Classification of Living Things o Humans and many other animals are vertebrates Characterized by a...

Classification of Living Thingso Humans and many other animals are vertebrates

• Characterized by a segmented vertebral column

o Common characteristics suggest the same path in evolution

Homeostasiso The goal of physiological regulation and the key to survival

in a changing environment

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

Anatomy o Is the oldest medical science

• 1600 B.C. Physiology

o Is the study of function

• Biochemistry• Biology• Chemistry• Genetics


Anatomyo Describes the structures of the body

• What they are made of

• Where they are located

• Associated structures

Physiologyo Is the study of:

• Functions of anatomical structures

• Individual and cooperative functions


Anatomyo Gross anatomy, or macroscopic anatomy, examines

large, visible structures • Surface anatomy: exterior features

• Regional anatomy: body areas

• Systemic anatomy: organ systems

• Developmental anatomy: from conception to death

• Clinical anatomy: medical specialties


Anatomy

o Microscopic anatomy examines cells and molecules

• Cytology: study of cells and their structures

• cyt- = cell

• Histology: study of tissues and their structures


Physiologyo Cell physiology: processes within and between cells

o Organ physiology: functions of specific organs

o Systemic physiology: functions of an organ system

o Pathological physiology: effects of diseases


The Chemical (or Molecular) Levelo Atoms are the smallest chemical units o Molecules are a group of atoms working together

The Cellular Levelo Cells are a group of atoms, molecules, and organelles

working together

The Tissue Level o A tissue is a group of similar cells working together

The Organ Level o An organ is a group of different tissues working together


The Organ System Level o An organ system is a group of organs working togethero Humans have 11 organ systems

The Organism Level o A human is an organism

Chemical and Molecular Levels

Cellular Level

Atoms in combination

Complex protein moleculeProtein filaments

Heart musclecell

Tissue LevelOrgan Level

Cardiac muscletissue

The heart

Thecardiovascular

system

Organ systemlevel

Organismlevel

The Organ Systemso Integumentary

• Major Organs

• Skin

• Hair

• Sweat glands

• Nails

• Functions

• Protects against environmental hazards

• Helps regulate body temperature

• Provides sensory information

The Organ Systemso Skeletal

• Major Organs• Bones• Cartilages• Associated ligaments• Bone marrow

• Functions• Provides support and protection for

other tissues• Stores calcium and other minerals• Forms blood cells

The Organ Systemso Muscular

• Major Organs

• Skeletal muscles and associated tendons

• Functions

• Provides movement

• Provides protection and support for other tissues

• Generates heat that maintains body temperature

The Organ Systemso Nervous

• Major Organs• Brain• Spinal cord• Peripheral nerves• Sense organs

• Functions• Directs immediate responses to stimuli• Coordinates or moderates activities of other organ

systems• Provides and interprets sensory information about

external conditions

The Organ Systemso Endocrine

• Major Organs• Pituitary gland

• Pancreas

• Gonads

• Endocrine tissues in other systems

• Functions• Directs long-term changes in the activities of

other organ systems

• Adjusts metabolic activity and energy use by the body

• Controls many structural and functional changes during development

• Thyroid gland

• Adrenal glands

The Organ Systemso Cardiovascular

• Major Organs

• Heart• Blood• Blood vessels

• Functions

• Distributes blood cells, water and dissolved

materials including nutrients, waste products, oxygen, and carbon dioxide

• Distributes heat and assists in control of body temperature

The Organ Systemso Lymphatic

• Major Organs

• Spleen

• Thymus

• Lymphatic vessels

• Lymph nodes

• Tonsils• Functions

• Defends against infection and disease

• Returns tissue fluids to the bloodstream

The Organ Systemso Respiratory

• Major Organs

• Nasal cavities

• Sinuses

• Larynx

• Trachea

• Bronchi

• Lungs

• Alveoli

The Organ Systemso Respiratory

• Functions

• Delivers air to alveoli (sites in lungs where gas exchange occurs)

• Provides oxygen to bloodstream

• Removes carbon dioxide from bloodstream

• Produces sounds for communication

The Organ Systemso Digestive

• Major Organs

• Teeth

• Tongue

• Pharynx

• Esophagus

• Stomach

• Small intestine

• Large intestine

• Liver

• Gallbladder

• Pancreas

The Organ Systemso Digestive

• Functions

• Processes and digests food

• Absorbs and conserves water

• Absorbs nutrients

• Stores energy reserves

The Organ Systemso Urinary

• Major Organs• Kidneys

• Ureters

• Urinary bladder

• Urethra

• Functions• Excretes waste products from the blood

• Controls water balance by regulating volume of urine produced

• Stores urine prior to voluntary elimination

• Regulates blood ion concentrations and pH

The Organ Systemso Male Reproductive

• Major Organs

• Testes

• Epididymis

• Ductus deferentia (vas deferens)

