How can I know how to punctuate?

1. Clauses

Clauses and Punctuation

Commas are necessary for comprehension.

In order to know when to use commas, it is important to understand clauses.

Understand Clauses

An independent clause can stand alone.

A dependent Clause needs an independent clause to be a sentence.› Dependent clauses begin with

subordinating conjunctions› After, although, as, because, if, once,

since, etc.

Examples of Independent Clauses

I went to class at 3:00. Meet me at 8:00. The doctor’s office was closed.

Why are these Independent clauses?

Examples of Dependent Clauses

When you went to the store Considering the latest developments Until you begin the task Sometimes if the pegs aren’t in the

right order

Why are these dependent clauses?

Which clause is dependent?

I traveled to Florida although I didn’t have much money.

What punctuation is needed?

Why?

What if there are two independent clauses?

I went to the store and I bought lots of groceries.

What punctuation is needed?

These two independent clauses are joined by a coordinating conjunction (and).Each independent clause can stand alone.

It is important to recognize a coordinating conjunction from a subordinating conjunction.

The library book that I checked out is due soon.

The library book is due soon and I think I owe a fine.

Kind of conjunction and Punctuation?

Subordinating ConjunctionsA subordinating conjunction joins a subordinate (dependent) clause to main (independent) clause

after how till ( or 'til) although if unless as inasmuch until as if in order that when as long as lest whenever as much as now that where as soon as provided (that) wherever as though since while because so that before than even if that even though though

What do Relative Pronouns Have to do with punctuation?

They introduce dependent clauses and relate to a noun already named in the sentence.› (That, which, what, who, whoever, etc.)

› EX: Sometimes the classes that I want are full.

Is punctuation needed?

Remember--

Subordinating conjunctions and relative pronouns (That, which, what, who, whoever, etc.) make clauses dependent.

Restrictive (essential) vs. Non-Restrictive (essential) Clauses

A RESTRICTIVE/essential clause is a clause that restricts the meaning of the sentence.

› EX: I looked at the car that had been in an accident and concluded an insurance appraisal was needed.

› EX: Please take the package that hasn’t been opened with you to the office.

Non-Restrictive/Non-Essential Clauses

A non-restrictive/essential clause doesn’t restrict the meaning of the sentence.

› EX: The officer, who lives in Lincoln, accepted the award.

› EX: The book, which I read last year, is very good.

Punctuating Clauses

Restrictive/essential clauses do not have commas around them.› EX: The car that was $30,000 was sold off

the lot. Non-restrictive/essential clauses need

commas. EX: The car that I bought, which has GPS, is parked in the driveway.

Punctuating Compound Sentences

How to determine a compound sentenceAsk: Is there a coordinating conjunction and

does the sentence contain at least two independent clauses?

1. You would use a comma with a coordinating conjunction.

2. You can sometimes substitute a semicolon for a coordinating conjunction.

Examples

She created the program and she led the team.

I think that the issue is clear it also may have multiple outcomes.

What punctuation is needed?

Conjunctive adverbs in compound sentences

Clauses in compound sentences are often linked by the conjunctive adverb (consequently, however, moreover, besides, nevertheless, on the other hand, in fact, therefore, thus)

If they are, you need a semicolon before the conjunctive adverb.

Example

The firm has had a change in management; therefore, we are not sure what we should do.

It is clear that we should fix the error; moreover, we are expected to do it.

Punctuating Complex Sentences

Complex sentences contain both an independent and dependent clause.

There may be no punctuation between the clauses, or they may be separated by a comma.

Examples

EX: Although we don’t have to, we should correct the error.

--An introductory clause with a subordinating conjunction is followed by a comma.

Restrictive/Essential Clauses

Restrictive/essential clauses are essential; they restrict the meaning of the term they modify. No comma is needed.

EX: Schools that let out early are diminishing student opportunities for learning.

Questions?

Non-Restrictive/essential Clauses

Non-Restrictive/essential clauses add additional information but do not restrict the meaning of the term it modifies.

EX: The detective, who was tall and handsome, took down my statement.

