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179

Index

ABG. See Autonomous Bougainville Government (ABG)

activist role, interest in increasing, 81affinity fraud, 117Afghanistan, 151, 158agenda of intervention activities, 3–4Akoitai, Sam, 35, 171allowances to Bougainvilleans

attending peace meetings, 83ammunition, from WWII weapon

dumps, 25–26Arawa, 30, 65, 171

as capital, 13Arawa Agreement, 67n6armed roadblocks, 111. See also

roadblocksAropa, 49AusAID, 104–05, 153, 175advisers, 160and statebuilding, 159Australia, 172

administration of Bougainville after WWII, 10

in Bougainville, 168Department of Defense, 68Department of Foreign Affairs and

Trade, 143humanitarian and development

assistance, 75interagency committees, 81participation preparation for long

term, 76and peace talks, 29personnel commitment by, 162responsibility for conflict, 58senior diplomat roles, 64suspicion of, 57–58, 79, 154, 163UN mandate over former German

New Guinea, 9Austronesian languages, 8

Autonomous Bougainville Government (ABG), 90, 131–32, 176

authority, 101communications, 142Constitution, 147elections, Ona and, 113–14elections delay possibility and

weapons disposal, 97establishing and operating, 99–102expectations, 109funding from PNG, 100–01legislature seats for former

combatants, 98local pressure on, 160MGU partnership with, 140relations with PNG government,

103–04role of, 124second election results, 126n5transfer of functions and powers to,

102–03UN mission and election delay, 93

Autonomous Region of Bougainville, 7. See also Bougainville

autonomyBougainville Peace Agreement

(2001) on, 90–91and referendum, 148

Barter, Peter, 171BCC (Bougainville Constitutional

Commission), 99, 174, 175BCL. See Bougainville Copper Ltd

(BCL)betel nut juice, 36–37BIG. See Bougainville Interim

Government (BIG)bipartisan parliamentary committee,

56blockade of Bougainville, 22, 25, 170

Regan_Light Intervention_3A.indb 179 8/23/10 3:52:26 PM

© Copyright by the Endowment of the United States Institute of Peace

180 Index

Bougainvillearrival of first humans, 8, 167BRA control, 22Christianity in, 37chronology, 167–77colonial control, 9culture and identity, 11–13demilitarization of, 95–99disparate organizations, 60divisions among residents, 45–52geography, history, and culture,

7–10geopolitical situation, 163goal of political autonomy, 15languages, xiiimaps, xi, xii, xivduring peace process, 1997–2010,

xvipolitical options for, 86–87relations with PNG government,

126–27sea and air blockade, 22, 25, 170state building, 159terrain, 67in WWII, 9–10

Bougainville Agreement (1976), 169Bougainville conflict

crisis point, 20–24dimensions, 24, 85–88history of, 5localized conflict 2005 to 2008,

95–96origins, 17–20

Bougainville Constituent Assembly, 99, 175

Bougainville Constitutional Commission (BCC), 99, 174, 175

Bougainville Copper Agreement, 116review process, 117

Bougainville Copper Ltd (BCL), 13, 168

demand for compensation payment from, 19

grievances of employees, 18local culture and, 136property destruction, 169

Bougainville Elections Act 2007, 100Bougainville Electoral Commission,

100Bougainville Ex-combatants Trust

Account, 174Bougainville Freedom Fighters,

122–23attack on Musingku’s headquarters,

120, 124Bougainville Interim Government

(BIG), 22, 142, 170planned ambush on leaders, 46pressure for negotiations, 54and UDI, 42

Bougainville Interim Provincial Government (BIPG), 173

and compromise, 52Bougainville kina (currency), 120Bougainville Mining Ltd, 168Bougainville Peace Agreement (2001),

