reward
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Motivation Models/Theories
Vrooms Expectancy Theory
Motivation = Valence x Expectancy
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Motivation Models/Theories
6. The Porter and Lawler Model Suggests that levels of motivation are based more on
the value that individuals place on the reward.
The components that effect motivation then, are called
valence(what's important to you) and expectancy(canyou do it).
Porter and Lawler suggest that perceived inequality inthis model plays a pivotal role in job
satisfaction. Motivation or effort leads toperformance. This performance is followed by intrinsicand extrinsic rewards. The perceived equity of thoserewards leads to satisfaction.
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Motivation Models/Theories
Value of
rewards
Perceived
Equitable
rewards
Extrinsic
rewards
Intrinsic
rewardsSatisfaction
Performance
accomplishment
Perception of
task required
Effort
Ability to do a
specified task
Perceived effort
and reward
probability
Adapted from L. W. Porter and E. E. Lawler, Managerial Attitudes and Performance (Homewood, IL: Richard D. Irwin, Inc.,
1968), p. 165.
Porter and Lawlersmotivation model
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Motivation Models/Theories
7. Equity Theory
Motivation is influenced by an individualssubjective judgment about thefairness of thereward he or she gets, relative to the inputs,
compared with the rewards of others.
Balance orimbalance
of rewards
More than
Equitable
reward
Equitable
reward
Inequitable
reward
Dissatisfaction
Reduced
output
Departure from
organization
Harder work
Reward
discounted
Continuationat same level
of output
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Motivation Models/Theories
Equity Theory
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Motivation Models/Theories
8. Goal SettingTheory of EdwinLocke
States that when thegoals to be achieved areset at a higher standard,employees are motivated
to perform better andput in maximum effort.
Setting
objectives
Control
and
Appraisal
Planning
Actions
Implementation
Objective setting for
motivation
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Motivation Models/Theories
9. Skinners Reinforcement Theory
Individuals can be motivated byproperdesign of their work environment and
bypraise for their performance, whilepunishmentforpoor performanceproduces negative results.
Hence, the only way to motivate is to keep onmaking positive changes in the externalenvironment of the organization.
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Motivation Models/Theories
10.David McClellands Needs Theory
a theory on three types of motivating needs
which are
o Need for Power
o Need for Affiliation
o Need for Achievement
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Motivation Models/Theories
People for high need forpowerare inclinedtowards influence andcontrol, like to be at the
center and are goodorators, demanding innature, forceful inmanners and ambitiousin life.
They can be motivated toperform if they are givenkey positions or powerpositions.
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Motivation Models/Theories
People who are socialinnature try to affiliatethemselves with individualsand groups, are driven by
love and faith, and like tobuild a friendlyenvironment aroundthemselves.
Social recognition andaffiliation with othersprovides them motivation.
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Motivation Models/Theories
People with the need ofachievementare driven by thechallenge of success and thefear of failure.
They set for themselvesmoderately difficult tasks, areanalytical in nature and takecalculated risks.
Such people are motivated toperform when they see atleastsome chances of success.
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Special Motivational Techniques
1. Intrinsic Motivation
Refers to motivation that is driven by aninterest or enjoyment in the task itself, andexists within the individual rather than relyingon any external pressure
It may include a feeling of accomplishmentand self-actualization.
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Special Motivational Techniques
2. Extrinsic Motivation
Comes from outside of the individual. Commonextrinsic motivations are rewards like money and
grades, coercion (the practice of forcing anotherparty to behave in an involuntary manner by useof threats, or rewards intimidation, or someother form of pressure or force), and threat ofpunishment.
Include benefits, recognition, status symbols, andmoney. Competition is in general extrinsicbecause it encourages the performer to win andbeat others, not to enjoy the intrinsic rewards ofthe activity.
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Leadership
Leadership is the art or process ofinfluencingpeople so that they will strivewillingly andenthusiasticallytoward theachievement of
group goals.
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Leadership
Good leaders are madenot born. If you have the
desire and willpower, you can become an effectiveleader. Good leaders develop through a neverending process of self-study, education, training,and experience.
