भं - ArvindGuptaToys
31
Transcript of भं - ArvindGuptaToys
?
(Isaac Asimov)
: . . .
( , - . / . , .)
, - . 2500 (Greeks) . , . - . . - .
1.
- ? , ?
, . – - . , .
? . ? ? ?
. , , . ?
2500 , 450 , (philosopher) (scholar) . (Leucippus) . , , . -- . , .
(Democritus) , . 380 , , (Universe) 72 . .
“” (atomos) , “” (unbreakable) . “ a to m ” .
. , (combinations) (join) , . , (arrangement) . , .
. . . , , “” (atomism) , (unpopular) .
, . . , .
, . - , . , . : . .
, : (Epicurus) . 306 , (Athens), () , . , . , 300 ( ).
(long time) , , , . .
, . 200 , , (Roman) , (Lucretius) . . 56 , (Latin) , ( “on the nature of things” ) . , .
, . . , -- , . , , .
1417 o , (manuscript) , . . , , , .
1414 , (Johann Gutenberg) (German) (printing press) . , / . -- . . , “” .
. , . (Pierre
Gassendi) (French) , 17 . .
, 2000 . , .
, , .
2000 , . . .
/ . “ .” .
, . , .
. (Robert
Boyle) . .
: , . , , . “” (gas) .
1662 , ( ) 5 J . , .
J . . . - , . “” (compressed) . - , -- .
. “ ” (Boyle’s Law ) .
? ?
. . . , . ( , ).
, , . .
. . , . .
, . , , . , .
, 1000 . , , .
, , 1662 , ,
2. (evidence)
?
. 4 (basic) “” (elements) . , , , . .
(rough) (uneven) , . (smooth) (round) , (slipped). ,
(floated). (pointly) – , .
, 4 , . .
1661 . . , .
, - . 1700 , 30 .
(copper), (silver), (iron), (tin), (lead), (mercury), . , 18 (nickel), (cobalt) (uranium) .
, (oxygen) (nitrogen) (mixture) . . , (hydrogen) . . (carbon), (sulphur), (phosphorous) .
? .
18 , . , . . , ( ) .
, . , (Antoine Laurent Lavoisier) . 1782 , , (total) . . “ ” (the law of consevation of
matter) .
, , .
. , , (arrangement) . . , . , .
, (further) . , .
, (Joseph Louis Proust) . 1789 (violent revolution)
, (Spain) . ( 1794 ).
, , , (combined) “” (compound) , (copper carbonate) . ). , 5 (gram), 4 1 . 10 , .
, , . 5 (gram), 4
1 . , 1 2 .
. . 1799 , . “ ” (law of definite proportion) .
, . , , . , .
(John Dalton) “ ” . . . , .
. 2 .
, , 3 4 . , , 3 8 .
, 8, 4 . , 1 1 , , 1 2 .
, 2 , . 3 4 , “ -” (carbon mono-oxide) , 3 8 “ -” (carbon di-oxide) . / “” (mon) “” (one) “” (di) (two) .
. 1 6 , (ethylene) . , 6, 3 .
, - 2- 3- . “ ” (law of multiple proportions) , 1803 .
“ ” , 1 , 2 , 3 , 1 , 2.5 . .
1808 , , . , (theory) (credit) .
, , 2000 , .
, . . , , .
, , . , , .
(notion), , , . , . , , . .
3. (The Weight of Atoms)
. , . , . , .
, . , . .
, (hydrogen) 1 , (oxygen) 8 . , - 1 , 1 . , , 8 . 1 , 8 .
, . ( ).
, . 1 .
1800 , (Alessandro Volta) (Italian) (elecric battery) . . , (William Nicholson) . .
, . 2 (volume) ( ), .
1809 , - (Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac) (whole small number) . , - . (chlorine)
- (chloride) , . (nitrogen) (ammonia) , - . “ ” (the law of combining volumes) .
1811 , (Amedeo Avagadro) (Italian) (physicist) “ ” , . - , , “” (molecule) . “ ” (Avagadro’s Hypothesis) .