27, 45, 88–93ABG established by, 52on autonomy for Bougainville,

90–91chronology, 173constitutional amendments to

implement, 147demilitarization, 91embedding implementation

incentives, 92–93implementation, 94–104legitimacy, 40negotiating teams for, 56negotiations, 62, 85police personnel since

implementation, 124



Index 181

protecting agreements from unilateral change, 92

referendum on independence, 88–90

and weapons disposal, 107Bougainville People’s Congress

(BPC), 45, 60, 172negotiating position, 86Bougainville Provincial Council of

Women, 99Bougainville Reconciliation

Government, 44, 172Bougainville Resistance Forces

(BRF), 24, 170disbanding, 91, 98opposition to independence, 42pressure for negotiations, 54

Bougainville Revolutionary Army (BRA), 20–21, 142, 169

company areas, 1996–97, xvcontrol of Bougainville, 22disbanding, 98goals for disbanding, 91in local conflicts, 23as loosely linked groups, 23mercenaries for defeating, 33planned ambush on leaders, 46pressure for negotiations, 54tension between MDF and, 111and UDI, 42weapons held by, 97

Bougainville Transitional Government (BTG), 31

opposition to independence, 42pressure for negotiations, 54

Bougainville Transitional Team (BTT), 71, 174, 175

British Commonwealth, PNG in, 29n2

British Solomon Islands Protectorate (BSIP), 167, 168

Buin, 9, 124

intra-BRA conflict, 122localized conflict in, 121

Buin Town, 65Buka, 8, 167Buka Island, local government, 50Buka Town, 13, 31, 65

PNGDF forced landing, 23Burnham, New Zealand, 41, 64Burnham Declaration of July 18,

1997, 42, 72Burnham Truce, 43, 57, 84

Cairns talks, 29, 32, 57, 64Cambodia, 149Canberra talks, 64Catholic missionaries, 9cease-fire, 30–31, 44

in March 1990, 21–22monitoring reports, 61

ceremoniesto mark conflict end, 36–37payments to facilitate, 83

Chan, Julius, 33, 54, 171replacement, 34–35

“chief negotiator”, 68chief secretaries, 60“chiefs”, in conflict resolution, 38–39Christianity, in Bougainville, 37chronology for Bougainville, 167–77church leaders, in conflict resolution,

38–39civilian officials

cooperation with military, 155personal relationships, 164roles in TMG and PMG, 68shared responsibility with military,

151clan-based family group, 11coalitions

conflicts with loose, 140–44patience for developing, 141

cocoa production, 122



182 Index

combatant groupsinclusion in political structure, 60peace agreement on disbanding,

98Commonwealth Secretariat, 29n2communications, 142

environment for improving, 82community support for Ona, 48–49compensation, in local

reconciliation process, 36compromise

pressure for, 52on referendum, 89

conflict, 137conflict resolution

international community role in, 150

women’s roles, 139consensus decision-making, 12

achieving, 37developing, 36

Constitution for Autonomous Region of Bougainville, 138, 147

constitution-making, contribution to peace process, 146–47

context, 149, 152culture as part, 135–36importance of, 134–35

Conzinc Riotinto Australia Ltd (CRA), 13, 58, 168

copper mines, 13credibility, of Ona, 113culture

of Bougainville, 11–13as part of context, 135–36of reconciliation, 163–64

currency, from Musingku, 120customs, as status of law, 11

death, of Ona, 49deaths, in armed conflict, 26decision-making, by consensus, 12

demilitarization of Bougainville, 95–99

Peace Agreement provision for, 91democratic political systems of

western Europe, 137dependence, on international

intervention, 165development assistance, 75–76disarmament of Bougainvilleans, 91.