• Seminal vesicles

• Prostate gland

• Penis

• Scrotum

The Organ Systemso Male Reproductive

• Functions• Produces male sex cells (sperm), suspending

fluids, and hormones

• Sexual intercourse

The Organ Systemso Female Reproductive

• Major Organs

• Ovaries

• Uterine tubes

• Uterus

• Vagina

• Labia

• Clitoris

• Mammary glands

The Organ Systemso Female Reproductive

• Functions• Produces female sex cells (oocytes) and

hormones

• Supports developing embryo from conception to delivery

• Provides milk to nourish newborn infant

• Sexual intercourse


Homeostasis

o All body systems working together to maintain a

stable internal environment

• Systems respond to external and internal changes to

function within a normal range (body temperature, fluid

balance)


Mechanisms of Regulation

o Autoregulation (intrinsic)

• Automatic response in a cell, tissue, or organ to some

environmental change

o Extrinsic regulation

• Responses controlled by nervous and endocrine systems


Receptor o Receives the stimulus

Control center o Processes the signal and sends instructions

Effector o Carries out instructions

Normalconditiondisturbed

Informationaffects

RECEPTOR

Thermometer

HOMEOSTASIS

STIMULUS:Room temperature

rises

Normal roomtemperature

RESPONSE:Room temperature

drops

CONTROL CENTER(Thermostat)

Normalconditionrestored

EFFECTOR

Air conditionerturns on

Sendscommands

to

20° 30° 40°

In response to input from a receptor (a thermometer), a thermostat(the control center) triggers an effector response (either an air condi-tioner or a heater) that restores normal temperature. In this case,when room temperature rises above the set point, the thermostatturns on the air conditioner, and the temperature returns to normal.

With this regulatory system, roomtemperature fluctuates around theset point.

Airconditioner

turns on

Airconditioner

turns off

Time

Ro

om

te

mp

era

ture

(°C

)

22Normalrange


The Role of Negative Feedback

o The response of the effector negates the stimulus

o Body is brought back into homeostasis

• Normal range is achieved

Normaltemperature

disturbed

Informationaffects

RECEPTORS

Temperaturesensors in skin

andhypothalamus

HOMEOSTASIS

STIMULUS:Body temperature

rises

Normal bodytemperature

RESPONSE:Increased heat loss,

body temperaturedrops

CONTROL CENTER

Normaltemperature

restored

EFFECTORS

• Sweat glands in skin increase secretion• Blood vessels in skin dilate

Sendscommands

to

Events in the regulation of body temperature, which arecomparable to those shown in Figure 12. A control centerin the brain (the hypothalamus) functions as a thermostatwith a set point of 37°C. If body temperature exceeds37.2°C, heat loss is increased through enhanced blood flowto the skin and increased sweating.

The thermoregulatory center keepsbody temperature fluctuatingwithin an acceptable range, usuallybetween 36.7 and 37.2°C.

Vesselsdilate,

sweatingincreases

Vesselsconstrict,sweating

decreases

TimeBo

dy

tem

per

atu

re (

°C)

37.2Normalrange37

36.7

Thermoregulatorycenter in brain


The Role of Positive Feedback

o The response of the effector increases change of the

stimulus

o Body is moved away from homeostasis

• Normal range is lost

o Used to speed up processes

Clottingaccelerates

Positivefeedback

loop

Blood clotChemicals

This escalating processis a positive feedbackloop that ends with theformation of a blood clot,which patches the vesselwall and stops the bleeding.

As clotting continues,each step releaseschemicals that furtheraccelerate the process.

The chemicals start chainreactions in which cells,cell fragments, andsoluble proteins in the blood begin to form a clot.

Damage to cells in theblood vessel wall releaseschemicals that begin theprocess of blood clotting.

Chemicals


Systems Integration o Systems work together to maintain homeostasis

Homeostasis is a state of equilibriumo Opposing forces are in balance

o Dynamic equilibrium — continual adaptation

Physiological systems work to restore balanceo Failure results in disease or death


Superficial Anatomy

o Locating structures on or near the body surface

Anatomical Landmarks

o Anatomical position: hands at sides, palms forward

o Supine: lying down, face up

o Prone: lying down, face down


Superficial Anatomyo Anatomical Landmarks

• References to palpable structures

o Anatomical Regions• Body regions

• Abdominopelvic quadrants

• Abdominopelvic regions

o Anatomical Directions• Reference terms based on subject

Cephalic or head

Frontal orforehead

Cranialor skull

Facialor face

Oral or mouthMental or chin

Axillary or armpit

Brachialor arm

Antecubitalor front of

elbowUmbilicalor navel

TrunkAbdominal(abdomen)

