Теорматериалыпособие Сопровождение к Лекциям

7/21/2019 Теорматериалыпособие Сопровождение к Лекциям

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V.M.Shirokikh, L.P.Koudrevatykh

THE STUDY OF MODERN ENGLISH

LEXICOLOGY

Theoretical materials for seminars



В.М. Широких,Л.П. Кудреватых

Теоретические материалы

по лексикологии современного

английского языка

Глазов 2004



Широких В.М., Кудреватых Л.П.Теоретические материалы по лексикологиисовременного английского языка. - Глазов,2004.

Рецензент: доцент ка. ро!."#ер!, илоло#ииВ.Н. Ивонина $ГГП%&

'(е)ное *о+о)ие *о кур+у лек+иколо#ии+овре!енно#о ан#ли+ко#о -зыка *редназна(енодл- +тудентов +тарих кур+ов акул/тетаино+транных -зыков *еда#о#и(е+ко#о вуза. но!о1ет )ыт/ и+*ол/зовано в *роце++е *од#отовки к+е!инар+ки! зан-ти-!, *ри на*и+ании кур+овых иди*ло!ных ра)от *о лин#ви+тике.

В.М. Широких,

2004 Л.П.Кудреватых, 2004



INTRODUCTIONTHE OBJECT OFLEXICOLOGY

1.Lexicology as a science.. T!o a""roaches to language study.#.$onnection of lexicology !ith other sciences.

%.Theoretical and "ractical value of lexicology.

Lexicology as a Science

The term consists of &reek mor"hemes'lexis logos(!ord, "hrase) (learning).Lexicology studies !ords and "hrases, i.e. voca*ulary of alanguage.Voca*ulary consists of'!ords + *asic units of a given language !hich are the result of the

association of a given meaning !ith a given grou" of soundsset+ex"ressions - "hraseological units - traditional sta*le "hrases like

to rain cats and dogs/, as hungry as a !olf/.Lexicology investigates the "ro*lems of !ords, !ord+structure,

!ord+formation in the language, the meaning of the !ords, the main "rinci"les of classification of the !ords, the la!s governing theenlarging (re"lenishment) of the voca*ulary.

Kinds of lexicology'general + deals !ith the general study of !ords irres"ective of the

s"ecific features of any "articular languages"ecial + studies the characteristic features of the voca*ulary of a

given languagehistorical + studies the origin, change and develo"ment of the!ords

descri"tive + studies the voca*ulary of a given language at a givenstage of its develo"ment.

To !""#oac$es %o Lang&age S%&'y

Synchronic (syn - together, chronos - time).The synchronic a""roach is concerned !ith the voca*ulary of a

language at a given "eriod of time.0iachronic (dia - through, chronos - time).The diachronic a""roach deals !ith the changes and the

develo"ment of the voca*ulary in the course of time.Synchronic a""roach deals !ith s"ecial descri"tive lexicology,

diachronic a""roach deals !ith s"ecial historic lexicology.

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The t!o a""roaches should not *e contrasted' they areinterconnected and interde"endent.

Language is the reality of thought, and thought develo"s together!ith the develo"ment of society, therefore language and its voca*ularymust *e studied in the light of social history. very ne! "henomenon inhuman society and in human activity in general finds a reflection invoca*ulary.

.g.' nylon (technology), s"utnik (science), "erestroika (social and "oliti+cal life).

2 !ord, through its meaning rendering some notion, is agenerali3ed reflection of reality.

Connec%ion o( Lexicology i%$ O%$e# Sciences

Lexicology is connected !ith other sciences !hich also study!ords, though, from different sides'

general linguistics ,the history of the language (etymology of !ords) , "honetics (acoustic level of the !ords) ,grammar (mor"hemes as "arts of !ords and grammatical rules of

their com*ining) ,stylistics (!ords as stylistic devices).

T$eo#e%ical an' )#ac%ical *al&e o( Lexicology

The theoretical value consists in stimulating a systematic a""roachto the facts of voca*ulary in linguistic training of "hilologists andteachers.

The "ractical value of lexicology is also very great for futureteachers as it im"roves the kno!ledge of the voca*ulary and hel"susers of the language master the s"eaking skills.

4rom' T5 P62$T7$2L ST809 :4 L2;&82&S *y 5enry S!eet

T$e Real Di((ic&l%y Is in %$e *oca+&la#y

The fact that the languages commonly learnt *y uro"eans *elong

mostly to the same 2ryan stock, and have *esides a large voca*ulary

in common of *orro!ed Latin, 4rench, and greek !ords, is a"t to

*lind them to a recognition of the fact that the real intrinsic difficulty

of learning a foreign language lies in that of having to master its

voca*ulary. (<)

=e can master enough of the grammar of any language for reading

"ur"oses !ithin a definite "eriod > generally less than six months >

*ut !e cannot do the same !ith the voca*ulary unless it is already "artially familiar to us in the !ay that the voca*ulary of 7talian is to

all nglish s"eakers. (<)

7t is evident that every language in its collo?uial form must *e

ada"ted to the average ca"acity of its s"eakers. 2lthough each

language is constructed to a great extent *y the "hiloso"hers and

"oets of the race, it cannot in the form of it !hich serves for ordinary

intercourse go *eyond the ca"acity of the average mind. Learning a

language, therefore, is not in any !ay analogous to learning

mathematics or meta"hysics' it does not im"ly any attem"t to enter

into higher regions of thought > to commune !ith a higher mind. :n

the contrary, as the greater "art of all existing languages !as evolved

*y "eo"le in a rudimentary state of civili3ation, it im"lies the very

reverse. 5ence, it is often a "ositive o*stacle to learning a language

to *e rigorously logical and minutely analytical. (<)



("". @%+@A)

ETYMOLOGIC!L SUR*EY OF THE ENGLISH

,ORDSTOC-

1. Some *asic assum"tions.. =ords of native origin.#. Borro!ings in the nglish language.%. 2ssimilation of *orro!ings.

So.e Basic !ss&."%ions

The most characteristic feature of nglish is its mixed character.=hile it is !rong to s"eak of the mixed character of the language as a!hole, the com+"osite nature of the nglish voca*ulary cannot *edenied.

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Some s"ecial terms'1. native !ords + !ords of 2nglo+Saxon origin *rought to theBritish7sles from the continent in the Cth century *y the &ermanic tri*es +the 2ngles,the Saxons and the Dutes. *orro!ing + l)the "rocess of ado"ting !ords from other

languages and) the result of this "rocess. ;ot only !ords, *ut also !ord+

*uilding affixes!ere *orro!ed into nglish (+a*le, +ment, +ity). Some !ord+grou"s, too, !ere

*orro!ed in their foreign form (cou"+dEetat, vis+a+vis).7n the second meaning the term *orro!ing is also used to denote

translation+loans, or loan+translations (кал/ки) + !ords andex"ressions formed from the language material under the influenceof some foreign !ords and ex"ressions, e.g.' mother tongue F L.lingua materna, it goes !ithout saying F 4r. cela va sans dire, !allne!s"a"er F 6uss. +тен#азета.

#. The term source of *orro!ing is a""lied to the language from!hich a

"articular !ord !as taken into nglish. The term origin of the G!ordshould

*e a""lied to the language the !ord may *e traced to. .g., the 4rench *orro!ing table is Latin *y origin (L. ta*ula), the Latin *orro!ing schoolcame intoLatin from the &reek language (&r. schole).

=hereas the source of *orro!ing is as a rule kno!n and can *e stated !ith some certainty, the actual origin of the !ord may *erather dou*tful.

,o#'s o( Na%i/e O#igin

=ords of native origin consist for the most "art of very ancientelements + 7ndo+uro"ean, &ermanic and =est &ermanic cognates.The *ulk of the :ld nglish !ord+stock has *een "reserved,although some !ords have "assed out of existence. The 2nglo+Saxon stock of !ords makes C+#HI of the nglish voca*ulary.

2lmost all of them *elong to very im"ortant semantic grou"s,among them form+!ords'

+ auxiliary and modal ver*s' shall, !ill, should, !ould, must, can,may+ "ronouns' 7, you, he, my, your, his, !ho, !hose

+ "re"ositions' in, out, on, under+ numerals' one, t!o, three, four, etc.+ conJunctions' and, *ut, till, as.

;otional !ords of 2nglo+Saxon origin'+ "arts of the *ody' head, hand, arm, *ack

+ mem*ers of the family and closest relatives' father, mother, *rother, son,!ife+ natural "henomena and "lanets' sno!, rain, !ind, frost, sun,moon, star+ animals' horse, co!, shee", cat

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+ ?ualities and "ro"erties' old, young, cold, hot, heavy, light, dark,!hite,long+ common actions' do, make, go, come, see, hear, eat.

;ative !ords are highly "olysemantic, stylistically neutral, enter anum*er of "hraseological units.

Bo##oings in %$e Englis$ Lang&age

7n its 1C century long history the nglish language has come inlong and close contact !ith several other languages, mainly Latin,4rench and :ld ;orse (or Scandinavian). The great influx of

*orro!ings from these sources can *e accounted for *y a num*er ofhistorical causes.

0ue to the great influence of the 6oman civili3ation Latin !as fora long time used in ngland as the language of learning and religion,e.g.' a*solute F a*solutus, alge*ra F alge*ra, arm F armare, autumn Fautumnus, *east F *es+tia, calculate F calculus, ha*it F ha*itum,intelligence F intelligentia, machine F machina, num*er F numerum,

"ro"aganda F"ro"agare, recommend F re+comendare, sentence F sentential, s?uare F ?uadrus.:ld ;orse !as the language of the con?uerors !ho !ere on the

same level of social and cultural develo"ment and !ho merged rathereasily !ith the local "o"ulation in the th, 1Hth and the first half of thellth century. xam"les of Scandinavian *orro!ings are' anger F anger,angr (#оре, *е(ал/), fello! F fella!e, felagi (товари3,ко!*ан/он, *арен/), fit F fitten, fitJa (у+траиват/,+в-зыват/), fro F fro, fra (от, из), ha" F ha", ha"" (+лу(а,везение, +(а+т/е), hit F hitten, hitta (*о*адат/ в цел/,удар-т/, *ора1ат/), leg F leg, leggr (но#а, ко+т/ но#и+твол), lo! F lo!, lagr (низки, невы+оки), s!ain F s!ayn,sveinn (!ал/(ик, *арен/, !олодо (еловек), sky F skye,sky (о)+лако, не)о), skill F skile, skil (отли(ие, !а+тер+тво,разли(ие, *он-тие), take F taken, taka ()рат/,хватат/, на(инат/), they F they (они), !ant F !ant(e), vant(недо+таток, ну1да, недо+та3и).

4rench (to *e more exact its ;orman dialect) !as the language of theother con?uerors !ho *rought !ith them a lot of ne! notions of a highersocial system + develo"ed feudalism, it !as the language of the u""erclasses, of official documents and school instruction from the middle ofthe 11th century to the end of the 1%th century' action F accioun,accusation F accusacioun, agrea*le F agrea*le, arms F armes, *aron F

*aron, *aroun, cham*er F cham*re, chivalry F chyval(e)rie, cro!n F

coroune, duke F duk, em"ress F em"eresse.

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!ssi.ila%ion o( Bo##oings

2ssimilation + the "rocess of ada"tation of foreign !ords to thenorms of the language.

Ty"es of assimilation + "honetic, grammatical, lexical.

Deg#ee o( !ssi.ila%ion

$om"letely assimilated !ords do not differ from the native ones in "ronunciation, s"elling, fre?uency, semantic structure and s"here ofa""lication. 7t is difficult to distinguish them from !ords of 2nglo+Saxon origin, e.g.' "u"il, master, city, river, !indo!, dish, *ox. ThemaJority of early *orro!ings have ac?uired full nglish citi3enshi".

Partly assimilated loan !ords fall into su*grou"s'+ !ords not assimilated semantically, e.g.' sari, som*rero, shah,

radJa,+sfeih *ei, toreador, ricksha!"icksha

+ loan !ords not assimilated grammatically, e.g. nouns *orro!edfromLatin or &reek "reserve their original "lural inflexion'

"henomenon + "henomena, addendum + addenda, radius + radii, antenna + antennae+ loan !ords not assimilated "honetically' communi?ue, chaussee,cafe machine, cartoon, "olice *ourgeois, camouflage, "restige, regime,sa*otage,memoir(4r.) s"its (&.) "neumatics, "sychology, "tolomey (&r.)+ loan !ords not com"letely assimilated gra"hically' *allet, *uffet,cor"s,cafe, cliche, *ou?uet, *rioche( 4r.).$om"letely unassimilated !ords, or *ar*arisms, e.g.' addio, ciao

(7t.), af+fiche (4r.) + "lacard/, ad li*itum (Lat.) + at "leasure/.

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)!RT I0 ,ORD1STRUCTURE !ND ,ORD1

FORM!TION

,ORD1FORM!TION IN GENER!L

1.Mor"hemes. Their structural and semantic classifications..5istoric changea*ility of !ord structure.

#.Productive and non+"roductive !ays of !ord+formation.

Mo#"$e.es0 T$ei# S%#&c%&#al an' Se.an%ic

Classi(ica%ions

2 great many !ords have a com"osite nature and are made u" ofsmaller units each having sound form and meaning. These are calledmor"hemes, e.g. teach+er, hel"+less+ness, s"orts+man.

Like a !ord, a mor"heme is a t!o+facet language unit, anassociation of a certain meaning !ith a certain sound+"attern.

8nlike a !ord, a mor"heme is not an autonomous unit and canoccur in s"eech only as a constituent "art of the !ord.

Mor"hemes cannot *e segmented into smaller units, !ithout losing

their constitutive meaning.So, according to the com"lexity of the mor"hemic structure the!ords fall into segmenta*le (child+hood) and non+segmenta*le (dog).

Semantic $lassification of Mor"hemes6oot mor"hemes + they are lexical centres of the !ords, the *asic

constituent "arts of the !ords' *lack+ness, London+eraffixational mor"hemes ("refixessuffixes) + they have a

generali3ed lexical meaning and the "art+of+s"eech meaning' +er, +ist,+ее - doer of an action (;+forming suffixes).

Structural $lassification of Mor"hemes4ree mor"hemes (those !hich coincide !ith the stem) + root

mor"hemes' friend, day, !eek.Bound mor"hemes (occur only as constituent "arts of !ords) +affixes' dis+ re+ +ment +hood.

Semi+*ound (semi+free can function *oth as an affix and as a freemor"heme)' half an hour + half+done, half+eaten do !ell + !ell+kno!nslee" !ell + !ell+done.

His%o#ic C$angea+ili%y o( ,o#'1S%#&c%&#e

Language is never sta*le' it undergoes changes on all its levels' "honetic, mor"hological, lexical, "hraseological, etc.

2s for some mor"hemes, in the course of time they may *ecomefused together or may *e lost altogether. 2s a result of this "rocess,radical changes

A



in the structure of the !ord may take "lace' root+mor"hemes may turninto affixational or semi+affixational mor"hemes, "olymor"hic !ordsmay *ecome monomor"hic, com"ound !ords may *e transformedinto derived or even sim"le !ords.

.g.' the "resent+day suffixes +hood, +dom, +like, +shi" !ere in :root+mor"hemes and stems of inde"endently functioning !ords.

The "resent day nglish monomor"hemic !ords hus*and/

and !oman/ !ere in : com"ound !ords, consisting of t!o stems'hus+*ond+a " хоз-ин, владелец до!а!if+man (:) + !oman (a sim"le !ord).7n the "rocess of historical develo"ment some !ord+structures

under!ent reinter"retation' there are cases !hen sim"le root+!ordscame to *e understood as derived !ords consisting of t!o constituents.

.g.' *eggar, editor, co**ler + the re"resentation of such !ords ledto the formation of sim"le ver*s like + to *eg/, to edit/, to co**le/.

)#o'&c%i/e an' Non"#o'&c%i/e ,ays o( ,o#'1Fo#.a%ion

There are different !ays of forming !ords. =ord+formation is the "rocess of creating !ords from the material availa*le in the languageafter certain structural and semantic formulae and "atterns, e.g.' "aint+

er, !eek+end, TV, doctor + to doctor.Productive !ord+formation is !idely used to form a lot of ne!

!ords !ith the hel" of' 1) affixation, ) !ord+com"osition, #)conversion, %) shortening.

;on+"roductive !ays of !ord+formation are not used no! to formne! !ords, they are' 1) *ack+formation, ) sound+and+stressinterchange.

!FFIX!TION

1. 2ffixation as a ty"e of !ord+formation.. Kinds of affixes.#. Prefixation.%. Suffixation.