See also weaponsdivisions

among pro-integration dissidents, 50–52

among pro-secessionists, 47–50taking account of, 53

donor funding arrangements, unintended consequences, 82–83

Downer, Alexander, 88–89, 173, 174

East Timor, 90, 151economic change, from mining, 14economic development, 75, 158

in south Bougainville, 122elections

for ABG, 100in July 1997, 35

employment, need for preferential treatment, 19

Endeavour Accord, 170Enhanced Cooperation Program,

158environmental impact of mining, 18Europe

democratic political systems, 137humanitarian and development

assistance, 75European explorers, first arrival in

Bougainville, 8, 167exit date, debate in Australian

bureaucracy, 70exit strategies, 2



Index 183

“feeder roads”, 76Fiji, 80, 172

security force from, 30, 66, 119Fiji mercenaries, pressure for armed

action against, 131foreign-owned plantations, 10fragility, sources and signs of, 46–47France, 149Fukuyama, Francis, 159funding

for ABG from PNG, 100–01allocation for local initiatives, 153from Australia and New Zealand,

64for infrastructure development,

76international availability, 83managing impacts, 157–60for UN-DPA monitoring, 73unintended negative

consequences, 157

gas, request for function transfer to ABG, 103

generational split in leadership, 19German New Guinea, 8, 9, 167, 168gold, Ona’s purchase of, 112gold mines, 13governance, pattern of, 12Government and Implementation

Fund (GIF), 105Great Britain, 167Guadalcanal, 9, 168

Hallett, David, 82Hayes, John, 30, 42health care, 68homemade weapons, 25Hong Kong, 150Honiara Declaration, 170humanitarian assistance, 75–76

identity, formation, 11–12identity of Bougainville, 11–13mining and politicization of, 13–15independence of Bougainville

Ona efforts for, 47–50opposition to, 42Peace Agreement provision for

referendum, 88–90referendum, 87unilateral declaration (UDI), 15,

22, 169, 170Indonesia, Papua provinces, 7informal peace process, 36–41infrastructure development,

funding for, 76institutional framework, for peace

process decisions, 61integration of Bougainville with

Papua New Guinea, 86international activism, factors

moderating, 76–79International Committee of the Red

Cross, 34, 75international community

humanitarian and development assistance, 75

interest in context, 149involvement, 63local groups’ tolerance of roles,

52–53vs. local ownership, 144most important service provided,

82in peace initiatives, 30policymakers and representatives’

assumptions, 2–3and referendum, 90role, 2role after PMG and UN

departures, 104–08role in conflict resolution, 150

international intervention



184 Index

activities necessary to establish and maintain, 64–65

agenda of, 3–4and BRA and BRF, 123dependence on, 131, 165dividing responsibilities, 154–55inclusion of all parties, 152integration with local

management of peace process, 84

internal aspect of planning and managing, 80–83

leadership for, 151–52legitimacy and sustainability, 145request by local personnel, 162shortcomings, 129–32wariness by parties of, 56–57

Iraq, 158

Japan, 168Joint Supervisory Body (JSB), 94,

101, 104, 176

Kabui, Joseph, 47–50, 115, 125, 176death, 176Ona reassertion against, 55

Kanak separatists, 149Kaputin, John, 169Kauona, Sam, 21, 25Kieta, 9Konnou, BRA element from, 122

land disputes, 121landowners

arrangements in mine-lease area, 18–19

mining impact, 14languages

in Bougainville, xiiiin Papua New Guinea, 7

leadershipdivisions among, 45–46

heredity element, 12for international intervention,

151–52opportunities to support

moderate, 143of peacebuilding exercises, 158

Leitana Council of Elders, 50“light footprint” intervention, 2,

161–66downside to, 131and flexibility, 156–57

Lincoln Agreement of 1998, 44–45, 84, 172

PMG requested in annex, 67Lincoln talks, 64local capacity, for developing

original solutions to problems, 147–49

local control, 2local dynamics, 144–50local knowledge, personnel with,

152local leaders, inclusion in peace

talks, 56local peace process, intervention

designed to support, 150–51local population, role in reform, 159local processes, supporting, 144–50localized conflict