Mammaryor breast

Thoracic orthorax, chest

Cervical or neck

Buccal or cheek

Otic or ear

Nasal or nose

Ocular, orbitalor eye

Anterior view

Antebrachialor forearm

Carpal or wrist

Palmar or palm

Pollexor thumb

Digits(phalanges)

or fingers (digitalor phalangeal)Patellar

or kneecap

Cruralor leg

Digits (phalanges)or toes (digital or

phalangeal)

Tarsal orankle

Anterior view

Hallux orgreat toe

Pedalor foot

Femoralor thigh

Pubic(pubis)

Inguinalor groin

Manualor hand

Pelvic(pelvis)

Trunk

Acromial orshoulder

Olecranalor back

of elbow

Dorsal orback

Upperlimb

Cervicalor neck

Cephalicor head

Posterior view

Posterior view

Lumbaror loin

Glutealor buttock

Popliteal orback of knee

Suralor calf

Calcaneal orheel of foot

Plantar orsole of foot

Lower limb

Upperlimb

Abdominopelvic quadrants. The fourabdominopelvic quadrants are formed by twoperpendicular lines that intersect at the navel. Theterms for these quadrants, or their abbreviations, are most often used in clinical discussions.

Right UpperQuadrant

(RUQ)

Right LowerQuadrant

(RLQ)

Left UpperQuadrant(LUQ)

Left LowerQuadrant(LLQ)

Righthypochondriac

region

Right lumbarregion

Rightinguinal

region

Abdominopelvic regions. The nine abdominopelvicregions provide more precise regional descriptions.

Left hypochondriacregion

Left lumbarregion

Left inguinalregion

Epigastricregion

Umbilicalregion

Hypogastric(pubic)region

Stomach

Spleen

Urinarybladder

Liver

Gallbladder

Large intestine

Small intestine

Appendix

Anatomical relationships. The relationship betweenthe abdominopelvic quadrants and regions and thelocations of the internal organs are shown here.

Cranial

Posterioror dorsal

Anterioror ventral

Caudal

A lateral view.

Superior Right Left

Lateral

Proximal

Medial

Proximal

Distal

DistalInferiorAn anterior view. Arrowsindicate important directionalterms used in this text;definitions and descriptionsare given in Table 12.


Sectional Anatomyo Planes and sections

• Plane: a three-dimensional axis

• Section: a slice parallel to a plane

• Used to visualize internal organization and structure

• Important in radiological techniques• MRI

• PET

• CT

Frontal plane

Transverse plane

Sagittal plane


Essential Functions of Body Cavities1. Protect organs from accidental shocks2. Permit changes in size and shape of internal organs

Ventral body cavity (coelom)

o Divided by the diaphragm

• Thoracic cavity

• Abdominopelvic cavity

• Provides protection• Allows organ movement• Linings prevent friction

Ventral Body Cavity

Thoracic Cavity

Surrounded by chest wall anddiaphragm

Surrounds right lung Contains thetrachea, esophagus,and major vessels

MediastinumRight Pleural Cavity

Peritoneal Cavity

Surrounds left lung

Subdivides during development into

Surrounds heart

Pericardial Cavity

Contains many digestive glandsand organs

Abdominal Cavity

Abdominopelvic Cavity

Extendsthroughoutabdominal cavityand into superiorportion of pelviccavity

Pelvic Cavity

Contains urinarybladder,reproductiveorgans, lastportion ofdigestive tract

Left Pleural Cavity


Serous Membranes

o Line body cavities and cover organs

o Consist of parietal layer and visceral layer

• Parietal layer — lines cavity

• Visceral layer — covers organ


The Thoracic Cavity

o Right and left pleural cavities

• Contain right and left lungs

o Mediastinum

• Upper portion filled with blood vessels, trachea, esophagus, and thymus

• Lower portion contains pericardial cavity

• The heart is located within the pericardial cavity

POSTERIOR ANTERIOR

Pleuralcavity

Pericardialcavity

Thoraciccavity

Peritonealcavity

Abdominalcavity

Pelviccavity

Diaphragm

Abdominopelviccavity

Visceralpericardium

Pericardialcavity

Parietalpericardium

Heart Air space

Balloon

Spinal cord

Mediastinum

Parietalpleura

Pleural cavity

Pericardial cavity

Right lung

POSTERIOR

Left lung

ANTERIOR


The Abdominopelvic Cavity

o Peritoneal cavity: chamber within abdominopelvic

cavity

• Parietal peritoneum: lines the internal body wall

• Visceral peritoneum: covers the organs


The Abdominopelvic Cavityo Abdominal cavity — superior portion

• Diaphragm to top of pelvic bones

• Contains digestive organs

• Retroperitoneal space

• Area posterior to peritoneum and anterior to muscular body wall

• Contains pancreas, kidneys, ureters, and parts of the digestive

tract


The Abdominopelvic Cavity

o Pelvic cavity — inferior portion

• Within pelvic bones

• Contains reproductive organs, rectum, and bladder

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