!((ixa%ion as a Ty"e o( ,o#'1Fo#.a%ion

2ffixation is the formation of ne! !ords *y adding derivationalaffixes to different ty"es of stems.

:n the derivational level derived !ords consist of a "rimary stem(sim"le, derived, com"ound) and a derivational affix.

.g.' s"ecialist - 2 (a sim"le stem) +ist.hel"lessness - (; less + a derived stem) +ness.



chairmanshi" - (; ; + a com"ound stem) +shi".0egrees of derivation'the 3ero degree + the stem of such !ords coincides !ith a root

mor"heme' "enny, hel", *lackthe 1st degree + the stem of such !ords consists of a root+

mor"heme and a derivational affix' "enni+less, hel"+less, *lack+nessthe nd degree + !ords formed *y t!o consecutive stages of

coining' hel"+less+ness, friend+li+ness

-in's o( !((ixes

Prefixes'1.Prefixation is mostly ty"ical of ver*s..Prefixes change the lexical meaning of the stems (read + reread).#. :nly some "refixes change the "art of s"eech formed' to en+train, toem+*ron3e.Suffixes'1 .Suffixation is mostly characteristic of noun and adJectiveformation.

. Suffixes also change the lexical meaning of !ords' hel"less.#.The maJority of suffixes change the "art of s"eech formed' child+less, to *lack+en. :nly some suffixes do not change "art of s"eech'

*ro!n + *ro!nish, child + childhood, friend + friendshi". They transfer a!ord into another semantic grou" (from concrete to a*stract)' child+childhood.

)#e(ixa%ion

Prefixation is the formation of !ords !ith the hel" of "refixes.There are a*out C1 "refixes in the system of Modern nglish !ord+formation.

Prefixes may *e classified into several grou"s on different

"rinci"les' in accordance !ith their l)origin, )meaning, #)function andaccording to %)the "arts of s"eech formed.

0iachronical $lassification ;ative "refixes' *e + *eset, mis + misdeed, un + una*le, out +

outlet, under + undergo, over + overall, after + afterthought.4oreign "refixes' "re + "redominate, "ost + "ost!ord,J'o +

coordinate, inter + interchange, su"er + su"erstar, su* + su*divide, "ro"rorate, extra + ex+traofficial, anti + anti!ar, ultra + ultramodern.

Many of the native "refixes !ere originally inde"endent !ords,gradually they lost inde"endence and turned into "refixes (out+, under+,over+). Prefixes mis+, un+ have al!ays functioned as "refixes.

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7n the course of time nglish has ado"ted a great many "refixesfrom foreign languages. :ne must *ear in mind that "refixes are

*orro!ed not se"arately, *ut as constituent "arts of *orro!ed !ords.Nuite a num*er of *orro!ed "refixes have *ecome of

international currency' extra+, inter+, su*+, anti+, counter+, su"er+.

Synchronical $lassification

2ccording to the meaning'1. negative "refixes' un + unem"loyed, non + non"roductive, in+ incor rect, dis + disarmament, a + amoral. reversative "refixes' un + unfasten, de + deform, dis +disconnect#. "refixes of time and order' fore + foretell, "re + "re!ar, "ost +

"ost!ar,ex + ex"resident%."refix of re"etition' re + rereadC. locative "refixes' su"er + su"ersonic, su* + su*!ay,

inter +

intercontinental, trans + transatlantic, over + overcoat@. "eJorative "refixes: $+одер1ит отрицател/ну

оценку + неодо)ри"тел/ны! оттенко!&: mal + maltreat $ве+ти +е)-1е+токо *о отноени к(еловеку&, "seudo + "seudoscientific.

2ccording to the "art of s"eech formed' *e + *elittle, de + deface, detrain, en + entra", enslave.2ccording to stylistic reference'+ stylistically neutral (native, Latin),+ stylistically coloured (some &reekones).

2ccording to "roductivity'+ "roductive (re+, un+, dis+),+ non"roductive (a+, for+, !ith+, forth+).

S&((ixa%ion

Suffixation is the formation of !ords !ith the hel" of suffixes.

0iachronic 2""roach ;ative suffixes'+ness, +ish, +dom, +hood, +ing, etc.4oreign suffixes' +ation, +ment, +ance,+tron, +ist, +ism, +ess, +all,+ade.Many of the suffixes of native origin !ere originally

inde"endent !ords. 7n the course of time they gradually lost theirinde"endence and turned into derivational suffixes. .g., such nounsuffixes as +dom, +hood, +shi", may *e traced *ack to !ords'

+dom (: dom - Judgement, sentence + *ри#овор)+hood (: had - state, condition)

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Many suffixes, ho!ever, have al!ays *een kno!n as derivationalsuffixes in the history of the nglish language' +ish, +less, +ness, etc.

4oreign suffixes, as !ell as "refixes, !ere *orro!ed from otherlanguages in the !ords, not se"arately.

Synchronical $lassification2ccording to the "art of s"eech'

1) noun+forming suffixes' +er, +dom, +ness, +ist, +ation, +ism, +ment,+age, +ant, +ее, +ty, +ess) adJective+forming suffixes' +a*le, +less, +ful, +ic, +ous, +ent, +ish,+аl,+ative#) ver*+forming suffixes' +en, +fy, +i3e, +ate%) adver*+forming suffixes' +ly,+!ard.2ccording to the meaning'1. noun suffixes'a) agent, "rofession, occu"ation' +er, +eer, +ant, +ist, etc.

*)a""urtinence' +an + 2ra*ian, +ian + 6ussian, +ese + Da"anesec) collectivity' +age, +dom, +ery, +hood, +shi"d) a*stract ideas' +age, +ence, +ancy, +dom, +hood, +shi", +ment, +ism,+tion, +sion, +th, +ty, +ness. adJective suffixes'a) "resence of ?uality' +ous, +ful, +a*le (+i*le) *) a*sence of ?uality' +less.2ccording to stylistic reference'

+ stylistically neutral,+ stylistically coloured' +oid, +iform,

+tron.2ccording to "roductivity'+ "roductive,+ non+"roductive' +ock, +lock, +t.

,ORD1COM)OSITION

1. $om"ounding as a ty"e of !ord+formation..Structure of com"ound !ords' their inse"ara*ility.#.Meaning of com"ound !ords. Motivation in com"ounds.%.$lassification of com"ounds.

C.Sources of com"ounds.

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Co."o&n'ing as a Ty"e o( ,o#'1Fo#.a%ion

$om"ounding (or !ord+com"osition) is a "roductive ty"e of!ord+formation. $om"ounds are made u" *y Joining together at leastt!o stems, mostly stems of notional "arts of s"eech. $om"ounds havedifferent degree of com"lexity' they may consist of sim"le and derivedstems.

S%#&c%&#e o( Co."o&n' ,o#'s2 T$ei# Inse"a#a+ili%y

$om"ounds are structurally and "honetically inse"ara*le. Structurallycom"ounds are characteri3ed *y the s"ecific order and arrangement ofstems.The order in !hich the t!o stems are "laced together !ithin a com"ound isstrictly fixed in Modern nglish and it is the second stem !hich is thestruc+tural and semantic centre of the com"ound, e.g.' *a*y+sitter, !riting+ta*le.

Phonetically com"ounds are also marked *y a s"ecific structure of theiro!n. ;o "honetic changes of stems take "lace in com"osition, *ut the com+

"ound !ord gets a ne! stress "attern, different from the stress in the!ords !ith similar stems, e.g.' Ekey, Ehole +O Ekey+hole. $om"ounds havethree stress "atterns'

1. 2 high or unity stress on the first com"onent' Edoor!ay,Edra!*ack,E*lack*oard.. 2 dou*le stress' !ith a "rimary stress on the first com"onentand a!eaker, secondary stress on the second com"onent' E*lood,vessel,E!ashing+ma,chine.#. 2 level stress' Eo"en+Eeyed, Eicy+Ecold, Egrass+Egreen.&ra"hically most com"ounds have t!o ty"es of s"elling' they are

!ritten either solidly or !ith a hy"hen. 7t differs from author to authorand from dictionary to dictionary,e.g.' !ar+"ath - !ar"ath

*lood+transfusion - *loodtransfusion!ord+grou" - !ordgrou"

Meaning o( Co."o&n' ,o#'s0 Mo%i/a%ion in Co."o&n's

Semantically the maJority of com"ounds are motivated units' their mean+ing is derived from the com*ined lexical meanings of their com"onents. Thesemantic centre of the com"ound is the lexical meaning of the secondcom"onent modified and restricted *y the meaning of the first,

e.g.' a hand*ag - a *ag carried in the handan ear+ring - a ring to !ear in the ear.

But the meaning of a com"ound is not a sim"le sum of lexicalmeanings of its com"onents' the ne! meaning dominates over theindividual meanings

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of the com"onents. The lexical meanings of *oth com"onents are closelyfused together to create a ne! semantic unit,

e.g.' a time+*om* - a *om* designed to ex"lode at a certain time.The meaning of the com"ound is also derived from the meaning of

its distri*utional "attern.2 sim"le change in the order of stems !ith the same lexical

meanings results in a drastic change in the lexical meaning of the

com"ound,e.g.' fruit+market is different from market+fruit *oat+life is different from life+*oat.So, the lexical meaning of a com"ound is derived from the

com*ined lexical meanings of its com"onents and the structuralmeaning of its distri*utional "attern.

2ccording to different degrees of motivation com"ounds are'com"letely motivated + *oth com"onents are used in their direct

meanings' shoe+maker, s"ortsman "artially motivated + one com"onent + in the direct, the other + in

indirect meaning' flo!er+*ed, castle+*uildercom"letely nonmotivated (!ith lack of motivation) + there is no

connection *et!een the meaning of the com"ound and the lexical

meanings of the com"onents' fiddlesticks (nonsense), eye+!ash (smth.said or done to deceive a "erson).

Classi(ica%ion o( Co."o&n's

2ccording to the degree of semantic inde"endence ofstems according to the "art of s"eech according to themeans of connection of stems according to the ty"es ofstems.

2ccording to the degree of semantic inde"endence of stemscom"ounds are'1) su*ordinative + the com"onents are neither structurally nor

semanti+cally e?ual in im"ortance, the head mem*er is the nd com"onent'

*a*y+sitter, s"eedometer) coordinative + *oth stems are semantically e?ually im"ortant,

*oth!ords are structural and semantic centres.

$oordinative com"ounds may *e'a) redu"licative + made u" *y re"etition of the same !ord' fifty+fifty,hush+hush, goody+goody *) "honetically variated rhythmic t!in forms' chit+chat, 3ig+3ag,cla"tra", helter+skelterc) additive + are formed from stems of the inde"endentlyfunctioning!ords of the same "art of s"eech. They denote a "erson or an o*Jectthat is t!othings at the same time.

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4unctional classification + com"ounds are vie!ed as different "arts of s"eech, !hich is indicated *y the second stem'

+ nouns' *irthday, !eek+end, mother+in+la!+ adJectives' "eace+loving, long+legged+ adver*s' some!here, indoors, inside+ "ronouns' some*ody, something+ connectives' !ithin, !ithout

+ ver*s'

a)ver*al and adver*ial stems' to *y"ass, to inlay, to offset, *) ver*s formed *y means of conversion' to !eek+end, togooseflesh, to

*lacklist.2ccording to the means of connection'+formed *y "lacing one sim"le stem !ith a linking element

after the other' s"edometer, 2fro+2sian (o), handicraft (i)statesman, sales+man (s)

+!ithout any linking element' headache, man+made.2ccording to the ty"e of stems Joined together'+com"ounds "ro"er' formed *y Joining together stems of !ords

availa*le in the language, !ith or !ithout the hel" of s"ecial linkingelement, e.g. street+lam", age+long+derivational com"ounds' one of the stems is derived, e.g.

*ed+sitter, ty"e+!riter, long+legged.

Patterns of$om"ounds $om"ound nouns' ; ; +

"encil+case ; (V er)Q + "eace+fighter ; (V tionment)Q + office+management, "rice+reduction7n general com"ounds are formed from the stems of !ords

availa*le in the language according to "roductive "atterns' dog+days,rosy+cheeked.

$om"ounds can also *e the result of a gradual "rocess of semantic

isolation and structural fusion of free !ord+grou"s, e.g.' forget+me+not, *read+and+*utter, hook+and+ladder, man+of+!ar, u"+to+date.$om"ounding is a very interesting and "ro*lematic "henomenon.

Though many investigations have *een done in this field still there aremany "ro*lems to *e solved' ty"ological study of "atterns ofcom"ounds, motivation, com"ounds formed *y means of conversion,the stone wall +"ro*lem (is it a free !ord+grou" or a com"ound !ord R).

CON*ERSION

1. 0efinition. Treatment of conversion.. Semantic relations *et!een conversion "airs.

#. Traditional and occasional conversion.

De(ini%ion0 T#ea%.en% o( Con/e#sion

$onversion (to convert + *ревра3ат/) + is highly "roductive inre"lenishing the nglish !ord+stock !ith ne! !ords. The termconversion/ refers to numerous cases of "honetic identity of t!o!ords *elonging to different "arts of s"eech, e.g.' "a"er + to "a"er,!ork + to !ork.

4rom the angle of their mor"hemic structure these !ords are root+!ords. :n the derivational level, ho!ever, one of them (the nd) is aderived !ord, as it *elongs to a different "art of s"eech and isunderstood through semantic relations !ith the other, i.e. is motivated

*y it. The ?uestion arises' !hat serves as a !ord+*uilding means inthese casesR The ans!er is that the t!o !ords differ in the "aradigm,and it is the "aradigm that is used as a !ord+*uilding means in cases ofconversion. 5ence, conversion is the formation of a ne! !ordthrough changes in its "aradigm.

There are t!o main cases of conversion'



+ formation of ver*s from nouns and rarely from other "arts ofs"eech'doctor + to doctor (from noun) thin + to thin (from adJective)do!n + to do!n(from "re"osition)+ formation of nouns from ver*s and rarely from other "arts ofs"eech' to

cut + a cut (from ver*) *ut + to *ut (from conJunction) u"s anddo!ns (fromadver*s).$onversion has *een studied since 1A1, and it !as 5. S!eet !ho

first used this term in his ;e! nglish &rammar/.$onversion has *een treated differently'

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1. The treatment of conversion as a mor"hological !ay of forming!ords!as suggested *y "rof. Smirnitsky, and according to thisa""roach a

"aradigm is considered a mor"hological category.. Syntactic a""roach to conversion (functional). 2 num*er ofnglish

and 2merican linguists regard conversion as a kind of functionalchange, i.e.they consider that a !ord may function as t!o different "arts ofs"eech at thesame time. 7f so, they no longer distinguish *et!een "arts ofs"eech, i.e. *et!een nouns and ver*s, nouns and adJectives, etc. But one and thesame !ordcannot simultaneously *elong to different "arts of s"eech.#. Mor"hological + syntactic a""roach to conversion (*y 7.V.2rnold) asit involves *oth a change of the "aradigm and a change of thesyntactic func

tion of the !ord. But it is not correct *ecause the syntacticalfactor is a se?uence of changes in the "aradigm, that is irrelevant.

2""roaches to $onversion0iachronic a""roach analyses !hich of the t!o !ords !as

derived and the semantic develo"ment of each !ord'smoke (ды!) + to smoke (ды!ит/) in 1@@#,to smoke + ко*тит/ in 11C,to smoke > ко*тит/+- smoke > ко*от/ (at "resent).Synchronical a""roach deals !ith the semantic relations *et!een

!ords related through conversion.

Se.an%ic Rela%ions +e%een Con/e#sion )ai#s2s one of the t!o !ords !ithin a conversion "air is semantically

derived from the other, it is of great theoretical and "ractical im"ortanceto determine the semantic relations *et!een the !ords related throughconversion.

7. Ver*s converted from nouns. 7f the noun refers to some o*Ject ofreality (*oth animate and inanimate) the converted ver* may denote'

1. action characteristic of the o*Ject, e.g. !itness + to !itness a"e +toa"e dog + to dog. instrumental use of the o*Ject, e.g. el*o! + to el*o!hammer + tohammer stone + to stone#. ac?uistion, or addition of the o*Ject, e.g. fish + to fish tail + totailgrass + to grass dust + to dust%. de"rivation of the o*Ject, e.g. skin + to skin dust + to dust *one+ to

*one stone + to stone tail + to tailC. location (!ith nouns denoting "laces, *uildings, containers), e.g.