2005 to 2008 in Bougainville, 95–96

efforts for reconciliation 2007–08, 125

likelihood after UN mission departure, 130–31

in South Bougainville, 121–26, 165

Loloho, 67

Mackinnon, Don, 42Maori population, in New Zealand, 77



Index 185

mapsBougainville, xi, xiiPapua New Guinea, xiiSolomon Islands, xii

marginalization of women, 139matrilineal groups, 11McKinnon, Don, 78mediation, 37–38

by unarmed peacekeepers, 156Me’ekamui Defense Force (MDF),

48, 70disbanding, 91and Ona, 111–12in Siwai local conflicts, 124tension between BRA and, 111and weapons disposal, 95–96, 129weapons held by, 123

Me’ekamui Government of Unity (MGU), 115

partnership with ABG, 140Me’ekamui/MDF support areas, 48Me’ekamui Republic, 48, 107, 110,

140, 172announcement of, 55factions in peace process, 114–17transformation into Royal

Kingdom, 113Melanesia, 11

Australia vs. New Zealand sphere of influence in, 77–78

culture, 7, 163–64mercenaries

PNG government use of, 32–33, 171

problems from using, 47Methodist church, 9micronationalist movements, in

PNG, 59n33military personnel. See also

individual groupscooperation with civilians, 155

shared responsibility with civilians, 151

from Tonga, Fiji, Vanuatu, 30mine-lease landowners

association, 19internal disputes, 18

miningclosure, 20earnings from, 14and politicization of Bougainville

identity, 13–15property destruction, 20request for function transfer to

ABG, 103Miriung, Theodore, 31, 171

assassination, 32relationship to Akoitai, 35

mission creep, 151Miyamura, Hiroko, 31moderation, 164Momis, John, 50, 51, 126, 172, 177Morauta, Mekere, 89, 173, 174Morgan Junction, 49, 110–11, 115multiparty conflict, 1Musingku, Noah, 112–13, 114, 117,

142chronology, 172, 173, 174, 176, 177current role, 120discussion of possible pardon, 126evasion of arrest, 118pressure for armed action against,

131security for, 119as threat to peace and security,

120

Namaliu, Rabbie, 169, 170Namibia, 149National Executive Council, 60nationalism, 59negotiations

inclusive teams, 143–44



186 Index

institutional architecture of, 27pressure for, 54–55representation at, 55–56war weariness and, 34

Nepal, 149Nesbitt, Rex James, 175neutrality, 153–54

of New Zealand, 78New Caledonia, 149New Panguna Landowners

Association, 169New Zealand, 30, 58, 172

and Australian involvement, 77–78

financial and logistical burdens of TMG, 78

humanitarian and development assistance, 75

interagency committees, 81Lincoln University, 44in peace initiatives, 41–45personnel commitment by, 162role as facilitator, 79security force from, 66senior diplomat roles, 64

New Zealand Aid, 104and statebuilding, 159

New Zealand-Australia Resource Group, representatives, 80–81

no-go-zoneAusAID personnel barred from,

143basic services restored, 115, 177lack of basic services, 112Musingku relocation to, 118road into, 111of TMG and PMG, 49weapons in, 96

North Solomons Provincial Government (NSPG), 169

Northern Ireland, 148Noumea Accord of 1998, 149

NSPG (North Solomons Provincial Government), 169

Office of Bougainville Affairs, 60oil, request for function transfer to

ABG, 103Ona, Francis

as BRA political leader, 21, 34chronology, 169, 172, 174, 175community support for, 48–49credibility of, 113death, 49, 114, 115, 176efforts for independence, 47–50exclusion and resentment, 153expectation of peace process

failure, 46independence declaration, 22as leader of landowners

association, 19negotiations with, 29and peace process, 70, 110reassertion against Kabui, 55support for Musingku, 118support from armed groups, 20and unarmed TMC, 68