Punctuating Phrases, I

Series Commas› Series: A list in a sentence of 3 or more

items

Separate by commas, “and” preceding the final item

EX: Please put the cups, jars, and plates in the cabinet. CMS—Comma should appear before conjunction.

Punctuating Phrases, II

More on serial commas

Serial comma important when one item includes conjunction

EX: Registering for classes includes knowing your major requirements, understanding the registrar’s rules and regulations, and making your appointment time.

Punctuating phrases II Series Commas and SemicolonsWhen would you use semicolons in a

series?› When items in the series have parts that

are separated by commas. (Also, CMS 6.21(internal punctuation or long, complex)

› EX: Elected to the council were Mark Roberts, 19, a sophomore from Miami, Fla.; Suzanne Idley, 20, a junior from Nashville, Tenn.; and Alberto Greenberg, 21, a senior from Hartford, Conn.

Commas and Coordinate Adjectives

When adjectives in a series modify a noun—› Use a comma between the adjectives but

not before the noun.

› EX: The newer, more avant garde films are in vogue.

Punctuation and Parallelism

Parallelism--related items share a grammatical structure.

› EX: The responsibility of the cook is creating the recipe, cooking the food, and supervising the staff.

Faulty Parallelism

When the structure of items in a series shifts

EX: She spent the day visiting all the tourist shops and watched the children on the beach, and then she went back to the hotel for a late lunch.

What will improve this sentence?

Introductory & Interrupting Phrases

Introductory Phrases are usually followed by a comma unless they are quite short.

EX: For those with permission statements, the rules are fairly easy.

› Whenever you open with an introductory clause, you should consider using a comma. With a short introductory phrase, the comma is often omitted.

› EX: After dinner the children returned to the yard.

Apostrophes What do they do?

› Show possession or contraction EX: Dawn’s thesis EX: They’re the wrong kind.

Common Confusion:› It’s (contraction of “It is” & Its (possessive

pronoun)› Plural Possessives: “the companies’ rules”

More on Apostrophes

› Remember: The plurals of years, abbreviations and some proper names don’t take apostrophes (Also CMS 7.15): 1940s FBIs CMS lists the following holidays as singular possessives: Mother’s Day, Father’s Day, New Year’s Eve, New Year’s Day. Plural possessive is used for Presidents’ Day

What about hyphens?

A hyphen shows that two words function as a unit. › En dash—used where a hyphen addresses

editorial or typographic confusion (CMS 6.80)

Because of inconsistencies (cross section/cross-reference), you often need to consult a dictionary or style manual to see if the phrase uses a hyphen.

CMS Helpful Guide on Hyphens

7.90 arranges the guide by:› Type › Compounds formed with specific terms

(use of “all”– all out, all-American)› Words formed with prefixes

(minivan)

General Hyphen Advice:Noun forms of hyphens

Noun forms of compound terms tend to be open or solid (no hyphen).

EX: problem solving, bookkeeping

CMS: pgs. 299-300 offers some help, such as inserting a hyphen when it makes for easier reading (7.85).

Hyphens with noun- adjective combinations, Pt. 1

--Noun forms that are formed by a noun and an adjective are more likely to be hyphenated or solid.› EX: Self-treatment, self-service

But there are exceptions.› EX: patient services

If unsure, check dictionary or style manual. (CMS suggests dictionary first.)

Hyphens with Adjective Pt. II

Compound adjectives are hyphenated if they precede the word modified and if they are formed in these ways:

› Adjective or noun + past participle EX: green-tinted glass

› Noun + present participle EX: interest-bearing account

Hyphens w/ Adjectives, Pt III

Compounds› With all, half, high, low (low-rise

apartments)› With well if they precede noun (well-done

paper)

Numerals› Compound adjectives when they precede

the noun they modify (two-story house)

Hyphens w/Adjectives, Pt IV

When a number is part of a compound adjective, hyphenate it when it precedes the modifying noun.› EX: “four-course meal”

BUT not for predicate adjectives.› EX: The road is two miles long.

Hyphenate spelled-out fractions.› EX: two-thirds of the students

Hyphens w/Adjectives, Pt V

Color terms› Does the color term modify another color?