*ag +to *ag "ocket + to "ocket house + to house tail + to tail@. tem"oral relations, e.g. !inter + to !inter !eek+end + to !eek+end.77. ;ouns converted from ver*s may denote'

1



1. instance (moment) of an action, e.g. to Jum" + a Jum" tos!im + as!im to ste" + a ste" to laugh + a laugh. agent or doer of an action, e.g. to hel" + a hel" to cheat + a cheatto

*ore + a *ore#.manner of the action, e.g. to drive + a drive to !alk + a !alk to

stand+ a stand%.o*Ject or result of action, e.g. to "eel + "eel to cut + a cut to

find + afind to make + a make.

There are cases of "olysemy of ver*s or nouns in conversion "airs, e.g.' to dust, to tail, to stone.

T#a'i%ional an' Occasional Con/e#sion

Modern nglish voca*ulary is exceedingly rich in conversion "airs.$onversion in Modern nglish is extremely "roductive' ne! conversion

"airs a""ear in fiction, ne!s"a"er articles and in oral communication inall s"heres of human activity gradually forcing their !ay into the

existing voca*ulary and into the dictionaries as !ell. ;e! conversion "airs are created on the analogy !ith those !hich already exist in the!ord+stock according to the semantic "atterns descri*ed a*ove.

7n Modern nglish conversion has *ecome highly "roductive in theformation of ver*s, es"ecially from com"ound nouns and of !ordsformed *y conversion and affixation, e.g.' microfilm + to microfilm

*a*y+sitter + to *a*y+sit tear+gas + to tear+gas *loodtransfusion + to *loodtransfuse.

Ty"es of conversion'+ traditional + the acce"ted use of !ords !hich are recorded indictionar ies, e.g. cook + to cook+ occasional + such !ords are used in a given context only, forsome occasion and do not enter the !ord+stock of the language, e.g. girl +to girl *oot

+ to *oot *utcher + to *utcher. 7 !ant to *oot you of this house/(Priestly).

SHORTENING

1.Shortening as a minor !ay of !ord+formation..&ra"hical shortening.#.Lexical shortening.

%.Blending.

S$o#%ening as a Mino# ,ay o( ,o#'1Fo#.a%ion

Shortening of !ords is the !ay of the formation of ne! !ords *ymeans of su*stituting a "art of the !ord for a !hole. This "rocessaffects *oth !ords

1A



and !ord+grou"s. Therefore, the term shortening of !ords/ is to *eregarded as conventional.

Ty"es of shortening'+ gra"hical a**reviations,+ lexical shortening + lexical a**reviations, cli""ings, *lendings.2ll shortened !ords function in the language as any other

ordinary !ord does, so they can take on grammatical inflections'

exams , MPs , PMs may *e used !ith *oth ty"es of articles' theBB$, a *ike, the li* they may *e com*ined !ith derivational affixesand may *e used in com"ounding' 9$L+er MP+ess uro+MP etc.

G#a"$ical S$o#%ening

These are signs re"resenting !ords and !ordgrou"s of highfre?uency of occurrence in !ritten s"eech' scientific *ooks, articles,advertisements, letters, etc.

Letters'St + Street 6d + 6oad co + care of Mr., Mrs., 0r., i.e. P.S.P.P.S.Scientific *ooks, dictionaries'

*., v., a., adv., "re"., e.g., usu. cf. + com"are L., , 4r., ".m., "., ""., "ar + "aragra"h f. + follo!ing P.t.o. i*., o"., cit, etc.2dvertisements, announcements'Dan., 4e*., 2"r., Se"t., :ct., ;ov., d + "enny, L + denarius o3 +

ounce (A,# gm) in + inch (,C% cm) sec. + second gm + grammecm + centimetre ft+ foot (H,#Cm) Mon., Tues., Thurs., 4ri., Sat.L.P.+ Long Playing Tel. a.o.*. + any other *usiness B.L.=. + *lackand !hite (film) m.".h. + miles "er hour.

nglish gra"hical a**reviations include rather numerousshortened variants of Latin and 4rench !ords and !ord+grou"s,

e.g., a.m. (L. ante meridiem) + in the morning ".m. (L. "ost meridiem) + in the afternooni.e. (L. id est) + that is

a.d. (L. 2nno 0omini) + of our eraB.$. (L. Before $hrist) + of the "ast erai*. (L. i*idem) + in the same "lace

*.f. (4r. *ona fide) + sincerelye.g. (L. exem"li gratia), etc.Latin a**reviations are usually read as their nglish e?uivalents.=ays of formation of gra"hical a**reviations'+ initial shortening' a.m. P.t.o.+ sylla*le shortening' :ct.7n reading many of them are su*stituted *y the !ords and

"hrases that they re"resent' 0r. + 0octor ;ov. + ;ovem*er govt. +government.

1



Lexical S$o#%ening

Lexical 2**reviation7t is natural that in the course of time and language develo"ment

some gra"hical a**reviations should "enetrate into the s"here of orals"eech and turn into lexical a**reviations, used *oth in oral and !rittens"eech, e.g.' MP, S.:.S., TV, etc.

They are formed *y a simultaneous o"eration of shortening andcom "ounding . They are made u" of the initial sounds, e.g. TV, orsylla*les of the com"onents of a !ord+grou", e.g. "o"+music, or acom"ound !ord' V+day.

=ays of reading lexical a**reviations'+ as a succession of al"ha*etical reading of the constituentletters'&.M.T.+ &reen!ich mean time a V.7.P. + a very im"ortant

"erson $ +uro"ean conomic $ommunity.+ as a succession of sounds denoted *y the constituent letters, i.e. asif thea**reviations !ere ordinary !ords' 8;: + 8nited ;ation

:rgani3ation ;2T: 8;S$: + 8nited ;ation ducational, Scientific and$ultural :r+gani3ation.2s a rule, lexical a**reviations do not include functional !ords

("re"ositions, articles, etc.), although there are some exce"tions, e.g.'6. and 0. + research and develo"ment "rogramme.

7n t!o+mem*er !ord+grou"s as a rule the first com"onent isshortened' V+day 5+*om* M+day (the first day of mo*ili3ation) 0+day(decimal) + ден/ введени- де+-ти(но !онетно+и+те!ы 1C.H.11 L+driver (learner driver).

7n three+mem*er !ord+grou"s the first t!o com"onents areshortened, e.g.' V.D.+0ay 5.M. The Nueen.

$li""ing$li""ing consists in the cutting off one or several sylla*les of a

!ord. 7n some cases it is the stressed sylla*le !hich is left after cuttingoff, e.g.' sis +sister doc. + doctor telly + television 2lf + 2lfred d +d!ard Sam +Samuel.

Sometimes, ho!ever, the unstressed sylla*le remains, e.g.' "hone +tele"hone 2lec + 2lexander "lane + air"lane Bess + li3a*eth.

Kinds of cli""ing'1. a"haeresis + initial cli""ing, e.g.' "hone + tele"hone cologne +aude+cologne. a"oco"e + final cli""ing, e.g.' demo + demonstration steno +stenogra

"her disco + discothe?ue limo + limousine li* + li*eration

H



#. synco"e + middle cli""ing, e.g.' maths + mathematics "ants+ "antaloons s"ecs + s"ectacles%.mixed ty"e + cli""ing at the *eginning and at the end, e.g.'frig, fridge

+ refrigeration tec + detective flu + influen3a.2s a rule in Modern nglish nouns are shortened there are

very fe! cli""ed adJectives and they all *elong to Jargonisms, e.g.'dilly + delightful comfy + comforta*le im"ass + im"ossi*le mi33y +misera*le. 2s for cli""ed ver*s they are usually formed fromcli""ed nouns *y means of conversion, e.g.' to taxi + taxi to "hone+ "hone.

7n most cases a shortened !ord exists in the language together!ith the longer !ord from !hich it is derived and usually has thesame lexical meaning, differing only in emotive charge and style. 7nthis case !e s"eak a*out the variants of one and the same !ord,e.g.' exam + examination, sis + sister. =hen there is a semanticdifference *et!een a shortened unit and a longer one they must *ecalled t!o distinct !ords, e.g.' ca* + нае!ны 5ки*а1, ca*riolet+ ка)риолет.

Shortening affects not only !ords *ut !ord+grou"s as !ell.$li""ed "hrases a""ear as a result of'

+ elli"ses + omission of a !ord or !ords in a "hrase !hen theremaining

"art kee"s the lexical meaning of the !hole "hrase,+ su*stantivation + dro""ing out of the final noun in anattri*utive "hrase,!hen the remaining adJective kee"s the meaning and all thesyntactical functions of the noun,+ cli""ing of su*stantivated !ords follo!ed *y elli"ses,e.g.' "u* (su*st.) - "u*lic (cli""ing) house (elli"ses) a sit+

do!n (su*st.) - a sit+do!n (su*st.) demonstration (elli"ses) "o"(su*st.) - "o"ular (cli""ing) music (elli"ses) nuke (su*st.) - nuclear(cli""ing) *om* (elli"ses).

Su*stantivation is often accom"anied *y "roductive suffixation,e.g.' a t!o+decker + a t!o+deck *us outdoorsy + outdoors ty"es of

"eo"le old+timer + old time man (+тарик).

Blen'ing

Blending is a s"ecific ty"e of shortening. Blends are formed *ymeans of merging "arts of !ords (not mor"hemes) into one ne!!ord. 7n other !ords *lending is com"ounding *y means of cli""ed!ords. Many *lends are shortlived, others + long+lived, e.g.':x*ridge medicare "o"cert ("o"ular concert) fruice (fruite Juice)

"omato ("otato tomato) medine!s (medical ne!s) *o+tel (*oat hotel) yarden (yard garden) 7rangate cashomat (cash automat)

*reathalyser (*reath analyser) chifforo*e (chiffonier !ardro*e)docudrama (documentary drama) learn (la3er *eam)eurocommunism, etc.

1



)!RT II0SEM!SIOLOGY

ME!NING

1.5istorical a""roaches to the study of !ord meaning..&rammatical meaning.#.Lexical meaning.

%.0enotational and connotational meaning.

His%o#ical !""#oac$es %o %$e S%&'y o( ,o#' Meaning

Ancient Greece – Nature vs. Convention

7n ancient &reece and 6ome the study of language !as a "art of "hiloso"hy. The ancient &reeks first tackled the study of language. Thedifference *et!een the &reek and the 6oman a""roach !as that the&reeks never took things for granted and !ere more educated in allareas, !hile the 6omans took over the methods and reinter"reted them.The matter in the study of language that the &reeks !ere most interestedin !as the relation *et!een !ords and the meaning of the !ords (word

- world). ven today semanticists !ander a*out the meaning. Theorigin of meaning !as never accurately defined. Plato !as the first oneto !ander a*out the meaning and the study of language. 5e !as anaturalist. The maJor issue !as the conflict *et!een nature andconventions therefore there !ere t!o streams in the science and they!ere naturalism and conventionalism.

4or the naturalists the maJor term !as onomato"oeia, imitation ofsounds. They *elieved that the !ord meaning should *e derived from theimitation of sounds, derived from the !orld naturally *y imitation +sound sym*olism. =henever !e name an o*Ject there is something inthe sound that imitates, im"lies the referent. There is a sound link

*et!een the referent and !ord. 7n those days the num*er of !ords that

imitate nature !as great, *ut today the num*er has fallen to a I of thevoca*ulary.

Phonaesthetic - There is something in the "ronunciation of the!ord !hich relates certain aesthetic value and associates to a certainmeaning so that the !ords are motivated. This !as the theory of Plato,the first naturalist !ho *elieved that nature is the leading "rinci"le inlife. Through the course of time the connection *et!een the !ords andthe sounds started to fade and no!adays there is no relation *et!eenthem although the connection might have started *y a !ay of imitation.

The conventionalists *ased their theory of !ord meaning on aconvention or an agreement. The meaning for them !as ar*itrary.There is no link *et!een the !ords and nature i.e. the !ords areunmotivated. m"irically s"eak+



ing there are more !ords that lack relation !ith the nature than thereare onomato"oeic !ords. The conflict *et!een the naturalists andthe conventionalists "ersisted until the "resent days. 0e Saussurethought that there is no dou*t !hat so ever that the !ord meaning isconventional.

Referential Theory of Meaning

The maJor thesis of this theory !as that the !ord meaning is theactual referent. The meaning of a tree is the actual referent thatoccurs or the o*Ject in the !orld. This a""roach encounters someserious difficulties. =hat a*out those !ords that lack reference suchas' a dragon, a unicorn, Pegasus, etc. Philoso"hy !ould say that !ecannot o*serve unicorns *ut !e can have a mental "icture a*outthem. Extension is a "art of meaning that includes all the "ossi*leoccurrences of the referent. Intention is the sense "art of the !ordand it evokes different associations. Since reference is not enough,!hat is the sense of the !ordsR Semanticists say that the !ordmeaning should corres"ond to some mental images, !ord meaningis the image of the referent. This is the 7mage Theory of Meaning.

There are some !ords such as' hello, but or and that cannot createan image and also have different images a*out things, e.g. dog - it isdifficult for all the s"eakers to have one general image of a dog.That is !hy the a""roach of direct linking *et!een the !ord and thereferent is a*andoned. The !ord meaning should *e "resented *y amediator medium, !hich means mentally re"resented reference inour mind.

Conceptual Theory of Meaning - De SaussureConcepts are not individual occurrences *ut a !hole set of

occurrences. The conce"t is in our mind and it is not an image. 4irst!e conce"tualise. Then !e need to lexicalise the conce"t, then togrammaticalise it and then use it in a conversation. =e should take

into consideration the !hole extension, !hich means the more data!e "rocess in the act of conce"tualisation the *etter the conce"t inour mind. The "ro*lem !ith this theory is that it may !ork !ith!ords *ut not !ith units larger than !ords such as' "hrases, clausesor sentences that also have meaning. Linguists !ere disa""ointed *ythe theories that have develo"ed so far. Then there came the$homskiEs theory in the sixties !hich !as "art of the generativesemantics (transformational a""roach). Their goal !as to s"lit u" the!ord meaning, to go *eyond the smallest meaningful unit. They s"litthe !ord meaning not formally into mor"hemes *ut they analysedthe mor"hemes into further smaller units of meaning. Those units!ere called semantic markers ("rimitives, features or com"onents).

The !hole theory is semantic decom"osition or com"onentialanalysis. This com"onential analysis !orks fine !ith !ords thathave some lexical relation such as' boy, son, woman, daughter orbrother, e.g. boy - animate + adult male

23



human. But ho! can !e descri*e the red colour using this theory,red -colour. Such exam"les ruin the !hole theory. 2lso the !ords!hich are used to descri*e other !ords such as' male or human for aboy are lexical !ords themselves and according to the theory can *edivided into smaller units. 7n order to a*ridge the difficulties, thesemanticists created semantic distinguish+ers that are semantic markersof a first, second and third degree !hose role is to descri*e the !ords

semantically.

Use Theory of Meaning This theory !as set *y the "hiloso"her =idgenstern that says if you

!ant to find a meaning of a !ord, you should find its use or descri*e it *y its use. =hat he meant to say is that the meaning is in its usage andthere are as many meanings as there are uses. 2 !ord does notnecessarily have one meaning. This !as the *eginning of "ragmatics.The actual meaning gets real in real life, in actual communication or in as"ecific situation. =e have different meaning in different contexts.

(4rom' Macedonian Lectures on Lexicology)

G#a..a%ical MeaningThe *ranch of lexicology that is devoted to the study of

meaning is kno!n as semasiology.Meaning is one of the most difficult "ro*lems in the theory of

language and it has *een the to"ic of intermina*le discussions. There isno universally acce"ted definition of meaning. 2ll the linguists agreethat !ord+meaning is not homogeneous *ut it is made u" of variouscom"onents. They are usually descri*ed as ty"es of meaning+grammatical and lexical.

=e notice that the !ords wor!ed, ended, played, etc., thosedenoting different actions, have a common element + the grammaticalmeaning of "ast tense.

The !ords girls, tables, plates have the common element of "lurality.7n the !ord+forms sister"s, wor!er"s, etc. the common element is

the case meaning.Thus, grammatical meaning may *e defined as the com"onent of

meaning !hich is al!ays seen in identical sets of individual forms ofdifferent !ords.

Modern linguists ackno!ledge that some elements of grammaticalmeaning can *e revealed *y definite "osition of the linguistic unit inrelation to other linguistic units, i.e. *y its distri*ution. So, !ord+formsreads, plays, as!s, etc. have one and the same grammatical meaning asthey can all *e found in identical distri*ution, e.g., only after the

"ronouns he, she, it and *efore adver*s like !ell, usually, today , etc.

