‘Being Anglophone is not enough’: language, nationality and group membership in Cameroon.

Dr Rebecca A. Mitchell

THE LINGUISTIC SITUATION IN CENTRAL AFRICA

CAMEROON Population c. 20,129,878 Exoglossic language policy French and English are sole official languages No national language No majority language Large urban population (58%) High literacy rate (76%)

THE SOCIOLINGUISTIC CONTEXT OF CAMEROON Region of exceptional ethnolinguistic

diversity 248 - 285 local languages; 3 out of 4 of

Africa’s linguistic phyla attested (Afro-Asiatic, Nilo-Saharan, Niger-Kordofanian).

Dialect-language controversy: A70 languages are mutually partially intelligible but ethnically distinct.

THE OFFICIAL LANGUAGES 8 Francophone provinces and 2

Anglophone provinces : 20% Anglophone.

Official exclusion of the local languages from the education system.

Bilingual schools.

LINGUA FRANCA DISTRIBUTION

Cameroonian Pidgin English

Fulfulde

Beti-Fang

Basaa

Douala

Hausa, Arabic

(supraregional)Kanuri &Wandala

RESPONDENT CHARACTERISTICS 109 respondents; SES, gender and ethnic

group not previously quantified; average age 21

Focus of questionnaire: self-reported proficiency in the local

languages perception of the relevance of local

languages and culture to the education system

attitudes towards the official language policy perception of the role of language, ethnic

group and race as identity markers

ETHNOLINGUISTIC VARIABLES OF RESPONDENTS 84% monoethnic 36% born in Douala. 49 different ethnic groups. 50% of respondents are Bamileke (19

different ethnolinguistic variants) All languages are of the Bantoid branch of

Niger-Congo Grassfields, A40 (Bassa), A10 (Bakossi &

Oroko), A20 (Douala & Bakweri), A15 (Mboh), A60 (Yambassa, Manguissa) and A70 (Eton, Ewondo, Beti & Bulu)

THE BILINGUAL IDEAL

BILINGUALISM Role of French and English as identity

markers 20% ‘Anglophone’, 74% ‘Francophone’,

5% ‘bilingual’ Bilingualism: characteristic of

Cameroon and a desirable societal/personal attribute.

4% of respondents disapprove of official bilingualism.

COMPARTMENTALISATION Progressive narrowing-down of the linguistic

repertoire in the home. Child-parent discourse: 23 non-European

languages reported. 57% say their parents speak to them in French or English.

Parent-child discourse: 31 non-European languages reported.73% speak to their parents in French or English.

Dialect, langue maternelle, patois, mother tongue, langue camerounaise, langue traditionelle, native language, local language, vernacular.

LINGUISTIC COMPETENCE 25% consider ‘French’ and ‘English’ to

be ‘Cameroonian languages’. 10% cannot speak a local language. Linguistic competence is lower in

respondents who do not visit the village Evidence of linguistic and cultural

attrition: rural exodus prevents replenishment of the rural population.

RURAL LANGUAGES IN CRISIS Twendi in Sanga village (< 1000

speakers) Njen in Njen village (1,800 speakers) Tuotomb in Bonek village (1000

speakers) Mbule in Mbola village (100 speakers) Pam (30 speakers)

NB. 2007 estimates

PROPOSALS FOR A NATIONAL LANGUAGE 56% propose a language other than their

own: suggests high level of linguistic security. Preference for established lingua francas, eg.

Douala (16%): symbolic identiary role Bamileke: geographically predominant,

protective of culture, renowned for business acumen.

‘Bamileke, because it’s similar to English’. 2nd most popular choice: English (16%), cf.

French (6%) . Suggestion of one language per province.

LANGUAGE AND NATIONAL UNITY 10% believe bilingualism is a prerequisite for

Cameroonian identity. Only 5% equate being Cameroonian with the

mastery of a local language. Linguistic diversity: positive rather than

divisive. ‘to be a Cameroonian one must learn how to

speak the 2 national languages’. ‘being capable of expressing myself in my

mother’s tongue, being bilingual’ ‘to be Cameroonian is to know your country

and all its languages’ ‘it’s to speak a Cameroonian language and

be Francophone/Anglophone’

IDENTITY MARKERS 3-tier identity system proposed for Gabon:

racial, national, ethnic group [Anglophone/ Francophone]

Resulting order: African, Cameroonian, ethnic, Anglophone/Francophone.

47% placed Anglophone/Francophone last. Challenges existing claims that being

Anglophone/Francophone is central to identity construction

New variables: name, appearance, ethnic group, nationality, language, class, character and race.

Nationality (82%), name (79%), ethnic group (57%) and race (27%).

Ethnic group is a relatively weak identity marker

ETHNIC GROUP MEMBERSHIP 45% can identify a stranger by his

language use. 13% cited competence in an

indigenous language as necessary for ethnic group membership

‘I must be able to speak the language’.

CONCLUSIONS French and English have been indigenised as

‘Cameroonian languages’. Ongoing attrition of local languages in

domestic discourse Self-reported competence in the local

languages is fairly high Linguistic security is robust Strong sense of national unity Bilingualism is a salient characteristic of

nationhood but speaker-perceived bilingualism is very low

Risk of cultural and linguistic attrition > ethnolinguistic levelling favouring majority languages.

SOLUTIONS Community initiatives. Cameroonian cultural studies in schools: Familiarise students with ethnic groups and

local languages Basic language instruction Introduction to history, music, oral literature

etc. Obviates need for actual standardisation but

absence of written records could be problematic

Role of the sociolinguist or social anthropologist in raising awareness.