- Jago, 1982
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Ingredients of Leadership
1. Power
2. A fundamental understanding of people
3. The ability to inspire followers to apply their fullcapabilities
4. The leaders style
5. The development of a conducive organizationalclimate
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Approaches to Leadership
(1) Trait Approach(2) Transformational and Transactional
Leadership
(3) Charismatic Leadership(4) Fiedlers Contingency Approach(5) Path-Goal Approach
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(1) Trait Approaches to Leadership
Ralph M. Stogdill found that various researchers hadidentified specific traits related to leadershipability such as:
5 physical traits (such as energy, appearance, and
height)4 intelligence and ability traits16 personality traits (such as adaptability,
aggressiveness, enthusiasm, and self-confidence),
6 task-related characteristics (such as achievementdrive, persistence, and initiative)9 social characteristics (such as cooperativeness,
interpersonal skills, and administrative ability)
( ) T f i l d T i l
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(2) Transformational and TransactionalLeadership Approaches
The transformational leadership style occurwhen one or more persons engage in such a way
that leaders and followers raise one another tohigher levels of motivation and morality. This isalmost like a synergy that might exist, wherebyeveryone gets raised to a higher level of
performance.
( ) T f i l d T i l
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(2) Transformational and TransactionalLeadership Approaches
Mahatma Gandhi (1869-1948) is a great example of atransformational leader
because he satisfied the needsof his followers. Instead ofriding those needs to power,he remained sensitive to ahigher purpose.
His vision of leadership went beyond himself. He believedin satisfying the needs of all that followed him.
( ) T f ti l d T ti l
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(2) Transformational and TransactionalLeadership Approaches
The transactional leadership theory,developed by Weber and Bass, is based on thehypothesis that followers are motivated through asystem of rewards and punishment.
The transactional leader's view of the leader -follower relationship is one of quid pro quo - or
this for that. If the follower does something good,then they will be rewarded. If the follower doessomething wrong, then they will be punished.
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(4) Fi dl C ti A h t
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(4) Fiedlers Contingency Approach toLeadership
People become leaders not only because of theirpersonality attributes but also because of varioussituational factors and the interactions between
leaders and group members.
Based on leadership style --- task-motivated andrelationship-motivatedand situation --- leader-
member relations, task structure, and positionpower.
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Leadership Styles Based on Use of Authority
1. Autocratic Leader He commands and expects compliance, is
dogmatic and positive, and leads by the abilityto withhold or give rewards and punishment.
2. Democratic or Participative Leader
He consultswith subordinates and encouragestheir participation.
3. Free-rein Leader He uses power very little, if at all, giving
subordinates a high degree of independence.
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Leadership Styles Based on Use of Authority
Autocratic
Leader
Follower Follower Follower
Democratic or
Participative
Leader
Follower Follower Follower
Free-rein
Leader
Follower Follower Follower
The flow of influence with three leadership
styles
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The Managerial Grid
A well-known approach to defining leadershipstyles is the managerial grid, developed decadesago by Robert Blake and Jane Mouton.
The managerial grid has two dimensions: concernfor people and concern for production.
Blake and Mouton recognizes five style: 1.1 style,9.9 style, 5.5 style, 1.9 style, and 9.1 style.
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The Managerial Grid
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The Managerial Grid
The five resulting leadership styles are as follows:
Impoverished Management (1, 1)
Managers with this approach are low on both dimensionsand exercise minimum effort to get the work done fromsubordinates.
The leader has low concern for employee satisfaction andwork deadlines and as a result, disharmony anddisorganization prevail within the organization.
The leaders are termed ineffective wherein their action ismerely aimed at preserving job and seniority.
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The Managerial Grid
Task management (9, 1) Leaders are more concerned about production and have less
concern for people.
The style is based on theory X of McGregor. The employees
needs are not taken care of and they are simply a means toan end.
The leader believes that efficiency can result only throughproper organization of work systems and through
elimination of people wherever possible. Such a style candefinitely increase the output of organization in short run
but due to the strict policies and procedures, high laborturnover is inevitable.