24



The distri*ution of other !ord+forms reveals anothergrammatical meaning' too!, repeated, as!ed are al!ays found notonly after the "ronouns he, she, it, *ut also after 7, you, !e, they,and *efore the adver*s yesterday, last !eek, a year ago, etc.

Lexical Meaning

Besides grammatical meaning !ords have lexical meaning.The !ords go, goes, went, going, gone, having different grammaticalmeanings, have one and the same semantic com"onent denoting the

"rocess of movement. This is the lexical meaning of the !ords. Thelexical meaning may *e descri*ed as the com"onent of meaning

"ro"er to the !ord as a linguistic unit in all its forms anddistri*utions.

The irrelation of the lexical and the grammatical meaning andthe role "layed *y each varies in different !ord+classes and even indifferent grou"s of !ords !ithin one and the same class. 7n some

"arts of s"eech the "revailing com"onent is the grammatical ty"e ofmeaning. 7n linking ver*s and auxiliary ver*s (to *e, to have, toturn, to gro!, to do) the grammatical meaning "revails.

5e is a teacher. + 5e !ill *e a teacher.5e has a good voice. + 5e has done it !ell.5e turned his head. + 5e turned "ale.5e gre! a clever *oy. + 5e gre! red at those !ords.5e did it himself. + 5e did not read this *ook.

Deno%a%ional an' Conno%a%ional Meaning

The lexical meaning is not homogeneous either, it consists of'+ denotational meaning (semes) + com"onent of the lexicalmeaning thatmakes communication "ossi*le the *asis of the lexical meaningis some no

tion+ connotational meaning !hich is divided into emotive chargeand stylistic reference. The emotive charge sho!s the amount of emotion!hich a !ord

"ossesses it is one of the o*Jective features "ro"er to !ords aslinguistic unitsand it forms "art of the connotational com"onent of meaning.motive chargeis clearly seen in emotional !ords denoting different emotionsand feelings,e.g.' love, hatred, des"air, Joy, grief, etc.

Besides it can *e seen in some grou"s of synonyms, e.g.' large, *ig, tremendous like, love, !orshi" girl, girlie. There is differencein the emotive charge of the mem*ers of these sets.

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The emotive charge varies in different "arts of s"eech. 7n some ofthem, e.g. in interJections !hich all donEt name anything *ut ex"ressfeelings of a s"eaker, the emotive charge "revails, e.g.'

2lasU + the feeling of sadness,gosh + the feeling of sur"rise,ah, oh, dear me + a general feeling.7n conJunctions it "ractically does not exist.

;ot all the !ords have emotive charge, e.g.' ta*le, "en, !indo!.motive charge should not *e confused !ith emotive im"lication

!hich the !ords may get in s"eech. 8nlike the emotive charge theemotive im"lication of the !ord largely de"ends on the individualex"eriences of the s"eaker. Su*Jective !ords devoid of any emotionalelement may "ossess in the case of individual s"eakers strong emotiveim"lication, e.g.' a cigarette, exam, hos"ital, lexicology, foot*all.

LEXIC!L ME!NING2 STYLISTIC REFERENCE

1. Stylistic reference

. 4unctional style of s"eech.#. 0ivision of voca*ulary into different layers.%. 4ormal voca*ulary.C. 7nformal voca*ulary.

S%ylis%ic Re(e#ence

Stylistic reference and emotive charge of !ords are closelyconnected and to a certain degree interde"endent. 2s a rule, stylisticallycoloured !ords, i.e. !ords *elonging to all stylistic layers exce"t theneutral style are o*served to "ossess a considera*le emotive charge.This can *e "roved *y com"aring stylistically coloured !ords !ith theirneutral synonyms. The collo?uial !ords daddy, mummy are more

emotional than the neutral #ather, mother. The slang !ords mum, bobare more ex"ressive than their neutral synonyms silent, shilling$ the

"oetic yon and steed carry a heavier emotive charge than their neutralsynonyms there and horse.

F&nc%ional S%yle o( S"eec$

7n a highly develo"ed language like nglish or 6ussian the sameidea may *e ex"ressed differently in different situations. Thisdifference de"ends on the style of s"eech. 7n general, the style meansthe collective characteristics of !riting, diction, or any artisticex"ression and the !ay of "resenting things.

@



Linguistically, a functional style may *e defined as a system ofex"ressive means "eculiar to a s"ecific s"here of communication.

The lexicological treatment of style is *ased on the "rinci"le oflexical o""ositions. The *asis of o""osition is created *y thesimilarity of denotational meaning, the distinctive feature is thestylistic reference. The *roadest *inary division is into formal andinformal (collo?uial) nglish.

Di/ision o( *oca+&la#y in%o Di((e#en% Laye#s

Stylistically !ords can *e su*divided into formal, neutral andinformal layers. The formal and informal layers contain a num*erof su*grou"s. The main as"ect of the formal layer is its *ookishcharacher, !hich makes the layer more or less sta*le. The as"ect ofthe informal layer is its lively s"oken character. 7t is this that makes itunsta*le. The as"ect of the neutral layer is its universal character' itcan *e em"loyed in all styles of language and in all s"heres ofhuman activity.

Both formal and informal !ords have their u""er and lo!erranges. The lo!er range of *ookish !ords a""roaches the neutral

layer and has a tendency to "ass into that layer. The same may *esaid of the u""er range of the informal layer' it can very easily "assinto the neutral layer. The lines of demarcation *et!een informaland neutral, on the one hand, and *ookish and neutral, on the otherhand, are *lurred. ;eutral !ords, !hich form the *ulk of the nglishvoca*ulary, are used in *oth literary and collo?uial language.

Fo#.al *oca+&la#y

Literary !ords are chiefly used in !riting and in "olisheds"eech'1. common literary !ords (learned !ords) + mostly

"olysemantic, used in

*ooks of elevated style and in *ooks on science, e.g.' calamity, "roceed, endeavour, fare!ell, to *ehold. terms + !ords associated !ith a definite *ranch of science,used mostly in scientific !orks, *ut !hich may a""ear inne!s"a"er, "u*licistic and *elles+letters style they are usuallymonosemantic, e.g.' terms of chemistry + oxygen, hydrogen,acid terms of medicine + "enicillin, influen3a "hysics +nucleus art + renaissance, gargoyle. =ith the increase ofgeneral education many!ords, once terms, have "assed into the common literary, e.g.'TV, radio, loan

#. officialese and Journalese + !ords used in mass media todescri*e occurrences of "olitical life, e.g.' memorandum, voting%. "oetic !ords and archaisms, e.g.' ere + *efore mere+lake yon + there nay + no steed + horse !arrior + soldier!elkin + skyC. *ar*arisms and foreign !ords. Bar*arisms + !ords offoreign originnot entirely assimilated into nglish. They have an a""earanceand "ronuncia+

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tion of their native language, e.g.' au revoir maitre dEhotel achtung *itte *asta voila (here). Bar*arisms are !ords !hich have *ecome factsof the nglish language and are registered in dictionaries. 4oreign !ordsdo not *elong to nglish, are not registered in dictionaries. 7n "rinted!orks they are generally italici3ed to indicate their alien nature.Bar*arisms, on the contrary are not made cons"icuous in the text.

In(o#.al *oca+&la#yThe informal "art is traditionally su*divided into literary collo?uial

(cultivated s"eech), familiar collo?uial, lo! collo?uial (illiterates"eech). Literary collo?uial is used *y educated "eo"le in classicalliterature in the course of ordinary conversation or !hen !riting lettersto intimate friends. 4amiliar col lo?uial is more emotional and muchmore free and careless than literary collo?uial. 7t is also characterised *ya great num*er of Jocular !ords, ironical ex"ressions and nonce+!ords.

Lo! collo?uial is illiterate "o"ular s"eech. 7t includes'1. slang+!ords that are regarded as violation of the norms ofStandardnglish, e.g.' dirt (money), dotty (mad), the catEs "yJamas (the

correct thing), *read+*asket (stomach), governor (father), slee"er (a course oflectures), faky(sus"icious). Slang is easily understood *y the nglish+s"eaking

"eo"le and isonly regarded as something not ?uite regular. Jargonisms (argot) + !ords marked *y their use !ithin a

"articular social grou" and having a secret character. Dargonisms are usuallyold !ords!ith entirely ne! meaning im"osed on them, e.g.' to а+е(универ+.) + *олу

(ит/ вы+у оценку на 5кза!ене, six (+туд.) +у)орна-, sneak (к.) + -)еда, $harley + ло*ух heavy cream + тол+тука horse +#ероин *read +ден/#и acid + наркотик *in + +у!а+еди до! out+of+sight + кла++ны,*отр-+ны, кл6вы cold turkey + #ола- *равда#. "rofessionalisms + !ords used in a definite trade, "rofession.Theycommonly designate some !orking "rocess, tools, instruments' tin+fish + su*marine outer + a knockout *lo! egg + *om*%. dialectical !ords are those !hich in the "rocess of integration

of thenglish national language remained *eyond its literary

*oundaries, and their use is generally confined to a definite locality, e.g.' kirk +церков/ firth +у+т/е реки naething eneugh maisterC. vulgarisms + coarse !ords that are not generally used in "u*lic.Thereare different degrees of vulgar !ords. Some of them should noteven *e fixedin common dictionaries. They are eu"hemistically called four+letter/ !ords.

2 lesser degree of vulgarisms is "resented *y !ords like damn,bloody, son o# a bitch, to hell and others' ra**itU+ (ерт *одериU rat (you)U +*ро*ади ты*ро*адо!U



A



@. s"ontaneous collo?uial coinages. :nly some of them are fixed indictionaries most of them disa""ear from the language leaving notrace, e.g.' ne!s"a"erdom allrighmik + +о#лаател/ touch+me+not+edness. The meaning of literary coinages can easily *e gras"ed *ythe reader *ecause of the use of the "roductive means of !ord+*uilding,and also from the context.

CH!NGE OF ME!NING

1. $hange of meaning as a linguistic "henomenon.. $auses of semantic change.#. ;ature of semantic change' meta"hor and metonymy.%. 6esults of change of meaning.

C$ange o( Meaning as a Ling&is%ic )$eno.enon

7n the course of the historical develo"ment of a language, themeaning of !ords change, e.g.' glad had the meaning of *right in :husband had the meaning of master of the house+hold meat had the

meaning of food, etc.$hange of meaning has *een "rofoundly studied. This "ro*lem

em*races three "oints (as"ects)'1. the causes of semantic change. the nature of semantic change#. the result of semantic change.=hen !e discuss the causes of semantic change !e concentrate on

the factors !hich *ring a*out this change, !e try to find out !hy the!ord changed its meaning, !hat circumstances cause and stimulatetheir develo"ment.

=hen !e analyse the nature of semantic change !e try tounderstand ho! different changes of meaning !ere *rought a*out,

ho! it ha""ened (under !hat conditions).=hen !e analyse the result of the semantic change !e try tofind out !hat has changed. =e do it *y com"aring the result and theoriginal meanings and descri*e the difference *et!een them.

Ca&ses o( Se.an%ic C$ange

There are t!o grou"s of causes of semantic change'extralinguistic (historical) and linguistic factors.

xtralinguistic causes7n nationEs social life, in its culture, kno!ledge, technology, arts,

changes occur in all s"heres of human activities. ;e!ly createdo*Jects, ne! notions



and "henomena must *e named. There are t!o main !ays for "rovidingne! names for ne!ly created notions' making ne! !ords, and

*orro!ing foreign ones. There is one more !ay' it is a""lying some old!ord to a ne! o*Ject or notion.

.g.' the !ord carriage had and has the meaning of a vehicledra!n *y horses. But !ith the first a""earance of rail!ays in ngland, itreceived a ne! meaning + a rail!ay car "en WO feather, metal, *all "en

sail + *лават/ *од *ару+а!и WO *лават/ (о л)о!+удне).Some changes of meaning are due to "urely linguistic causes, i.e.

factors acting in the language system. Linguistically s"eaking, thedevelo"ment of ne! meanings, and also a com"lete change of meaning,may *e caused *y the influence of other !ords, mostly of synonyms.

The "rocess of changing the meaning of !ords due to collision ofsynonyms is called discrimination of synonyms. :ther exam"les ofdiscrimination of synonyms' land (+трана, зе!л-) + country (4r.) ++трана, stool (+тул, та)урет) + chair (4r.) + +тул, meat (*и3а,!-+о) + food (4r.) + *и3а, deer (1ивотное л)ое, олен/) +animal (4r.) 1ивотное.

The next linguistic "rocess is elli"ses + the omission of a !ord in a "hrase and the meaning of the !hole !ord+grou" is transferred to theremaining com"onent. .g.' the : ver* steor#an (to starve) meant to

"erish. =hen the ver* to die !as *orro!ed from the Scandinavian,these t!o synonyms, !hich !ere very close in their meaning, collided,and, as a result, to starve gradually changed into its "resent meaning'to die (or suffer) from hunger. 2lready in the 1%th century the !ordhunger gradually sto""ed to *e used in this "hrase and the ver* itselfgot this meaning.

:ther exam"les of elli"ses' a sit+do!n (demonstration) a daily(ne!s"a"er) a monthly (maga3ine) a taxi (ca*).

The third linguistic cause is linguistic analogy. 7t is found out thatif one of the mem*ers of a synonymic set gets a ne! meaning, other

mem*ers of this set change their meaning accordingly. .g., ver*ssynonymous !ith catch (gras", get, etc.) got the meaning tounderstand.

Na%&#e o( Se.an%ic C$ange2 Me%a"$o# an' Me%ony.y

To ans!er the ?uestion ho! ne! meanings develo"/ !e mustinvestigate the inner mechanism of this "rocess. 2 necessary condition ofany semantic change, no matter !hat the cause, is some connection,some association *et!een the old meaning and the ne!. There are t!okinds of association involved in different semantic changes' similarity ofmeanings and contiguity of meanings.

Similarity of meanings, or meta"hor may *e descri*ed as asemantic "rocess of associating t!o referents, one of !hich in some!ay resem*les the

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other. 7n other !ords, meta"hor is a transference of meaning on the *asis of similarity, e.g.' the !ord hand got in the 1@th century themeaning of a "ointer of a clock or a !atch/ *ecause of the similarityof one of the functions "erformed *y the hand.

The !ords denoting "arts of human *ody are !idely usedmeta"horically in different languages, e.g.' the leg of the ta*le the footof the hill the neck of a *ottle the tongue of the flame the mouth of a

"ot, river, cave. 7n this case !e create the figurative meaning of a!ord. Thus, !e must differentiate *et!een the "rimary meaning of a!ord and its derived meaning, that is the meaning !hich the !ord gotin the language develo"ment.

7f a meta"hor is *ased on "hysical "ro"erties it is called a sim"le orlin guistic meta"hor. Sim"le meta"hors can *e classified according to the

"hysical "ro"erties of the similarity on !hich they are *ased'1. a""earance or form' *ridge + !о+т, *ерено+ица nut +орех, #оловаarm + рука, ветка. 2 lean "erson may *e called a skeleton, a talland lean "er son is sometimes called a lam"+"ost. tem"erature' *oiling hot " ки*-ток, +ердиты$#ор-(и& (еловек7#. "osition' the head and the foot of a "age%. colour' the names of some flo!ers and shru*s are commonly usedtodenote their colours' lilac + +ирен/, +иреневы violet +иалка, иолето+выC. function of use' hand + рука, +трелка (а+ов@. movement' cater"ilar+tractor + #у+ени(ны тракторfoxtrot + )е# ли+ы, ок+трот (танец) al*atros + ал/)атро+ (*тица),а5ро*лан.

Sometimes t!o or more of these kinds of resem*lances arecom*ined' the ear of a "itcher is something like a human ear in form,a""earance and "osition, or the eye of a needle is similar to "art of ahuman face in form and "osition.

7n nglish there are many !ords and "hrases in !hich the names ofthe animals are meta"horically used to denote human ?ualities, in thiscase !e o*serve resem*lance of ?ualities of animals and "eo"le, e.g.' a

*ear + a surly "erson cat, shee", snake, lion, monkey, "arrot, goose,duck, etc. 5orse is used as a kind of "refix to indicate si3e orcoarseness' horse+laugh + a loud laugh cf. 6ussian + р1ание, horse+

"lay + #ру)ое развле(ение, и#ра, horse+sense +#ру)оваты,здравы +!ы+л. 2 fe! ver*s *elong to this class of animalnames' to a"e, to monkey + to imitate to rat + to desert sm*. indifficulty. There is a great many of idiomatic "hrases containing thenames of animals, insects, *irds, etc.' it rains cats and dogs to flog adead horse dog+chea" to have a *ee in oneEs *onnet.