, 2 1 , 2 1 1 , 1 .
8 . , 2
8 . , , 1 16 . 1 16 .
2 , . 50 , .
1820 , (shorthand) . , “ 1 , 2 1 ”,
, . . , , (dot) , . , , , . , .
1813 , (Jones Jakob Berzelius) . (Latin) . 2 , . / , .
, O, N, C, C l, (sulphur) S, P, . , . , (gold) “ (aurum)” , / “ A u ” .
, . , H , (single) . , 2 . H2 .
2- . , , O2, N2, C l2 .
, . 2 1 , H2O . 1 2 C O2, C O .
(exact) (measurements) . 1818 ,
(table) , “ “ . , .
, . 1828 , (table) , “ “ . , , . , 2 3 .
, . (H) (H2) .
1860 , (formulae) - . , . , .
(Friedrich August Kekule) , (German) - , . , 1860 , , (First International Chemical Congress)
. . , , / , , , 140 .
(Stanislao Cannizzaro) . , , .
. . , .
. , . , (Jean Servais Stas) (Belgian) , . ,
16 . . 1 , 15.88 .
, , . / . . / 16 , 1 1.008 . 100 .
/ , . , 1865 , . , , (small).
4. (The Arrangement of Atoms)
, , .
19 , . , . H2O ( 2 1 ); N H3 ( 1 3 ); H C l ( 1 1 ); (Sulphuric acid) H2S O4 ( 2 , 1 , 4 ).
, , . 1824 , (Justus von Liebig and Friedrich Wohler) 2 2 . , .
, . - , .
(Berzelius) . 2 . . “” (isomers) , , “ ” (equal proportions).
“ , . . , “ ” (organic compounds) .
. , (inorganic) , . . ( ), . , C2H6O (combination) “” .
, . . , , . .
, , ?
(Edward Frankland) . , .
1852 . “” (valence) , v a la n c e “” .
, 1 . 1 1 . 2 , 2 . 3 , 4 .
1858 , (Archibald Scott Couper) “/” (bonds) , . 1 , 1 / , H- .
/ . , , 2 , H-H , 1 / . - 2 / 1 / .
- / . C O , C=O . 2 / , 4 / , 2 . , , - / / 1 . /
. , , .
(Kekule) , 1858 . 4 / /, .
, , . (International Chemical Congress) . (Cannizzaro) / , .
, (acetic acid) , (vinegar) , C2H4O2 .
/ (system) . . (benzene) (model) , C6H6 . 6 6 / .
, . , 1865 , ( ). , / . , // (ring) , ( ). .
/ .
1874 , (Jacobus Henricus Vant’ Hoff) (Dutch) / (space) , . / / / 3- (3-dimensional) .
5. (The Reality of Atoms)
19 , . . .
, - . “ (synthetic) ” , , .
, . / . / , , , , , . (Friedrich Wilhelm Ostwald) - (Russian-German) . / , . , . ?
1827 , (Robert Brown) , (pollen) (microscope) . . , (life) / (specks) , , / .
, (dye) , . //. “ ” (Brownian motion) . 30 .
1860 , (James Clerk Maxwell) . , ,
(bouncing) . , , .
, , .
, . , . , , / .
. , , (blow) . , , , . (shoved), , , .
, (endlessly) / (jiggle) . / (motion) ( ).
1905 , , (Albert Einstein) / / . , , . , , .
(Field Emission Micriscope)
/ (mathematical expression) , /, /, , . / (mathematical expression) (figures) , / .
1908, (Jean Baptiste Perrin) . (Rum resin) . , / .
(expression) , / , . (Perrin) / , . / .
, / . 1 o o 1/100,000,000 . 10 (100 million) , 1 o o / .
1 30,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 . 4,000,000,000 1 , 7,000,000,000,000 .
, (Ostwald) . / . , , , , - . , , .
, , .
1936 , (Erwin Wilhelm Mueller) “ ” (Field Emission Microscope) . .