Orami Village, 20order, maintaining, 12Organic Law on Peace-Building in

Bougainville, 92Organic Law on Provincial

Government, 169ownership, local, 144–50

Panguna, 13district office creation, 115mine, 33, 58, 134

Panguna Communiqué, 115, 140, 143, 176

Panguna Landowners Association, 169

Panguna mining agreements, 116



Index 187

Papala, Kingdom of, 113, 114, 118–19

Papua New Guinea (PNG), 1Bougainville integration, 9Bougainville parties compromise

with government, 86Bougainville relations with

government, 126–27concerns over sovereignty and

secession, 59constitution, 52control over Bougainville, 24government as coalition, 140government leadership changes, 35importance to Australian security,

76languages, 7maps, xiimicronationalist movements,

59n33National Constitution

amendments, 92, 94peace initiatives, 169planned ambush on BRA/BIG

leaders, 46pressure for negotiations, 54relations with ABG government,

103–04and UN mission, 73withdrawal of security forces, 95

Papua New Guinea Defense Force (PNGDF), 21, 171

forced landing in Buka Town, 23in initiation of mid-1997 dialogue,

32patience, 141patrilineal societies, in Papua New

Guinea, 11Patupatuai, weapon dumps, 25peace, commitment to, 123peace conference, plans for 1994, 30“peace dividend”, 75, 82–83, 157

peace initiativesfoundation for peace process, 32success or failure assessment,

141–42Peace Melanesia, 39Peace Monitoring Group (PMG),

44, 65Bougainville opposition to

departure plans, 165cessation of operations, 70limited local knowledge of

military commanders, 151official responsibility, 67operation under “Protocol”, 65n2presence in Bougainville, 82tensions between UN mission

and, 74women in monitoring teams, 69

peace processbasic components needed, 43–44Bougainville during, xviconstitution-making contribution

to, 146–47context of, 134engaging all groups, 142–43formal steps, 41–45fragility, 45–52framework for managing, 61–62informal, 36–41key aspects of internal dynamics,

52–59management, 59–62opposition to, 28origins, 29–35progress 2001 to 2005, 109significance, 1spoilers, 110–14

Peace Process Consultative Committee (PPCC), 61

UN office as chair, 72Peace Process Steering Committee

(PPSC), 62, 80



188 Index

peacebuildingleadership of, 158local reconciliation and, 53unarmed personnel in, 156

Pipiro, Moses, 113plantation laborers, 1950s and later,

10plantations, foreign-owned, 10police

brutal behavior of mobile squads, 20

delegation of control to provincial government, 102

as service vs. force, 138political negotiations, 85–88Ponzi scheme, 112–13, 117, 172, 173Port Moresby, 7

New Zealand and Australian resource group in, 43

PPCC (Peace Process Consultative Committee), 61, 72

PPSC (Peace Process Steering Committee), 62, 80

precedents, importance of, 149–50precolonial social structures,

reliance on, 39preferential employment treatment,

Bougainville rights to, 18presence, importance of, 81–82pro-integration dissidents

divisions among, 50–52pressure for negotiations, 54

public sector reform, 159

reciprocity, 12reconciliation, 121

Christian-influenced processes, 136

culture of, 163–64efforts in Bougainville, 28local, and peacebuilding, 53ongoing efforts, 128–29

reconciliation ceremonies, 36payments to facilitate, 83

reconciliation government for Bougainville, 44

divisions over method of creating, 50

legislative blocking of establishment, 50–51

Red Cross, 34, 75“red-skins”, 13, 20referendum on integration vs.

independence, 87and autonomy, 148compromise, 89

reform, local population role in, 159refugee camps, 26Regional Assistance Mission to