Transference of meanings may *e *ased on resem*lance not only *et!een t!o "hysical o*Jects, *ut also a concrete o*Ject and ana*stract notion,

#1



e.g.' *ar + )ар/ер (a "hysical o*Ject) social *ars + +оциал/ные)ар/еры racial *ars + ра+овые )ар/еры.

$ontiguity of meaning, or metonymy may *e descri*ed as thesemantic "rocess of associating t!o referents, one of !hich makes "artof the other or is closely connected !ith it. 7n other !ords, metonymy isa transference of meanings on the *asis of contiguity. $ontiguity is a

more com"lex "henomenon as com"ared !ith similarity and it may *eof different kinds.

The !ord hand *esides the meaning "ointer of a clock/(meta"hor) also develo"ed the meaning !orker/. This meaning is

*ased on another kind of association' hands are the most im"ortantfeature that is re?uired of a "erson engaged in "hysical la*our(association of an o*Ject and the "rocess). 2nother exam"le' 2B$ + theal"ha*et ("art of the !hole).

The sim"lest case of metonymy is that of synecdoche. 2synecdoche is a tro"e *y !hich

1. a "art is made to stand for the !hole or . the !hole for a "art..g.' grey+*eard + an old man (cf. 6ussian + *о+луа,

)ородаU) motor + motor+car to save oneEs skin *ig!ig + ва1ноелицо, ика.

The names of different animals are commonly used to mean theirfurs and sometimes + meat' fox, ra**it, hare, sa*le, tiger, etc. ;ames ofdifferent organs can *e used metonymically' lend me your earsU +*о+луате !ен-U head +#олова, на(ал/ник he has a goodeye for old *ooks + на!етанны #лаз *rain + !оз#, #олова(у!U).

Some other cases of metonymy'1. the names of containers are used to denote things contained' thekettle is *oiling have another late (glass). the names of the things contained are used instead of the

containers'school + for school+*uilding institute + for institute+*uildinguniversity#. the names of "laces are used to denote !hat is going on in these

"laces or "eo"le !ho are there' the !hole chair !as "resent the!hole city came to meet the hero street to!n village%. the name of the material may *e used instead of the "roduct'

*rass + латун/, духовые ин+тру!енты, mahogany +кра+ное дерево, !е)ел/, iron + 1елезо, ут#, silver ++ере)ро, *ри)оры (+толовые), flax + лен, изделие изл/на, nickel, glassC. the name of the author is used for his !orks' give me Byron,

"lease@. the name of a "assion is used for its o*Ject' My love.Pro"er names are !idely used metonymically e.g. the names of the

inventors are used instead of !hat they have invented' makintosh + a!ater"roof overcoat after Makintosh (1@@+1A%#), 4arenheit(*ру++ки у(ены, 1#@ #.),

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mauser " род ору1и-, Sand!ich " и!- лорда, =hatman "и!- а)риканта, Se"" " и!- кон+труктора,+кон+труироваве#о дири1а)л/, $olt " и!- кон"+труктора, +кон+труироваве#о револ/вер, Pullman$898"89;<& " и!- кон+труктора, +оздаве#оо*ределенны ти* ва#она *а++а1ир+ко#о *оезда. &eogra"hical names are used metonymically'

1. the names of countries are used to denote "roducts manufacturedthere' china + "orcelain holland + a linen fa*ric marocco ++а/-н, *engal > +орт !атериала из =ен#алии. names of cities and to!ns' roc?uefort (деревн- во>ранции) + +ыр, magnesia (древни #ород в Мало?зии) + лекар+тво, Bordeaux (#ород во >ранции) +кра+ное вино, havana + #аван+кие +и#ары, tangerine(#ород в @еверно ?рике) + !андарин, tokay(#ород в Вен#рии) + вино тока, "am*roke (#ород в?н#лии) + +тол + дву!- о*у+ка3и!и+- +торона!и#. names of islands' canary + l)light s!eet !ine, )a song *irdfound there sardine + a small fish found in the MediterraneanSea a*out the island of Sardinia%. names of mountains ' cheviot + евиот (ткан/).7n all the a*ove+mentioned cases the elements of contiguity are

evident enough. 2ll these cases of transference of meaning arecalled linguistic metonymy.

Both the "rocesses, meta"hor and metonymy, are closelyconnected, *eing different stages of the same semantic "rocess, theresult of the use of a !ord in different situations.

Res&l%s o( C$ange o( Meaning

6esults of semantic change can *e generally seen in the changesof the denotational meaning of the !ord + restriction and extention ofmeaning, or in the change of its connotational com"onent +amelioration and deterioration of meaning + elevation anddegradation of meaning. 6estriction takes "lace more often thanextention.

$hanges in the denotational meaning may result in thenarro!ing or ex tention of meaning, i.e., a +!ord of !ide meaninggets a narro!er sense in !hich it denotes only some of the o*Jects!hich it had "reviously denoted, or a !ord of narro! meaning

*ecomes the one !ith extended meanings. The exam"les ofnarro!ing of meanings' the !ord hound (: hund) !as used to de+note a dog of any *reed, *ut no! it denotes only a dog used in thechase +#он(а-.

Mod deer + a "articular kind of *east + олен/, : + !ild *east

Mod meat + eata*le flesh (!-+о), : + foodMod to teach + : to sho!Mod to !rite + : to scratch.

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Terms of !ide sense may narro! in meaning in a concretesituation. Thus, the %iver is to a Londoner the Thames the &bbeystands for =estminster 2**ey the 'ower - a museum no! the City +the *usiness "art of London x#ord - the university, etc. :ne of thecommonest !ays of narro!ing of meaning is to add a ?ualifying !ord'corn (grain) + 7ndian corn (mai3e) + кукуруза, engine + steam engine.

xtension of meaning means extension of the !ord+range, that is

to say the change of s"ecific to general, e.g., the follo!ing !ordsunder!ent several changes'

pipe 1. originally + a sim"le musical instrument made of !ood .of any other material #. other things resem*ling this musical instrumentin sha"e %. a general name for a hollo! cylindrical *ody

box l . a container for solid o*Jects or su*stances, drugs andmoney . other things *earing a close resem*lance in form and use#. a chest for holding clothes %. a *ox in a sta*le, in a theatre, asignalmanEs *ox

target 1. a small round shield . no! + anything that is fired at andfiguratively any result aimed at

camp (Latin + cam"us)' 1. the "lace !here troo"s are lodged in

tents . tem"orary ?uarters of travellers, nomads.xtension of meaning is often due to contiguity or similarity. Thus,very often "ro"er names *ecome common nouns' mackintosh,sand!ich, colt, etc.

7n all the a*ove+mentioned cases the denotational meaning !aschanged. But there are cases of changes in the connotational com"onent.The changes in the connotational meaning may *e su*divided into t!omain grou"s'

+ degradation of meaning+ elevation of meaning.0egradation of meaning involves a lo!ering in social scale,

reflection of the contem"t of the u""er classes to!ards the lo!er ones,e.g.'

wench 8. до(/, +ирота, 2. кре+т/-н+ка- девука, .#ру)а- девка7!nave (&erman kna*e)' 1. a *oy, . a servant, #. any lo! "erson %. a

term of contem"t in general referring to any "erson, a scoundrel +не#од-, *одлец

hoor 1. a villager + кре+т/-нин, . clumsy or ill+*read fello! +#ру)и-н, #ру)ы (еловек

villain 1. a villager, a "easant + кре+т/-нин, . a term of scorn+ *резрение, #. a scoundrel, a ruffian + хули#ан, )у-н,#оловорез, злоде, не#од-

blac!guard 7. a servant !ho !as in guard of kitchen things *lack!ith soot, . a scoundrel, due to the contem"t of masters for the servants

+ *одлец, )ездел/ник.Sometimes a !ord is neutral in meaning *ut its derivative has a

derogatory, degraded meaning' design + за!ыл-т/, designing +коварны, лука+

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вы, art + artful (cunning), scheme + scheming (intriguing), mood +moody (out of humour) + унылы.

levation of meaning is a semantic shift undergone *y !ords dueto their referents coming u" the social scale, e.g.'

steward- an attendant on shi"s and airlines *ut originally + a "erson!ho took care of "igs (stigo + a sty, !eard + !ard)

minister - a civil servant of higher rank, originally + a servant, an

attendant, then a "riestmarshal - a high military rank, originally + a horse+servant*ueen + originally a !oman!night - originally a young servant, no! a man !ho receives a title

of honournice + originally foolish, no! + тонки, у!елы, отли(ны

#ame - +лава originally a re"ort, common talk, rumour.

The causes, nature and result of semantic changes should *evie!ed as three essentially different *ut inse"ara*le as"ects of one andthe same linguistic "henomenon, as any change of meaning may *einvestigated from the "oint of vie! of its cause, nature and its

conse?uences. ssentially the same causes may *ring a*out differentresults, e.g., the semantic develo"ment in the !ord !night (: cniht)from a *oy servant/ to a young !arrior/ and eventually to themeaning it "ossesses in Modern nglish due to extralinguistic causes

Just as the semantic change in the !ord boor, *ut the results aredifferent. 7n the case o# boor !e o*serve "eJorative develo"ment !hilein the case o# blight !e o*serve elevation of the connotationalcom"onent.

!MBIGUITY OF ME!NING

1. &rammatical and lexical am*iguity

. Monosemantic and "olysemantic !ords.#. Primary and secondary meanings.%. Basic and minor meanings.

0 G#a..a%ical an' Lexical !.+ig&i%y

2m*iguity

2 !ord is am*iguous if it has more than one sense or more thant!o synonyms that are not synonyms to each other. 2 sentence isam*iguous if it has t!o or more "ara"hrases !hich are notsynonymous to each other. .g. clu* + 1. 7nstitution, grou" of "eo"le.. Thick stick made out of !ood. These

35



are t!o distinct senses and they are not synonymous to each other. Thereis am*iguity at a !ord level and am*iguity at a sentence level. :therexam"les of !ord level am*iguity are' *at, *ear, level etc. these have atleast t!o different 7 meanings.

Structure of grammatical am*iguity

There are several definitions a*out the structure of grammaticalam*iguity. 7f a sentence has even one am*iguous !ord it has to *eam*iguous or vice+versa. 7f a sentence hasnEt got an am*iguous !ordthen it is not am*iguous. .g. & !ind young man helped me to cross the

street$ !ind could *e a ty"e of something or nice. =hile cross one canalso *e angry !ith some*ody or mad at some*ody. There are t!oam*iguous !ords in this sentence+?#R and cross !hich arehomonyms (the same form *ut different meaning) *ut in this contextthey are very ex"licit in the meaning.

.g. 7 o*served Dohn in the garden.

This sentence hasnEt got am*iguous !ords *ut is itself am*iguous.7t can *e either' was in the garden observing ohn or ohn was in the garden and I observed him. 2nother definition of am*iguity is that allthe sentences that contain an am*iguous !ord are am*iguous. Somesentences that contain an am*iguous !ord may *e am*iguous or not.The right definition of am*iguity is' some sentences that containam*iguous !ords are am*iguous and some are not. Some sentences!hich do not contain an am*iguous !ord are am*iguous and some arenot. The sentences that contain no am*iguous !ords and are stillam*iguous are called structural grammatical am*iguity. .g. isitingrelatives can be a nuisance !here visiting can either *e relatives thatvisit or to visit relatives.

2m*iguity at a syntactic level.e.g. 7 sa! her duck + 7 . 7 sa! a duc! *elonging to her (as a noun).

.1 sa! her lower her head (as a ver*).

6eferential VersatilityThere are some !ords that derive their meaning from the context

and have no meaning of their o!n if isolated. .g. here, there, ho! orthen, 7, you, me, etc. They should not *e mixed !ith am*iguity.

Lexical am*iguity normally com"rises *oth homonymy and

"olysemy. #@



5omonymy means different lexical meaning !ith the sameform. 7t is a sense relation that occurs !ith items !hich share theform (have the same form) *ut have different sense (meaning) thatare not related to each other, they are totally different and distinct inmeaning.

Polysemy is a lexical "henomenon !here t!o lexemes have

the same form and different *ut related sense. They have somethingin common, e.g.'iron 1. Metal. . 7nstrument made out of metal.

#or! 1. 7nstrument for eating . 2 rode that *ranches in t!o "athsresem+ *ling a fork

*ut' pupil 1. 2 young student . Part of the eye.The first t!o exam"les !ere exam"les of "olysemy !hile the

third one is an exam"le of homonymy. The meanings of the thirdone are different and unrelated *ut have common origin and duringthe time they drifted a"art in meaning. Therefore a !ord should *edefined synchronically *ecause one can never *e sure of theetymology of the !ord, e.g. mouth 1. Part of a face . Part of a river!here it touches the sea.

The :rigin of 5omonymyA I of the homonyms are monosylla*ic lexemes, the origin of

!hich is due to the monosylla*ic analytic nature of nglishvoca*ulary (short !ords develo"ed different meaning).

There are t!o main sources of homonymy'

1. $onvergent nature of the homonymy !here t!o !ords thathave thesame form, e.g. : gesund - healthy + sound (safe and sound).

: sund - s!imming + sound (straits)Lat. onus - sound (sense detected *y the ears).

This sho!s that three distinct forms ended u" in one form.

. 0ivergent nature of homonvmy occurs !hen the !ords haveonecommon etymological source *ut during the course of time theirmeaning s"litor diverged. .g. pupil - a young student,. pupil - "art of the eye.=hat ha"

"ened !ith this !ord is that the forms survived *ut there !as semanticdisintegration.

Patterned 5omonymyLexical items that are the same in form share the same elements

of meaning *ut *elong to different s"eech class and they are "atterned hornonyms. 8sually

37



they have different grammatical categories, e.g. act could *e a noun ora ver*. 7n the sentence X7 think that this could *e goodY that is aconJunction !hile in XThat man over thereY that is a demonstrative.

Partial homonymsThese are items !ith a different meaning *ut in one of their !ord

forms they share the form and can *e homonyms. .g. axis (singular) +axes ("lural) axe (s) + axes ("). These t!o function as homonyms onlyin their "lural form. .g. but (conJ.), butt - end of a cigarette. 8sed asver*s these t!o can *e in sentences such as ' /on"t but me or 0ebutted me all the time and 0e butted his cigarettes fended them Thelast t!o exam"les are "artial homonyms.

5omo"hony5omo"hons as a case of homonymy, i.e. different forms have

different meaning and are "ronounced identically. .g. buy, by andbye$ night - !night or you to -you too.

5omogra"hy5omogra"hs have the same s"elling *ut different "ronunciation,

e.g. tear (n) + tear (v) lead (n) + lead (v).

Monose.an%ic an' )olyse.an%ic ,o#'s

7n the course of historic develo"ment of the nglish language !ordshave undergone many changes. =hen !e analyse the semanticstructure of the !ords !e notice that they are not units of a singlemeaning.

Monosemantic !ords, i.e. !ords having only one meaning, arecom"aratively fe! in num*er they are mainly scientific terms such asmolecule, hydrogen and the like.

Most !ords convey several notions and thus have severalmeanings they are called "olysemantic !ords. 2 !ell+develo"ed

"olysemy is a great advantage in a language.

Semantic Structure of a =ordThe system of meaning of a !ord is called its semantic structure,

and not only due to the sum of meaning' each se"arate meaning issu*Ject to further su*division and "ossesses an inner structure of itso!n.

Therefore, the semantic structure of a !ord should *e investigatedat *oth these levels'

1. of different meanings. of semantic com"onents !ithin each se"arate meaning.Let us treat the semantic structure of the "olysemantic word #ire on

the first level'flame + о#он/

#A



1) fire + *о1ар (a forest fire),) *urning material in a stove + о#он/, 1ар (a fire in the room),#) орудины о#он/, +трел/)а $to o"en fire),%) о#он/, 1ар, +тра+т/, 5нтузиаз! (a s"eech lacking fire).Meaning 1 holds a kind of dominance over other meanings

conveying it in the most general !ay. Meanings +C, +% in the !ordsgiven *elo! are associated !ith s"ecial circumstances, as"ects and

instances of the same "henomenon'ta*le: 8& *лита, 2& +тол, A& *и3а, +тол, 4& та)лица,B& за+тол/е7 *ridge: 8& !о+т, !о+тик, 2& ка*итан+ки !о+тик,

& *ерено+ица, 4& !о+т $дл- зу)ов&.ach se"arate meaning may *e re"resented as a set of semantic

com"onents (semes). 7n terms of com"onental analysis the meaning ofa !ord re"resents a set of elements of meaning !hich are rathertheoretical elements.