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The Managerial Grid
Middle-of-the-Road (5, 5)
Basically a compromising style wherein the leader tries to
maintain a balance between goals of company and the needsof people.
The leader does not push the boundaries of achievementresulting in average performance for organization.
Here neither employee nor production needs are fully met.
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The Managerial Grid
Country Club (1, 9)
This is a collegial style characterized by low task and highpeople orientation where the leader gives thoughtful
attention to the needs of people thus providing them with afriendly and comfortable environment.
The leader feels that such a treatment with employees willlead to self-motivation and will find people working hard ontheir own.
However, a low focus on tasks can hamper production andlead to questionable results.
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The Managerial Grid
Team Management (9, 9)
Characterized by high people and task focus, the style isbased on the theory Y of McGregor and has been termed asmost effective style according to Blake and Mouton.
The leader feels that empowerment, commitment, trust,and respect are the key elements in creating a teamatmosphere which will automatically result in high
employee satisfaction and production.
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Communication
The transfer of information from a
sender to a receiver, with theinformation being understoodby thereceiver.
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The Communication Process
Feedback
EncodingThought Transmission
of message Decoding
Understanding
Reception
ReceiverSender
A Communication Process Model
Noise
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The Purpose of Communication
1. To establish and disseminate the goals of anenterprise.
2. To develop plans for their achievement.
3. To organize human and other resources in themost effective and efficient way.4. To select, develop, and appraise members of an
organization.
5. To lead, direct, motivate, and create a climatein which people want to contribute.6. To control performance.
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The Communication Process
External environment: Customers Suppliers Stockholders
Governments Community Others
Communications
Planning Organizing Staffing Leading Controlling
The Management Process
The Purpose and Function of Communication
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Communication in an Organization
1. Downward Communication It flow from people at higher levels to those at lower
levelsin the organizational hierarchy.
2.Upward Communication Travelsfrom subordinates to superiors and continues
up the organizational hierarchy.
3. Crosswise Communication
It includes the horizontal flow of information (amongpeople on the same or similar organizational levels)and the diagonal flow of information (among peopleat different levelswho have no direct reportingrelationships with one another).
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Communication in an Organization
Horizontal
Upward
DownwardDiagonal
Information Flow in anOrganization
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Forms of Communication
1. Written Communication
Communication in written form Includes pictograms or visuals, letters,
memorandums, reports, text messages,electronic messages (e-mail).
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Forms of Communication
2. Oral or verbal Communication
Primarily refers to spoken verbalcommunication
Includes discussion, speeches, presentations,interpersonal communication and manyother varieties.
The body language and voice tonality plays
a significant role and may have a greaterimpact on the listener than the intendedcontent of the spoken words.
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Forms of Communication
3. Nonverbal Communication Describes the process of conveying meaning in
the form of non-word messages through e.g.gestures, body language, or posture; facial
expression and eye contact, objectcommunication such as clothing, hairstyles,architectures, symbols, and infographics, as wellas through an aggregate of the above.
Non-verbal communication is also called silentlanguage and plays a key role in human day today life.
h d
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Communication Methods
Primitive or conventional method regular mail (snail mail), morse code
Use of information technologywired and wireless telephone, fax machine, voice
mail, internet (for e-mail, chatting, etc),
teleconference , and videoconference
Tips for Improving Written
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p p gCommunication
Use simple words and phrases.
Use short and familiar words.
Use personal pronouns (such as you) whenever appropriate.
Give illustrations and examples; use charts.
Use short sentences and paragraphs.
Use active verbs, such as The managerplans
Avoid unnecessary words.
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Tips for Improving Oral Communication
Communicate with a large audience as you would do in a one-to-oneconversation.
Tell a story, an anecdote, and give examples.
Pausedo not rush. In a discussion, a pause shows that you arelistening.
Use visual aids such as diagrams, charts, overhead slides, andcomputer graphic presentations.
Communicate confidence and create trust. This can be done by strongand clear voice, good posture, and a smile.
Use a colorful, specific language and show through your bodylanguage that you are confident and are in command of the situation.