EX: Reddish brown sunset (No hyphen)› Are the color terms equally important?

EX: mauve-brown color scheme (hyphenate)› Is there a combination term that works

together as a unit? EX: black-and-white photo

Bottom Line:

If unsure about hyphen use, consult dictionary or style manual.

Dashes

Can show a break in thought,› Or provide emphasis.

Dashes also signal to the reader additional information at the end of a sentence, helping the reader to interpret the significance of the primary information in a sentence.

Dashes

Em dash—› Length of 2 hyphens w/out space around

them 1. Can substitute for parentheses 2. Show a break in thought 3. Provide emphasis 4. Can signal additional information at end

of sentence

Dashes—substitute for parentheses

An em dash—the length of two hyphens without space around them-- can substitute for parentheses, a break in thought, or provide emphasis.› Above sentence –dash substitutes for

parentheses.

Parentheses

When parentheses enclose an entire sentence, include ending punctuation—› EX: They finally said (why couldn't they › have admitted it earlier?) that she had

been there. When parentheses enclose only part of

a sentence, punctuations goes outside.› EX: Some of the local store owners (Mr.

Kwan and Ms. Lawson, for example) insisted that the street be widened

Quotation Marks

Quotation marks should go outside a comma or period but inside a semicolon or colon.› EX: She told the attendant she was

“completely satisfied,” according to her recollection.

› EX: She told the attendant she was “completely satisfied”; although, she later filed the lawsuit.

Ellipsis Points

Three spaced periods Indicate some words have been

omitted› EX: The First Amendment provides that

"Congress shall make no law respecting . . . the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances."

Also see CMS: 11.51-11.61.

Ellipses--CMS—3 dot vs. 5 dot

Three-Dot Method (legal works, textual commentary & works that require frequent reference to quoted material.

› Appropriate for most general works & many scholarly works. In this method 3 dots indicate an omission

within a quoted sentence. 4 dots mark the omission of one or more

sentences.

Questions?

Signaling Additional InformationEX: Some state prison systems apply the

policy of risk-group screening for AIDS only to pregnant women—a very small number of inmates.

More Examples

The project will end January 15—unless the company provides additional funds.

The job will be done—after we are under contract.

Only one person—the president—can authorize such activity.

Sentence Fragments

The important element in the lecture the basis of the final conclusions.

Creating the artwork preventing any mistakes.

Run-on Sentences

I left the field it was too wet. The program didn’t fix the problem it

only made it worse. Creating the graph presenting it

making right.

Writing Introductions

Indicates the direction the document will take

Shapes reader’s approach to material Announces topic Clarifies main points

Writing Conclusions

Doesn’t contain an argument Sums up Reflects on Reaffirms main idea

Questions?

Overview—What others see

Copymarks› Show where changes need to be made to

make the document correct, consistent, accurate, and complete.

Marginal Notes› To author (au: Correct?› To typesetter/production specialist (comp:

set rom)

Overview—what we look for

Are those groups of words punctuated as sentences actual sentences?

Is the punctuation complete? Do subjects and verbs agree in

number? Do pronouns agree with referents? Do modifiers attach logically to the

word or phrase they modify?

More of what we look for

Are words spelled and capitalized correctly and consistently?

Are numbers spelled or in figures? Is identifying information, such as

running headers, in the same place on every page?

Accuracy

Check data including dates, numbers, etc

Check words including names, titles, terms, abbreviations, quotations

Check organizational information—table of contents, index, etc.

Focusing on Consistency

Look for consistency in the document.› Verbal (meanings and arrangements of

words) Semantics (meaning). Does the author use

one term of something in one place and then a different term elsewhere?

Syntax (structure). Is there parallel structure where you see related terms, phrases of sentences?

Cont.

Syntax, cont.› Series of steps in a procedure should be

worded alike.

Style (word choice, sentence patterns, writer’s voice)› No mixing of formal language with casual

language› Shifts in person

Visual consistency

Typography consistency› Do parallel parts of a document use the

same typeface and style? Are variations in headings consistent?

Layout› Is the amount of space below a heading

the same throughout?› Is indentation used for all paragraphs?

Mechanical Consistency

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