Polysemy can *e a""roached to diachronically and synchronically.By diachronic a""roach !e see the change in the semantic structure ofthe !ord the !ord may kee" its "revious meaning or meanings and atthe same time it gets one or several ne! ones.

Then the "ro*lem or interrelation and interde"endence of differentmeanings of a "olysemantic !ord may *e roughly formulated asfollo!s' did the !ord al!ays have all the meanings, or did some ofthem a""ear earlier than the othersR 2re the ne! meanings de"endenton the meanings already existingR =hat is the nature of thisde"endenceR

)#i.a#y an' Secon'a#y Meanings

By diachronic a""roach !e distinguish the "rimary meaning' ta*le +a flat sla* of stone and !ood (*лита), and secondary meanings (all theother meanings)' +тол, *и3а, та)лица + as they are derived fromthe "rimary meaning of the !ord and a""eared later than the "rimarymeaning.

The terms secondary/ (втори(ное) and derived/(*роизводное) meanings are to a certain extent synonymous. Theterm secondary/ denotes (im"lies) that this meaning a""eared after the

"rimary meaning.=hen !e refer to the meaning derived/ !e do not only stress

the fact that the meaning a""eared after the "rimary one, *ut also thatit is de"endent on the "rimary meaning and someho! su*ordinate to it..g. in the case of the !ord table !e may say that the meaning food

"ut on the ta*le/ is derived from the meaning a "iece of furniture on!hich meals are laid/. 2s this "articular meaning is derived throughmetonymic shift (change), !e can also descri*e it as secondary and

metonymic.7t follo!s that the main source of "olysemy is a change in the

semantic structure of the !ord.

#



Basic an' Mino# Meanings

Synchronically !e understand "olysemy as the coexistence ofdifferent meanings of the same !ord at a certain historical "eriod of thedevelo"ment of the nglish language. 5ere the "ro*lems are as follo!s'are all the meanings e?ual in the semantic structure of this !ordR 7s theorder in !hich the meanings are enumerated in dictionaries ar*itrary, or

does it reflect the com"arative value of individual meaningsRBy synchronic a""roach !e must distinguish the *asic (the central)mean ing of the !ord and the minor meanings. The *asic meaning of the!ord is re"resentative of the !ord in isolation, !hile the minormeanings are o*served only in certain contexts, e.g.' ta*le + a "iece offurniture/ (central meaning). 2ll the other meanings are minor.

2 "ro"er o*Jective criterion of the com"arative value of individualmeanings is the fre?uency of their occurence in s"eech, !hich may *edifferent'

ta*le 1) +тол (CI of all the uses of the !ord)) та)лица (#CI of all the uses of the !ord)#)all the other meanings (1#I).

:f great im"ortance is the stylistic stratification of meanings of a "olysemantic !ord *ecause not only !ords *ut individual meanings toomay differ in their stylistic reference, e.g., there is nothing collo?uial inthe !ord yellow in the meaning a certain colour/, *ut !hen yellow isused in the meaning of sensational/, it is *oth slang and 2merican.

The semantic structure of !ords is never static, and the relationshi" *et!een the diachronic and synchronic evaluation of individualmeanings may *e different in different "eriods of the historicaldevelo"ment of language.

Thus, the "rimary meaning of the !ord may *ecomesynchronically one of the minor meanings, and diachronically asecondary meaning may function as the central meaning of the !ord,

e.g., revolution in 1@HH in the meaning revolving motion/(во++тание) !as *oth "rimary (diachronically) and central(synchronically), !hile the meaning a com"lete overthro! of theesta*lished government/ (+вер1ение) and other meanings !ereminor ones. 7n Modern nglish the meaning revolving motion/ is

"rimary diachronically, *ut it is no longer synchronically central, as thearrangement of meanings in the semantic structure of the !ordrevolution/ has greatly changed, and the most fre?uent meaning is acom"lete overthro! of the esta*lished government or regime/.

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SYNONYMS

1. The definition of synonyms.. The synonymic dominant.#. $lassification of synonyms.%. Ty"es of connotations.C. Sources of synonymy.

T$e De(ini%ion o( Synony.s

Synonymy is one of the most difficult and controversial "ro*lems, and the most controversial "oint is the "ro*lem of criteria ofsynonymy and the definition of synonyms.

Traditional linguistics solved the "ro*lem !ith the notionalcriterion and defined synonyms as !ords of the same "art of s"eechconveying the same notion *ut differing either in shades of meaning orin stylistic characteristics.

Some as"ects of this definition have *een criticised. 7t has *een "ointed out that linguistic "henomena should *e defined in linguisticterms and the term notion/ makes this an extralinguistic definition.

7n contem"orary linguistics the semantic criterion of synonymy isfre?uently used. 7n terms of com"onental analysis synonyms may *edefined as !ords !ith the same or nearly the same denotation (or thedenotative com"onents) *ut differing in connotations (in emotive chargeor in stylistic characteristics).

to *egin + to start + to commence (stylistic reference),to "ut + to "lace + to lay + to set + to de"osite (shades of meaning),to trem*le + to shiver + to shudder (shades of meaning),to like + to admire + to love (emotive charge).The ver*s to li!e - to admire - to love descri*e feelings of

attraction, fondness, *ut each of them descri*es it in its o!n !ay'to like + certain !arm feeling

to admire + a stronger emotive chargeto love + the strongest feeling.

denotation connotationsto li!e - to like (!arm feeling)to admire - to like (!armer feeling)to love - to like (the strongest "ossi*le emotion)to stare - to look (lastingly, in sur"rise, curiosity)to ga1e - to look (lastingly, in admiration, !onder)

%1



to glare - to look (lastingly, in anger, fury)to glance - to look (*riefly, in "assing)to peep - to look (lastingly, stealingly through an o"ening or from

a concealed location)to peer - to look (lastingly, !ith difficulty or strain)The common denotation convincingly sho!s that according to the

semantic criterion, these !ords are synonyms. The connotative

com"onents are different.to loo! to glance + to look ?uickly, suddenly,to glim"se + to look still ?uicker, to have a momentary look.7n great num*er of cases the semantic difference *et!een t!o or

more synonyms is su""orted *y the difference in their valency,syntactical or lexical. Valency denotes the com*ining "o!er or ty"icalco+occurrence of a linguistic element.

to tremble + to shiver from cold, to shudder from disgusthigh tree + tall manbeauti#ul !oman + handsome manto answer a ?uestion + to reply to a ?uestion

to say something to some*ody + to tell some*odyto #inish school + to graduate from universityto o##er a concrete thing + to suggest an idea' going that he go.

T$e Synony.ic Do.inan%

ach synonymic grou" has a dominant element. The synonymicdominant is the most general term "otentially containing the s"ecificfeatures rendered *y all other mem*ers of the grou".

to loo! - to stare + to ga3e + to glance + to "ee"to leave - to de"art + to retire + to clear outto as! - to in?uire + to ?uestion + to interrogate.The synonymic dominant is characteri3ed *y the follo!ing

features'+ high fre?uency of usage+ *road com*ina*ility, i.e. a*ility to *e used in com*inations !ithvariousclasses of !ords+ *road general meaning+ lack of connotations.The synonymic dominant should not *e confused !ith a generic

term. 7t is relative and serves as the name for the notion of the genus asdintinguished from the names of the kinds, e.g.' the -word #urniture is ageneric term for a ta*le, a chair, a stool, a *ookcase, a !ardro*e, etc.

Classi(ica%ion o( Synony.s

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2cad. V.V. Vinogradov esta*lished the follo!ing classification ofsynonyms' ideogra"hic, stylistic, ideogra"hic+stylistic, contextual,a*solute (total).

7deogra"hic synonyms are !ords conveying the same notion *utdiffering in shades of meaning or emotions ex"ressed' a "iece + alum" + a slice to trem*le + to shiver + to shudder anger + fury to like+ to admire + to love.

Stylistic synonyms are !ords conveying the same notion *utdifferent in stylistic characteristics'to *egin + to start + to commencesky + heaven ("oetic)to see + to *ehold (archaic)horse + steed ("oetic)to try + to endeavour (*ookish).Stylistic colouring may also *e accom"anied *y a difference in

emotional colouring or some other shades of meaning'to say + to "ronouncehead + onionmoney + ca**ageface + "uss.Such synonyms are called ideogra"hic+stylistic.$ontextual synonyms are similar in meaning only under some

s"ecific distri*utional conditions. Thus, the !ords bear, stand, su##erare synonyms only !hen used in the negative form' canEt stand it +canEt suffer it + canEt *ear it. :ther!ise, all these ver*s are semanticallydifferent.

2*solute (total) synonyms are !ords coinciding in all their shadesof meaning and in all their stylistic characteristics. 2*solute synonymsare usually technical and scientific terms, they are rare in thevoca*ulary and tem"orary. The voca*ulary system tends to reJect one ofthe a*solute synonyms or to develo" differentiation of characteristics inone or *oth (or all) of them' noun +su*stantive flection + ending oculist

+ eye+s"ecialist.

Ty"es o( Conno%a%ions

2 more modern and effective a""roach to the classification ofsynonyms may *e *ased on the definition descri*ing synonyms as!ords differing in connotations'

+ connotation of degree or intensity'to sur"rise + to astonish + to ama3eto shout + to yell + to *ello! + toroarto like + to admire + to love + to adore + to !orshi"+ connotation of duration of the action'

to stare + to glare + to ga3e + to glance + to "ee" + to "eer to say (*rief) + to s"eak + to talk (lasting)

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to shudder ( *rief) + to shiver (lasting)+ emotive connotations'to stare (sur"rise) + to glare (anger, fury) + to ga3e (admiration,

tenderness)to trem*le + to shudder (!ith horror, disgust)alone + lonely (feeling of melancholy)to s"arkle (!ith "ositive emotions) + to glitter (!ith negative

emotions)+ the evaluative connotation (la*elling something as good or *ad)'!ell+kno!n + famous + notorius (negative connotation) + cele*rated

("ositive one)+ the causative connotation'to s"arkle (!ith "ositive emotions, e.g., ha""iness, high s"irit, etc.)

+ to glitter (!ith negative emotions + anger, rage, hatred)to trem*le + to shiver (from cold) + to shudder (from disgust, fear,

horror)to *lush (from modesty, shame, em*arassment) + to redden (from

anger, indignation)+ the connotation of manner of the

action'to run + to dash (to run very ?uickly)to stroll (*ро#уливат/+-) + to stride (идти ироки!

а#о!) + to trot ()е1ат/ ры+/) + to "ace (ходит/ взад ив*еред, а#ат/) + to stagger (идти ата-+/) + to stum*le(идти, за*ина-+/ о неровно+ти) + to sham*le (идти,т-1ело воло(а но#и)

+ the connotation of attendant circumstances'to "ee" (look stealingly through a hole, crack or o"ening, from

*ehind a ne!s"a"er, a fan or a curtain) + to "eer (in darkness, throughthe fog, dimmed glasses or !indo!s, from a great distance)

+ the connotation of attendant features'handsome (a tall stature, fine "ro"ortions) + *eautiful (usually +

classical features and a "erfect figure) + "retty (small delicate features)+ stylistic connotations'girl + lass (dial.) + girlie (coll.) + maiden ("oetic) + clamsel (arch.) +

*ird (slang) to *e off, to clear out (coll.) + to take the air (slang) + tode"art, to retire, to !ithdra! (formal).

Synonyms are one of the languageEs most im"ortant ex"ressivemeans. They are the *asis of language culture. To s"eak correctly and!ell one must kno! a lot of synonyms and differences *et!een them.

To define the character of the synonymic relations *et!een the!ords it is necessary to analyse all the meanings and occurrences of the!ords. 7t can *e done !ith the hel" of contextual, com"onental and

contrastive analyses.

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Sources of Synonymy Z, H=ide synonymity in nglish is due to a great num*er of

*orro!ingsNuite a num*er of !ords in a synonymic set are usually of Latin or4renchorigin.

fair (native) + *eautiful (4r.)

*egin (native) + commence (4r.) + initiate (L.).

EU)HEMISMS

1. Su"erstitious ta*oos.

. Social ta*oos.

S&"e#s%i%io&s Ta+oos

2 s"ecial source of synonymy is the so+called eu"hemism (eu +!ell, "hemi +1 s"eak).

u"hemism is a !ay of s"eaking *y !hich an un"leasant, im"ro"er Gor offensive thing is designated *y an indirect and milder term.

The roots of eu"hemisms lie in religious ta*oos !hich dictated theavoidance of certain terms, such as !ords connected !ith death,sacred *eings, devil, etc. Such eu"hemisms are called su"erstitiousta*oos.

Su"erstitious ta*oos have their roots in the distant "ast of mankind!hen "eo"le *elieved that there !as a su"ernatural link *et!een a nameand the o*Ject or creature it re"resented. Therefore, all the !ordsdenoting evil s"irits, dangerous animals, or the "o!ers of nature !ereta*oo. 7f uttered, it !as *elieved that uns"eaka*le disasters !ould resultnot only for the s"eaker *ut also for those near him.

That is !hy all creatures, o*Jects and "henomena threatening danger

!ere referred to in a round+a*out descri"tive !ay. So, a dangerousanimal might *e descri*ed as the one-lur!ing-in-the-wood, a mortaldisease + the blac! death.

The $hristian religion also makes certain !ords ta*oo. The fear ofcalling the devil *y name ("rover* S"eak of the devil and he !illcome/) !as inherited from ancient su"erstitious *eliefs. So, the !orddevil *ecame ta*oo, and a num*er of eu"hemisms *egan to su*stitute it'the Prince of 0arkness, the *lack one, dickens (coll.), (:ld) ;ick (coll.).

Since the 1@th century, !hen the use of the !ords god, esus andthe 'rinity !as for*idden in "rofane language many synonymicsu*stitutes to designate these ideas !ere develo"ed, e.g. instead of god +cock, cot, gog, gosh, goodness, goodness gracious, Lord, the Maker,

&ood, *y 5eavens.ven in modern times most "eo"le are reluctant to use the ver* todie. 7t has the follo!ing eu"hemisms' to "ass a!ay, to *e taken, to

*reathe oneEs last,

%C



to de"art this life, to close oneEs eyes, to go the !ay of all flesh, to go=est (si.), to kick off (si.), to kick the *ucket (si.), to Join the maJority,to go to another !orld.

7n the insurance com"anies "eo"le !rite' 7f anything shouldha""en to me.../ (if 7 should die).

7nstead o# dead it is common to say' the de"arted, the deceased, thelate Mr. Smith, etc.

Social Ta+oos

u"hemism is a fre?uent occurrence in Modem nglish, it is a!ider "henomenon than a ta*oo !as, and it has s"read to many s"heresof life. Such eu"hemisms can *e called social ta*oos.

The !ord lavatory has "roduced a great num*er of eu"hemisms' "o!der room, !ashroom, restroom, retiring room, comfort station,ladiesE room, gentlemenEs room, !ater+closet, =.$., =indsor $astle(comical "hrase for deci"hering), this is itU (coll.), to s"end a "enny,to !ash oneEs hands !here is !hat do you call itR

Pregnancy is another to"ic for delicate/ references' to have a *elly, she eaten *eans, (*ig) !ith child, !ith a *a*y coming, in an

interesting condition, in a delicate condition, in the family !ay.The !ord trousers not so long ago, had a great num*er of

eu"hemisms' unmentiona*les, un!his"era*les, indescri*a*les,inex"ressi*les, sit+u"ons, etc.

The adJective drun! is often su*stituted *y' merry, fresh,overcome, full (coll.) drunk as a Lord (coll.), drunk as an o!l (coll.),soaked (si.), half+seas+over (si.), high as a kite (si.), tight (si.),intoxicated (formal), under the influence (form.).

u"hemisms may *e used due to concern not to hurt someoneEsfeelings, e.g., a liar can *e descri*ed as a "erson !ho does not al!aysstrictly tell the truth, untruthful a stupid man - not exactly *rilliant,un!ise dirty - untidy, unclear slattern - inaccurate, etc. na!ed- in

oneEs *irthday shirt overeating -indigestion sweat - "ers"iration.Mental diseases also cause !ide use of eu"hemisms' a mad person may *e descri*ed as insane, mentally unsta*le, mentallydeficient (m.d.), un*alanced, not ?uite right (coll.), not all there (coll.),off oneEs head (coll.), !rong in the u""er storey (coll.), cuckoo (si.),loony (si.), etc.

2 clinic for such "atients can *e referred to as asylum, sanitarium,sanatorium (mental) institution, and less discreetly (о+торо1но) + anut house (si.), loony *in (si.), etc.