, , (covered) (screen) , , (glow). . 1950 (photo) , (line) .
, . , . (Leucippus) (Democritus) . ( “” “” .)
, 19 , . , , , .
, 19 , . “ ” . - “” . 1/1837 , . “ (Field Emission Microscope)” .
. . . , . , .
, , ,
89 [227] () 80 200.59
13 26.98 42 95.94
95 [243] 60 144.24
51 121.75 10 20.183
18 39.948 93 [237]
33 74.9216 28 58.71
85 [210] 41 92.906
56 137.34 7 14.0067
97 [249*] () (No) 102
4 9.0122 76 190.2
83 208.98 8 15.9994
5 10.811 46 106.4
35 79.909 15 30.9738
48 112.40 78 195.09
20 40.08 94 [242]
98 [251] 84 [210]
6 12.01125 19 39.102
58 140.12 59 140.907
55 132.905 61 [147]
17 35.453 91 [231]
24 51.996 88 [226]
27 58.9332 86 [222]
29 63.54 75 186.2
96 [247] 45 102.905
66 162.50 37 85.47
99 [254] 44 101.07
68 167.26 62 150.35
63 151.96 21 44.956
100 [253] 34 78.96
9 18.9984 14 28.086
87 [223] (silver) 47 107.87
64 157.25 11 22.9898
31 69.72 38 87.62
32 72.59 () 16 32.064
(gold) 79 196.967 T73 180.948
72 178.49 43 [99]
2 4.0026 52 127.60
67 164.930 65 158.924
1 1.00 797 81 204.37
49 114.82 90 232.038
53 125.9044 69 168.934
77 192.2 (tin) 50 118.69
(iron) 26 55.847 22 47.90
36 83.80 74 183.85
57 138.91 92 238.03
103 [257] 23 50.942
(lead) 82 07.19 54 131.30
3 6.939 39 88.905
71 174.97 39 88.905
12 24.312 (zinc) 30 65.37
25 54.9380 40 91.22
101 [256]
(Isaac Asimov)
: . . .
( , - . / . , .)
, - . 2500 (Greeks) . , . - . . - .
1.
- ? , ?
, . – - . , .
? . ? ? ?
. , , . ?
2500 , 450 , (philosopher) (scholar) . (Leucippus) . , , . -- . , .
(Democritus) , . 380 , , (Universe) 72 . .
“” (atomos) , “” (unbreakable) . “ a to m ” .
. , (combinations) (join) , . , (arrangement) . , .
. . . , , “” (atomism) , (unpopular) .
, . . , .
, . - , . , . : . .
, : (Epicurus) . 306 , (Athens), () , . , . , 300 ( ).
(long time) , , , . .
, . 200 , , (Roman) , (Lucretius) . . 56 , (Latin) , ( “on the nature of things” ) . , .
, . . , -- , . , , .
1417 o , (manuscript) , . . , , , .
1414 , (Johann Gutenberg) (German) (printing press) . , / . -- . . , “” .
. , . (Pierre
Gassendi) (French) , 17 . .
, 2000 . , .
, , .
2000 , . . .
/ . “ .” .
, . , .
. (Robert
Boyle) . .
: , . , , . “” (gas) .
1662 , ( ) 5 J . , .
J . . . - , . “” (compressed) . - , -- .
. “ ” (Boyle’s Law ) .
? ?
. . . , . ( , ).
, , . .
. . , . .
, . , , . , .
, 1000 . , , .
, , 1662 , ,
2. (evidence)
?
. 4 (basic) “” (elements) . , , , . .
(rough) (uneven) , . (smooth) (round) , (slipped). ,
(floated). (pointly) – , .
, 4 , . .
1661 . . , .
, - . 1700 , 30 .
(copper), (silver), (iron), (tin), (lead), (mercury), . , 18 (nickel), (cobalt) (uranium) .
, (oxygen) (nitrogen) (mixture) . . , (hydrogen) . . (carbon), (sulphur), (phosphorous) .