Solomon Islands, 158relationships, restoration, 36Restoration and Development

Grant, 127Richards, Jeffrey, 175road projects, 75–76, 105roadblocks, 49, 111

AusAID-funded contractors movement through, 116

by MDF elements, 124Roreinang, meeting at, 55

Sandline International, 32–33, 171problems from, 47

secessionists, 20, 86divisions among, 47–50PNG concerns about, 59, 127pressure for negotiations, 54tensions from, 109unsustainable position, 34

separatist conflict, 1Seventh-Day Adventist church, 9Sinclair, Noel, 74, 88, 164, 174, 175Siwai, 124

localized conflict in, 121



Index 189

Skate, Bill, 35, 42, 171, 173social impact of mining, 18social structures, resilience of, 36Solomon Islands, 7, 8, 80, 151, 167

maps, xiisenior diplomat roles, 64talks in, 30

South Bougainville, localized conflict in, 121–26, 165

South Pacific Peace Keeping Force (SPPKF), 30

sovereignty, PNG concerns about, 59

Sri Lanka, 149state

inherent difficulties in building, 158–60

struggles for control, 146state authority, absence of, 39Stenbock, Thor, 74, 175Storey, Sarah, 89Strongim Gavman Program, 158suspicion, 60

of Australian intent, 57–58, 79, 154, 163

Tanis, James, 176election as president, 125–26telecommunications, 67tensions

conditions with potential to increase, 109

factors reducing in 2009, 126terrain of Bougainville, 67Timor Leste, 149Tonga, military personnel from, 30Tonu, 65, 111

roadblock, 119Torokina, 168

U.S. Marines’ landing, 10weapon dumps, 25, 96, 97–98,

106–07, 130

Townsville talks, 64traditions, importance of restoring,

39transportation needs, 68truce, monitoring reports, 61Truce Monitoring Group (TMG),

43, 65limited local knowledge of

military commanders, 151New Zealand’s limited resourcing

of, 77official responsibility, 67significance of presence, 46as unarmed body, 68, 148women in monitoring teams, 69

trust, environment for building, 82“twin kingdoms agreement”, 118,

175

Uganda Constitution of 1995, 150Ugubakobu, 111Uma, Chris, 113, 115, 116unarmed personnel, in

peacekeeping mechanisms, 156UNDP/Australian Agency for

International Development project, 75

unification, ongoing efforts, 127–29Unilateral Declaration of

Independence (UDI) of Bougainville, 15, 22, 169, 170

United NationsBRA/BIG proposal for role, 73importance of involvement, 154involvement in Cairns talks, 57original official mandate, 72

United Nations Department of Political Affairs, 31

United Nations Development Program (UNDP), 75

office in Bougainville, 105–06and statebuilding, 159



190 Index

and weapons disposal, 128United Nations monitoring mission,

71United Nations Observer Mission

Bougainville (UNOMB), 2, 71–75and ABG elections, 93arrangements for involvement, 81chronology, 172departure, 28level of proactivity, 68as pressure on Me’ekamui

government, 124suspected bias, 153verification of second stage of

weapon disposal, 96–97United Nations Political Office in

Bougainville (UNPOB), 172United Nations Trust Territory of

New Guinea, 10United States Marines, landing at

Torokina, 10United States State Department, role

in weapons recovery and destruction, 106–07, 177

U-Vistract Ponzi scheme, 112–13, 117, 172, 173

Vanuatu, 7, 80, 172security force from, 30, 66Vendrell, Francisc, 31, 73villagers, in BRA-controlled areas, 34violence

factors reducing in 2009, 126impact on consensus building, 38and positive impacts, 136–38

Wakunai, 65war weariness, and negotiations, 34Warner, Nick, 89weapons

assumptions in implementing disposal process, 129–30

availability to monitoring teams, 70disposal, 91, 95, 107–08, 128–29,

174, 177linking decommissioning with

electoral steps, 148MDF use of, 110–11official completion of disposal

process, 109pressure to dispose of, 93sources of, 25–26in south Bougainville, 123–24theft of, 111UN mission role in containment

and destruction, 72U.S. role in recovery and

destruction, 106–07Wingti, Paias, 170, 171women in Bougainville, 11

in BCC, 99group leaders in conflict resolution,

39inclusion in TMG and PMG

monitoring teams, 69peacemaking roles, 40, 41, 139–40

World War II, 168conflict in Bougainville, 9–10weapons from, 25, 96, 97–98,

106–07, 123



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