2s !e see *y the a*ove+mentioned exam"les, the main ty"es ofeu"he misms are'

%@



+ learned or scientific terms (!hich are less familiar and lessoffensive),e.g. indigestion+ !ords !ith the negative "refixes un+, in+' un!ise, untidy+ "hraseological units' to kick the *ucket in oneEs *irthday shirt + slang, collo?uial !ords and "hrases+ a**reviations' m.d., T.B., =.$.

So, originally closely connected !ith religion eu"hemisms have *een extended to !ords denoting different diseases, criminal activitiesor anything !hich is considered im"ro"er in a given society. They have

*ecome a social "henomenon of !ide semantic range.S"ecial eu"hemistic language "enetrates literally into all s"heres

of life. 7n the 8S2 eu"hemisms are es"ecially !idely used in thelanguage of advertisements, slang and "rofessional Jargon. Someexam"les'

pawnshops (ло!)ардные лавки) are called in the 8S2advertisements loan and Je!elry com"anies (ко!*аниивелирных издели и *о *ред+тавлени за!ов)

used cars (second+hand cars) + "re+o!ned cars (ранеенаходивие+- во владении)

fall $+*ад& " easing $зати/е в деловых о*ераци-х&. Cо avoid !ords revealing *ad state of economy instead of

chronic in#lation gradual increase in "rices and !ages$*о+те*енны ро+т цен и зар*латы& is used the poor - theneediest $о(ен/ ну1да3ие+-&, the needy $ну1"да3ие+-&, the ill+"rovided $*лохо о)е+*е(енные&, thede"rived $лиенные )ла#&, the under"riviledged $!ало*ривиле#ированные&, the disadvantaged $*о*авие в!енее )ла#о*ри-тные 1изненные о)+то-тел/+тва&,lo!+income "eo"le $!алоо)е+*е(енные&.

u"hemisms are of great interest in the s"here of classifying "rofessions. Very unusual !ords are often used'

gar*age collector (у)ор3ик !у+ора) + sanitation engineer(ин1енер *о во*ро+а! +анитарии)

rat+catcher $(еловек, у+танавлива3иловуки дл- кры+& "extermination engineer$+*ециали+т *о и+тре)лени #рызунов&7

dog+catcher $ловец )род-(их +о)ак& " animal !elfareofficer $+отрудник *о во*ро+а! охраны 1ивотных&7

stool "igeon $доно+(ик& " "olice informant $*олице+киинор!атор&.

7n class struggle "eo"le do the follo!ing'sit+do!n strike + !ork ceasation on "remises (*рекра3ение

ра)оты в *о!е3ении)to ex"loit + to use !ithout re!ard $*ол/зоват/+- (/и!и"

ли)о у+лу#а!и )ез возна#ра1дени-&.

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So !e see that eu"hemisms are a very com"lex and contradictory "henomenon. 7n some cases eu"hemisms are Just to the "oint. So, infiction usage of eu"hemisms is an effective stylistic means for !riters,and they do it to de"ict their characters. 7n medicine, in the language ofdi"lomacy eu"hemisms are also a""ro"riate. 7n general, eu"hemismhas *ecome a !ide social "henomenon.

!NTONYMS

1. The definition of antonymy.. Ty"es of antonymy.#. Kinds of antonyms.

T$e De(ini%ion o( !n%ony.y

2ntonymy is a lexical o""osition of meaning. The !ords aredifferent in form and o""osite in meaning. 7t is also a relative

"henomenon (same lexical field identical in style) and it hascontradictory meaning. 2ntonyms are a cou"le of !ords that *elong to

the same "art of s"eech, share the same lexical field, similar in manyres"ects and share all the features *ut one that meaning. .g. big andred are not antonyms *ecause they donEt share the same lexical field,

*ut tall and short *elong to the same lexical field, share most of the fea+tures and differ in one dimension. 2ntonymy is used in lexicology as a

"rocess that defines the meaning of the !ord *y maintaining its o""ositecounter"art.

Markedness is a category that o"erates !ith "airs of !ords !hichare antonyms *ut not lexically s"ecified. 7t is definite for roots of !ords!here there is some o""ositeness. 7t means t!o mem*ers, one markedand the other unmarked. .g. play (unmarked) + played (marked)married - unmarried. 2ntonymy means the "ositive and the negativemem*ers of a "air, e.g. old -young$ beauti#ul + ugly$ wide + narrow$

0ow old are you2$ 0ow beauti#ul is she2 0ow wide is the room2 The "ositive mem*ers are conce"tualised first and than find theirantonyms. This is "rimary lexicalisation of the "ositive mem*er of the

"air. Markedness also o"erates in the field of derivational mor"hology,e.g. boy - boyhood.

6elativity of 2ntonymy

mall elephants are big animals. mall and big is antonymy andelephants and animals hy"onymy. The antonyms are al!ayscom"ared in terms of a given standard in the given exam"le there is noa*soluteness. .g. small is *igger than big in this case.

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Ty"es o( !n%ony.y

$om"lementary (contradictory*inary) antonymy.$om"lementary antonyms come in "airs that exhaust all the

"ossi*ilities !ithin a mixed lexical filed. :ne denies the other andtogether they make a !hole. .g. husband -wi#e", married + single",dead+ alive.

&radation

2lso o"erates !ith t!o mem*ers of a "air *ut they can *egraded and com"ared. There is an a""lication of the grammaticalcom"arison in' richer -richest - very rich$ hot - cold are t!oextremes that include several middle mem*ers such as' warm,lu!ewarm, slightly warm, a bit hot, hotter etc. in *et!een the t!oextremes there are a cou"le of other lexemes. So if one is notbeauti#ul she or he is not necessarily ugly. The denial of the one isnot necessarily affirmation of the other.

$onverse (relational) antonymy.

This can *e defined as a sort of symmetrical antonymy. 7tinvolves a third mem*er *esides the "air. .g. give - ta!e - !hen youtake something there has to *e someone to give it to you. Thereforethere is something and someone,e.g. ohn gave the boo! to 3ary.This sentence im"lies that Mary has taken the *ook.

Multi"le incom"ati*ility

This kind of antonymy involves more than three mem*ers. 7t doesnot o"erate in "airs *ut !ith multi"le num*er of mem*ers. 7t isrelation of o""osite+ness that should *e esta*lished *et!een morethan three mem*ers. .g. north + south - east - west. 7n cards +

hearts - diamonds - clubs - spades. 5ere you can not esta*lishmono+relational o""osition. The o""osition functions !ithin all themem*ers. 4or exam"le in the days of the !eek, months, colours,

"lanets etc. :ne mem*er in the system enters in relation ofo""osition !ith any other mem*er of the system. The denial of onemeans affirmation of all the other mem*ers. 0enial of the colour o#red is affirmation of all the other colours and vice versa. =heneverthere is a small lexical system !ith more than three elements there ismulti"le incom"ati*ility.

-in's o( !n%ony.s

2*soluteroot vs. 0erivational antonyms..2*solute (root)antonyms such as' hot - cold, short + long are lexically !ords. Thederivational antonyms are

%



formed *y adding negative "refixes such as' anti-#ree1e$ in-complete$un-#air and the suffix -less senseless. The derivational antonymy isachieved *y adding negative "refixes.

Semantic antonymy. There are t!o derivational antonyms of theroot "redicate + happy - unhappy. 4ot happy is a syntactic antonymy

*ut semanti+cally it does not necessarily im"ly unha""iness. 5nhappy is

stronger in meaning than not happy. The syntactic antonymy is achieved *y adding the negative "article not.

Phrasal antonymy. This involves !ords in "hrases, e.g. by accident- on purpose.

Polysemy and antonvmy. 7n some sense antonymy can easily *eesta*lished *ut in other it can *e difficult to esta*lish. .g. tall - short$but #irm can *e so#t or loose de"ending on the sense.

Meta"horical antonymy. .g. hot news - cold news the first onemeans very interesting, this term is so fre?uently used *y re"orters thatit resulted in the a""earance of its antonym as an ordinary !ord. 7t is ameta"hor in the a""earance of an antonym !hich is an ordinary !ord.The meaning is transferred and !e cannot esta*lish its antonym.

NEOLOGISMS !ND !RCH!ISMS

1. The definition of neologism.. Kinds of neologisms.#. =ays of !ord+forming of neologisms.%. 2rchaisms.

T$e De(ini%ion o( Neologis.

The voca*ulary does not remain the same, *ut changes constantly.

;e! notions come into *eing, re?uiring ne! !ords to name them.:n the other hand, some notions and things *ecome outdated and the!ords that denote them dro" out of the language. Sometimes a ne!name is introduced for a thing or notion that continues to exist, and theolder name ceases to *e used. The num*er of !ords in a language istherefore not constant.

;e! !ords and ex"ressions, or neologisms, are created for ne!things irres"ective of their scale of im"ortance. They may *e veryim"ortant, e.g. People "s %epublic, nuclear war, or ?uite insignificantand short+lived, e.g. pony-tail (a hair+do), 6itterbag (one !ho loves todance to Ja33+music), 6itter (conversion) + a nervous man. =henever aneologism a""ears

50



1.either an old !ord is a""ro"riately changed in meaning, or .ne! !ords are *orro!ed, or #. more other !ords are coined out of the existing languagematerial according to the "atterns and !ays "roductive in the language at agiven stage of its develo"ment.

Thus, a neologism is any !ord or !ord+e?uivalent formedaccording to the "roductive structural "atterns or *orro!ed fromanother language and felt *y the s"eakers as something ne!.

The intense develo"ment of science and industry introduced animmense num*er of ne! !ords and changed the meanings of oldones' com"uter, nuclear fission + ра+3е*ление, feed*ack +о)ратна- +в-з/ (радио), "enicillin, ta"e+recorder,su"ermarket, s"utnik, lunokhod, cosmic+shi", cosmodrome, etc.

There are many "ro*lems concerning neologisms' first of all theterm neologism/ itself. The dictionary gives the ex"lanation of aneologism as a ne! !ord or a ne! meaning of some !ord existingin the language. 5ence there a""ear the "ro*lems' during !hat

"eriod of time is this ne! !ord or the ne! meaning of the !ordconsidered to *e a neologismR 2re the !ords, e.g. doc!ing, cosmic

#light, etc. registered in the dictionary neologisms or already notneologismsR Some scientists consider ne! !ords, !hich are alreadyregistered *y the dictionaries, not to *e neologisms. Then a ne!?uestion arises' does it mean that neologisms are the !ords of orals"eechR

-in's o( Neologis.s

The intense develo"ment of science and industry, changes ineconomy, social and "olitical life introduced a great num*er of ne!!ords, denoting ne! notions in these fields. Prof. 7.6.&al"erin calledsuch neologisms terminological neologisms they differ from theneologisms having a great emotional+stylistic colouring. They arecalled *y 7.6. &al"erin stylistic neologisms. Both ty"es ofneologisms have different stylistic functions and are used !ithdifferent aims.

Terminological neologisms referring to the *ookish voca*ulary,as a rule, in the course of time *ecome "art of the language systemand they *ecome an im"ortant source of re"lenishment of thevoca*ulary of the language. &radually they "enetrate into thecommon literary collo?uial voca*ulary and *ecome !idely used *ythe maJority of the "eo"le. 5ere !e can mention, e.g., neologismsconnected !ith s"ace researches. The "eo"le have a great interest inthis "ro*lem. Besides, radio, TV, "ress "lay a great role in it. 5ere

are some neologisms of this s"here' s"ace, docking, cosmonaut,cosmic food, carrier+rocket, cosmonaut, cosmic+shi", or*italla*oratory, manned rocket, etc.

Many ne! !ords and !ord+"hrases, referring to science andtechnic, are formed in nglish as !ell as in other languages from theLatin and &reek root+

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mor"hemes availa*le in the language, and they are international !ords,e.g.' isoto"e, isotron, cyclotron, su"ersonic "lane.

2s it !as said, some neologisms are created to ex"ress greateremotional and stylistic shades of the existing notions, !hen it isnecessary a) to underline some extra features of the "henomenon, or *)to ex"ress oneEs attitude to the facts of reality, and the old !ords are not

"recise and ex"ressive enough, e.g.' ко+!о*лавание,

троирование.=hen the first Soviet s"utniks !ere launched, the 6ussian suffix

-57 a""eared in nglish, in the !ords denoting rockets, !ith one!hich failed to launch, e.g.' ka"utnik, flo"nik, stay+"utnik. Later onthis suffix a""eared in occasionalisms, e.g.' kno!ho!nik ++*ециали+т, у!елец, nofoodnik, re+fusenik ((еловек,которо!у отказали в *олу(ении визы).

;eologisms of this ty"e (the main function of !hich is to sho!some extra features of the "henomenon) are met mainly in "ress, inne!s"a"er style, i.e. in the style !hich immediately reflects all theevents in the country and the !orld. Such neologisms often "enetrateinto other languages as cliche (кал/ки) either in their national form,

or translated. .g. in nglish !e have from $hinese' a great leap$ in&erman from nglish + die 'eenagers. They are formed for use at themoment of s"eech.

7n fiction the main function of neologisms is the function ofex"ressing the authorEs attitude to the facts of reality, thatEs !hy thegreater "art of the !ritersE neologisms are characterised *y a greatemotional meaning, the greater "art of them do not live long. They areoccasionalisms.

,ays o( ,o#'1Fo#.ing o( Neologis.s

The *ulk of neologisms in nglish are formed according to the "roductive models of !ord+*uilding in the given "eriod and !ith the

hel" of !ord+stock of the language. So, the greater "art of literary+ *ookish neologisms are formed !ith the hel" of affixation andcom"ounding. $onversion, shortening, changes in the meaning of the!ords are also used to form neologisms *ut in a lo!er degree. They aremore often used to form collo?uial neologisms.

4ormation of neologisms !ith the hel" of affixation 5ere onemust mention t!o im"ortant factors' enlarging of the role of

"refixation and of the "roductivity of some "refixes and suffixes !hich!ere not such *efore.

;eologisms formed *y "refixation federation +*рекра3ат/ нор!ирование (от!енит/ карто(ну+и+те!у) decontaminate + о)еззара1иват/ de+icer +антио)леденител/ de+froster +антио)леденител/ de+re?uisition + возврат

52



sel#- выте+н-ет #ре(е+ку *ри+тавку auto-self+starter " авто!ати(е+ки завод, +а!о*у+к7 self+

correcting " +а!окорректиру3и7 self+"ro"elling "+а!оходны7

super-su"eratomic *om* " водородна- )о!)а7 su"erfilm "

+у*ер)оевик7 su"ermarket " )ол/о !а#азин

+а!оо)+лу1ивани-7 su"er+s"eed camera ++верх+коро+тна-кинока!ера7 su"er+radar " радиолокационна- +танци-)ол/о дал/но+ти де+тви-7anti-anti-icer - *ри)ор *ротив о)леденени-, anti+!orld,anti+hero, anti+trend, anti+emotion, antieverything, antilorry, antiroad,anticar

extra-extra+smart, extra+strong, extra+nuclear (вне-дерны).

;eologisms formed *y suffixationSuffixation has al!ays *een one of the most "roductive !ays of

!ord+formation. But at "resent, *esides !ell+kno!n suffixes, ne! ones *egan to *e !idely used though *efore they !ere either non+"roductiveor less "roduc+tive, e.g.'

-i1evillagi3e, finali3e " +делат/ окон(ател/ны!7-ееdoctee " *ациент, teachee " у(еник, +тудент7 examinee

" 5кза!енуе!ы7 am"utee, interrogatee, electee, askee,intervie!ee, auto*iogra"hee.

Practically, !ith the hel" of this suffix one can form any "assive/noun, to denote a "erson !ho is involved into some action (!houndergoes some action, influence)

-ettefeaturette + коротко!етра1ны ил/! о)ы(но

низко#о ка(е+тва kitchenette + кухон/ка, !ален/ка-кухн- + кладово leatherette + и!итаци- ко1и launderette +!ален/ка- *ра(е(на- +а!оо)+лу1ивани-.

This suffix has homonyms (a suffix of feminine gender -ette)usherette +)илетера, farmerette + ра)отница на ер!е.

The suffix -ess is gradually going out of use and in Modernnglish *о5те++а/ + a "oet, *и+ател/ница/ + an author,редактор+1ен3ина/ + an editor

-y (-ie) *ookie + кни1онка cli""ie + 1д кондуктор na""ie +

ле#ки +он goalie + вратар/ (ла+кат.) choosy +раз)ор(ивы talkie + озву(енны ил/!

-dom forms nouns !ith the meaning of collectivity' gangdom,musicdom

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-ese forms nouns denoting *elonging' 0aily Telegra"hese, ;e!9orkese, TVese

-ish fortyish, richish.