? .
18 , . , . . , ( ) .
, . , (Antoine Laurent Lavoisier) . 1782 , , (total) . . “ ” (the law of consevation of
matter) .
, , .
. , , (arrangement) . . , . , .
, (further) . , .
, (Joseph Louis Proust) . 1789 (violent revolution)
, (Spain) . ( 1794 ).
, , , (combined) “” (compound) , (copper carbonate) . ). , 5 (gram), 4 1 . 10 , .
, , . 5 (gram), 4
1 . , 1 2 .
. . 1799 , . “ ” (law of definite proportion) .
, . , , . , .
(John Dalton) “ ” . . . , .
. 2 .
, , 3 4 . , , 3 8 .
, 8, 4 . , 1 1 , , 1 2 .
, 2 , . 3 4 , “ -” (carbon mono-oxide) , 3 8 “ -” (carbon di-oxide) . / “” (mon) “” (one) “” (di) (two) .
. 1 6 , (ethylene) . , 6, 3 .
, - 2- 3- . “ ” (law of multiple proportions) , 1803 .
“ ” , 1 , 2 , 3 , 1 , 2.5 . .
1808 , , . , (theory) (credit) .
, , 2000 , .
, . . , , .
, , . , , .
(notion), , , . , . , , . .
3. (The Weight of Atoms)
. , . , . , .
, . , . .
, (hydrogen) 1 , (oxygen) 8 . , - 1 , 1 . , , 8 . 1 , 8 .
, . ( ).
, . 1 .
1800 , (Alessandro Volta) (Italian) (elecric battery) . . , (William Nicholson) . .
, . 2 (volume) ( ), .
1809 , - (Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac) (whole small number) . , - . (chlorine)
- (chloride) , . (nitrogen) (ammonia) , - . “ ” (the law of combining volumes) .
1811 , (Amedeo Avagadro) (Italian) (physicist) “ ” , . - , , “” (molecule) . “ ” (Avagadro’s Hypothesis) .
, 2 1 , 2 1 1 , 1 .
8 . , 2
8 . , , 1 16 . 1 16 .
2 , . 50 , .
1820 , (shorthand) . , “ 1 , 2 1 ”,
, . . , , (dot) , . , , , . , .
1813 , (Jones Jakob Berzelius) . (Latin) . 2 , . / , .
, O, N, C, C l, (sulphur) S, P, . , . , (gold) “ (aurum)” , / “ A u ” .
, . , H , (single) . , 2 . H2 .
2- . , , O2, N2, C l2 .
, . 2 1 , H2O . 1 2 C O2, C O .
(exact) (measurements) . 1818 ,
(table) , “ “ . , .
, . 1828 , (table) , “ “ . , , . , 2 3 .
, . (H) (H2) .
1860 , (formulae) - . , . , .
(Friedrich August Kekule) , (German) - , . , 1860 , , (First International Chemical Congress)
. . , , / , , , 140 .
(Stanislao Cannizzaro) . , , .
. . , .
. , . , (Jean Servais Stas) (Belgian) , . ,
16 . . 1 , 15.88 .
, , . / . . / 16 , 1 1.008 . 100 .
/ , . , 1865 , . , , (small).
4. (The Arrangement of Atoms)
, , .
19 , . , . H2O ( 2 1 ); N H3 ( 1 3 ); H C l ( 1 1 ); (Sulphuric acid) H2S O4 ( 2 , 1 , 4 ).
, , . 1824 , (Justus von Liebig and Friedrich Wohler) 2 2 . , .
, . - , .
(Berzelius) . 2 . . “” (isomers) , , “ ” (equal proportions).
“ , . . , “ ” (organic compounds) .
. , (inorganic) , . . ( ), . , C2H6O (combination) “” .
, . . , , . .
, , ?
(Edward Frankland) . , .
1852 . “” (valence) , v a la n c e “” .
, 1 . 1 1 . 2 , 2 . 3 , 4 .
1858 , (Archibald Scott Couper) “/” (bonds) , . 1 , 1 / , H- .
/ . , , 2 , H-H , 1 / . - 2 / 1 / .
- / . C O , C=O . 2 / , 4 / , 2 . , , - / / 1 . /
. , , .
(Kekule) , 1858 . 4 / /, .
, , . (International Chemical Congress) . (Cannizzaro) / , .
, (acetic acid) , (vinegar) , C2H4O2 .
/ (system) . . (benzene) (model) , C6H6 . 6 6 / .
, . , 1865 , ( ). , / . , // (ring) , ( ). .
/ .
1874 , (Jacobus Henricus Vant’ Hoff) (Dutch) / (space) , . / / / 3- (3-dimensional) .
5. (The Reality of Atoms)
19 , . . .
, - . “ (synthetic) ” , , .
, . / . / , , , , , . (Friedrich Wilhelm Ostwald) - (Russian-German) . / , . , . ?
1827 , (Robert Brown) , (pollen) (microscope) . . , (life) / (specks) , , / .
, (dye) , . //. “ ” (Brownian motion) . 30 .
1860 , (James Clerk Maxwell) . , ,
(bouncing) . , , .
, , .
, . , . , , / .
. , , (blow) . , , , . (shoved), , , .
, (endlessly) / (jiggle) . / (motion) ( ).
1905 , , (Albert Einstein) / / . , , . , , .
(Field Emission Micriscope)
/ (mathematical expression) , /, /, , . / (mathematical expression) (figures) , / .
1908, (Jean Baptiste Perrin) . (Rum resin) . , / .
(expression) , / , . (Perrin) / , . / .
, / . 1 o o 1/100,000,000 . 10 (100 million) , 1 o o / .
1 30,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 . 4,000,000,000 1 , 7,000,000,000,000 .
, (Ostwald) . / . , , , , - . , , .
, , .
1936 , (Erwin Wilhelm Mueller) “ ” (Field Emission Microscope) . .
, , (covered) (screen) , , (glow). . 1950 (photo) , (line) .
, . , . (Leucippus) (Democritus) . ( “” “” .)
, 19 , . , , , .
, 19 , . “ ” . - “” . 1/1837 , . “ (Field Emission Microscope)” .
. . . , . , .
, , ,
89 [227] () 80 200.59
13 26.98 42 95.94
95 [243] 60 144.24
51 121.75 10 20.183
18 39.948 93 [237]
33 74.9216 28 58.71
85 [210] 41 92.906
56 137.34 7 14.0067
97 [249*] () (No) 102
4 9.0122 76 190.2
83 208.98 8 15.9994
5 10.811 46 106.4
35 79.909 15 30.9738
48 112.40 78 195.09
20 40.08 94 [242]
98 [251] 84 [210]
6 12.01125 19 39.102
58 140.12 59 140.907
55 132.905 61 [147]
17 35.453 91 [231]
24 51.996 88 [226]
27 58.9332 86 [222]
29 63.54 75 186.2
96 [247] 45 102.905
66 162.50 37 85.47
99 [254] 44 101.07
68 167.26 62 150.35
63 151.96 21 44.956
100 [253] 34 78.96
9 18.9984 14 28.086
87 [223] (silver) 47 107.87
64 157.25 11 22.9898
31 69.72 38 87.62
32 72.59 () 16 32.064
(gold) 79 196.967 T73 180.948
72 178.49 43 [99]
2 4.0026 52 127.60
67 164.930 65 158.924
1 1.00 797 81 204.37
49 114.82 90 232.038
53 125.9044 69 168.934
77 192.2 (tin) 50 118.69
(iron) 26 55.847 22 47.90
36 83.80 74 183.85
57 138.91 92 238.03
103 [257] 23 50.942
(lead) 82 07.19 54 131.30
3 6.939 39 88.905
71 174.97 39 88.905
12 24.312 (zinc) 30 65.37
25 54.9380 40 91.22
101 [256]