$om"ounding$om"ounding remains to *e "roductive in forming *oth

terminological and stylistic neologisms. 8sually it is a mere

com*ination of free forms' *arfly + a fre?uent visitor of *ars *ottom+dollar + *о+ледн-- ко*ека *lood+transfusion a frogman +водолаз Jo*hunting slot+machine *ackroom *oys (men, engagedin secret research) "a"er*ack *ooks + кни1ки в о)ло1кеaerolift + *ере)ро+ка, до+тавка *о воздуху !all+flo!er + agirl !ho stands near the !all as she is not invited to dance *lood+money + *ре!и-, выдавае!а- за уни(то1ение +а!олета*ротивника gold+digger + 1ен3ина, +тре!-3а-+- нати)о#ато#о *окровител- *a*y+sitter, TV *a*y+sitter *looddo+nors+ +ла)оразвитые +траны, откуда выка(иват в+е, (то!о1но ghost!riter + лицо, +о(ин-3ее ре(и и +тат/и завидных де-теле.

7n com"ounding of "resent day it is necessary to mention aninteresting "henomenon' such !ords as double-sealer, #our-seater,double-dec!er, etc. !hich have *een functioning in the language for along time, have given rise to such neologisms as a #ive-starrer - ahigh rank general !ith five stars a play-arounder - from to "layaround/ + лиртоват/, заводит/ интри1ки а brea!#ast-in-the-bedder - from *reakfast in *ed/. 2 com"lex "rocess takes "lacehere' contraction (+т-1ение) of the "hrase !ith the addition of a

"roductive suffix.2 "eculiarly nglish and steadily develo"ing ty"e is "resented *y

nouns formed from root+mor"hemes !ith "ost+"ositives'fall+out + радиоактивные о+адки dust+u" + за)а+товка

!у+ор3иков *reak+do!n + *олны у*адок +ил come+*ack +

возврат, возвративи+- make+u" + ко+!етика let+u" +*ередыка a set+u" + у+тановка a sho!do!n +реа3а- +хватка used+u"s + и+*ол/зованные!атериалы a !alk+u" + до! )ез лита a high+u" +вы+око*о+тавленное лицо !alk+ins + а!)улаторные)ол/ные a *uild+u" + концентраци- во+к, у+или и т.*.а touch+do!n + *ризе!ление a looker+out + дозорны.

2 s"ecial grou" of neologisms are the !ords !ith the "ost"ositivein teach+in " +о)рание *ре*одавателе и +тудентов взнак *роте+та, *ротив *олитики #о+удар+тва,+туден(е+ка- конеренци- или +е!инар *о на"+у3ны! во*ро+а!7 !ork+in " ра)ота +тудентов на

заводах во вре!- летних каникул7 laugh+in " у!ноеве+ел/е7 ride+in " +ов!е+тна- *оездка (ерных и )елыхв за3иту *рав7 march+in " !ар *роте+та7 kneel+in " *ро"те+т на колен-х7 slim+in " *отер- ве+а7 sit+in "окку*аци- *о!е3ени-7

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think+in " раз!е3ение, о)ду!ывание7 dro"+in "+о)рание !олоде1и $в кае&7 !ash+in " +тирка в!уници*алитете в знак *роте+та *ротив закрыти-*ра(е(ных. 7t is a s"ecial ty"e of com"ounding conversion.

Shortening, e.g.'ad, adverts + advertisement coke + coca+cola telist +

telegra"hist co+ed+ co+education s"ut + s"utnik "refa* + "refa*ricated (thing).Blending is not a very "roductive ty"e of forming neologisms.

The exam"les are the follo!ing'transeiver + transmitter receiver s"ortcast + s"ort *roadcast

"o"cert+ "o"ular concert yarden + yard garden musicomedy + musicalcomedynuke + nuclear attack 6eaganomics + 6eagon economics.

Such !ords as smog, cinerama, motel, cyclotron, moped (motorassisted "edal cycle) *ecame universally recogni3ed.

Some neologisms are used only in Modern collo?uiallanguage, es"ecially in common "arlance (*ро+торе(ии)'do"ium (do"e o"ium) + наркотик, дур!ан re"u*licrat(re"u*lican democrat) !eddiversary (!edding anniversary).

$onversion$onversion is !idely used to form neologisms, not only sim"le

!ords, *ut manysylia*le !ords and even !ord+com*inations' togarage + *о+тавит/ в #ара1, to "in"oint + то(но указат/!е+тонахо1дение, to feather*ed + о#радит/ от5коно!и(е+ких затруднени, to crash+land + раз)ит/+-*ри *о+адке, to force+land + +оверит/ выну1денну*о+адку, to *elly+land + *ризе!лит/+- )ез а++и, akno!ho! + техни(е+кие знани-, the under+eighteens +

*одро+тки, the over+forties + лди +вые %H, a hand+out +оициал/ное за-вление, а must + нео)ходи!о+т/, to *a*y+girl + родит/ дево(ку.

$hange of meaning, e.g.'angel " (еловек, оказыва3и !атериал/ну

*оддер1ку, climate ++ло1ива-+- $*олити(е+ка-&о)+тановка, coach " ната+киват/7 um*rella "8.*рикрытие +а!олета7 2. *олити(е+ка- за3ита7 floor" +а!ы низки уровен/ цен7 to "ase the *a*y "+*ихнут/ какое"ли)о дело на дру#о#о7 leftest "левы $в *олитике&7 to men " ко!*лектоват/ лд/!и7ceiling "!ак+и!ал/на- цена7 headache " *ред!ет илио)+то-тел/+тво, раздра1а3ее или *ри(ин-3еене*ри-тно+ти.

Borro!ings, e.g.'s"utnik, lunnik, lunokhod glassnost, "erestroika

6eichkan3ler, Blit3krieg, Luft!affe.

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8sually neologisms are short+lived. But if they ex"ress veryim"ortant notions and the "eo"le need them for communication, thenthese !ords *ecome "art of the voca*ulary, they enter the dictionaries.

!#c$ais.s

The voca*ulary of a language never remains sta*le. There areconstant changes in the semantic structure of any language. =ordsa""ear, undergo a num*er of "honetic and semantic changes and finally

"ass com"letely out of use. The disa""earance of various things, "henomena, etc. causes either com"lete disa""earance of their names orturns them into re"resentatives/ of a "revious e"och.

Many !ords *ecome o*solete in ordinary language, *ut remain in "oetry, in *ooks conforming to a definite style, in oratory, etc. 2 greatmany archaisms survive in nglish dialects.

The fate of o*solete !ords may *e different. =e distinguish t!ogrou"s of o*solete !ords' historical terms (historisms) and archaisms

"ro"er.5istorisms are names of things and "henomena !hich "assed out

of use !ith the develo"ment of social, economical, cultural life of

society *ut !hich retain historical im"ortance. 8nlike archaisms,historical terms have no synonyms in Modern nglish' they are onlynames of things and notions !hich refer to the "ast of the nglish

"eo"le.The s"here of these !ords is restricted !ith scientific literature or

!ith *ooks and novels dealing !ith certain historical "eriods. There arelots of historisms in the historical novels of =.Scott and other nglishauthors, e.g.'

1. !ords of social "osition' yeomen + о!ен, knight + рыцар/,scri*e +*и+ец. names of arms and !ords connected !ith !ar' *attle ax +

)оево то*орик, musket + !укет, visor + за)рало, !arrior + воин,s!ord + !е(, hal

*erd + але)арда, cross+*o! + +а!о+трел, coat of mail +кол/(у#а, gauntlet +рыцар+ка- *ер(атка - латна- рукавица, archer ++трелок из лука, s"ear +ко*/е#. ty"es of vessels' galley + #алера, frigate + ре#ат,caravel +каравелла%. ty"es of carts !hich !ent out of use' *rougham +

одно!е+тна-карета, chaise + а5тон, ле#ка- *овозка +открыты! верхо!, hansom +двух!е+тны 5ки*а1, #де +идение ку(ерара+*оло1ено *озади и не+кол/ко вые !е+т дл- +едоков, coach + карета(*о(това-)C. names of old musical instruments' lute + лтн-, lyre + лира.The num*er of historisms !hich reflect the social life and culture

of the "ast is very great.

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2rchaisms "ro"er are o*solete !ords denoting real things and "henomena, *ut the !ords themselves are no longer found inordinary nglish' they !ere su*stituted *y others, o*solete !ords

*ecoming their stylistic synonyms.=e distinguish lexical and grammatical archaisms.

&rammatical archaisms are forms of !ords !hich !ent out of use!ith the develo"ment of the grammar system of the nglish

language'-th - suffix of the #rd "erson sing., Present 7ndef. Tense, e.g.hath, doth, s"eaketh

-st - nd "erson + dost, hast, s"eakestart - nd "erson of the ver* to *e/ "l.thou, thee, thy, thine - "ronouns

ye - "lural, nd "erson.Lexical archaisms. Poetry is es"ecially rich in archaisms. =ords

that are too !ell kno!n and too often used do not call u" such vividimages as !ords less familiar. This is one of the reasons !hichim"el "oets to use archaic !ords. They are ne!/ Just on accountof their *eing old, and yet they are not utterly unkno!n to *eunintelligi*le. The follo!ing are some of the most common lexicalarchaisms used in "oetry'

*illo! + вона save + кро!е "lain + 1аловат/+- *ehold + видет/ yon (yonder) + тот eke + то1е *ro! +(ело foe + вра# ere + до steed + кон/ morn + утро *elike +веро-тно damsel + девука !oe + ro"e oft, oft+times +(а+то mere + озеро, *руд hearken + +луат/ al*eit +хот-, etc.

57



)!RT III0 )HR!SEOLOGY

FREE ,ORD1GROU)S !ND )HR!SEOLOGIC!L

UNITS

1.Some *asic features of !ord+grou"s.

.Structure of !ord+grou"s.#.Meaning of !ord+grou"s.%.Motivation in !ord+grou"s.

So.e Basic Fea%&#es o( ,o#'1G#o&"s

=ords "ut together to form lexical units make "hrases or !ord+grou"s. :ne must recall that lexicology deals !ith !ords, !ord+forming mor"hemes and !ord+grou"s.

The degree of structural and semantic cohesion of !ord+grou"s mayvary. Some !ord+grou"s, e.g. at least, point o# view, by means, to ta!e

place, etc. seem to *e functionally and semantically inse"ara*le. Theyare usually descri*ed as set "hrases, !ord+e?uivalents or "hraseologicalunits and are studied *y the *ranch of lexicology !hich is kno!n as

"hraseology. 7n other !ord+grou"s such as to ta!e lessons, !ind to people, a wee! ago, the com"onent+mem*ers seem to "ossess greatersemantic and structural inde"endence. =ord+grou"s of this ty"e aredefined as free !ord+grou"s or "hrases and are studied in syntax.

Before discussing "hraseology it is necessary to outline the featurescommon to various !ord+grou"s irres"ective of the degree ofstructural and semantic cohesion of the com"onent+!ords.

There are t!o factors !hich are im"ortant in uniting !ords into!ord+grou"s'

+ the lexical valency of !ords+ the grammatical valency of!ords.Lexical valency.=ords are used in certain lexical contexts, i.e. in com*inations !ith

other !ords. .g. the noun *uestion is often com*ined !ith suchadJectives as vital, pressing, urgent, delicate, etc. This noun is acom"onent in a num*er of other !ord+grou"s' to raise a ?uestion (not tolift), a ?uestion of the hour + актуал/ны во*ро+,зло)одневны во*ро+.

The a"tness of a !ord to a""ear in various com*inations isdescri*ed as its lexical valency. The range of the lexical valency of!ords is delimited *y the inner structure of the nglish !ords. Thus,to raise and to li#t are synonyms, *ut only the former is collocated !ith

the noun *uestion. The ver*s to ta!e, to catch, to sei1e, to grasp aresynonyms, *ut they are found in different collocations'

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to take + exams, measures, "recautions, etc.to gras" + the truth, the meaning.=ords ha*itually collocated in s"eech tend to form a cliche.The lexical valency of correlated !ords in different languages is

not identical, *ecause as it !as said *efore, it de"ends on the innerstructure of the voca*ulary of the language. Both the nglish

#lower and the 6ussian цветок may *e com*ined !ith a num*er

of similar !ords, e.g. garden flo!ers, hot house flo!ers (cf. the6ussian + +адовые цветы, оран1ереные цветы), *ut innglish #lower cannot *e com*ined !ith the !ord room, !hile in6ussian !e say комнатные цветы (in nglish !e say pot-

#lowers).&rammatical valency.=ords are also used in grammatical contexts. The minimal

grammatical context in !hich the !ords are used to form !ord+grou"s is usually descri*ed as the "attern of the !ord+grou". .g., theadJective heavy can *e follo!ed *y a noun (2;) + heavy food,heavy storm, heavy *ox, heavy eater. But !e cannot say 8heavycheese [ or 8heavy to li#t, to carry8, etc.

The a"tness of a !ord to a""ear in s"ecific grammatical (or

rather syntactical) structures is termed grammatical valency. The grammatical valency of !ords may *e different. Thegrammatical valency is delimited *y the "art of s"eech the !ord

*elongs to. .g., no nglish adJective can *e follo!ed *y the finiteform of a ver*.

Then, the grammatical valency is also delimited *y the innerstructure of the language. .g., to suggest, to propose are synonyms.Both can *e follo!ed *y a noun, *ut only to propose can *e follo!ed

*y the infinitive of a ver* W to propose to do something.Clever and intelligent have the same grammatical valency, *ut

only clever can *e used in !ord+grou"s having the "attern2"re"; + clever at maths.

S%#&c%&#e o( ,o#'1G#o&"sStructurally !ord+grou"s can *e considered in different !ays.

=ord+grou"s may *e descri*ed as for the order and arrangement ofthe com"onent+mem*ers. .g., the !ord+grou" to read a boo! can

*e classified as a ver*al+nominal grou", to loo! at smb.- as a ver*al+ "re"ositional+nominal grou", etc.

By the criterion of distri*ution all !ord+grou"s may *e dividedinto t!o *ig classes' according to their head+!ords and according totheir syntactical "atterns.

=ord+grou"s may *e classified according to their head+!ordsinto'nominal grou"s + red #lower$adJective grou"s + !ind to people$ver*al grou"s + to spea! well.The head is not necessarily the com"onent that occurs first.

C



=ord+grou"s are classified according to their syntactical "attern into "redicative and non+"redicative grou"s. Such !ord+grou"s as he went, 9ob wal!s that have a syntactic structure similar to that of a sentence aretermed as "redicative, all others are non+"redicative ones.

;on+"redicative !ord+grou"s are divided into su*ordinative andcoordi+native de"ending on the ty"e of syntactic relations *et!een thecom"onents. .g., a red #lower, a man o# #reedom are su*ordinative

non+"redicative !ord+grou"s, red and #reedom *eing de"endent !ords,!hile day and night, do and die are coordinative non+"redicative !ord+grou"s.

Meaning o( ,o#'1G#o&"s

The lexical meaning of a !ord+grou" may *e defined as thecom*ined lexical meaning of the com"onent mem*ers. But it should

*e "ointed out, ho!ever, that the term com*ined lexical meaning/does not im"ly that the meaning of the !ord+grou" is al!ays a sim"leadditive result of all the lexical meanings of the com"onent !ords. 2s arule, the meanings of the com"onent !ords are mutually de"endent andthe meaning of the !ord+grou" naturally "redominates over the lexicalmeaning of the com"onents. The interde"endence is !ell seen in !ord+grou"s made u" of "olysemantic !ords. .g., in the "hrases the blindman, the blind type the !ord blind has different meanings + unable to

see and vague.So !e see that "olysemantic !ords are used in !ord+grou"s only

in one of their meanings.

Mo%i/a%ion in ,o#'1G#o&"s

=ord+grou"s like !ords may *e also analysed from the "oint ofvie! of their motivation. =ord+grou"s may *e called as lexicallymotivated if the com*ined lexical meaning of the grou" is deduci*lefrom the meaning of the com"onents. 2ll free "hrases are com"letelymotivated.

7t follo!s from the a*ove discussion that !ord+grou"s may *e alsoclassified into motivated and non+motivated units. ;on+motivated !ord+grou"s are ha*itually descri*ed as "hraseological units or idioms.

7nvestigations of nglish "hraseology *egan not long ago. nglishand 2merican linguists as a rule are *usy collecting different !ords,!ord+grou"s and sentences !hich are interesting from the "oint ofvie! of their origin, style, usage or some other features. 2ll these unitsare ha*itually descri*ed as idioms/, *ut no attem"t has *een made todescri*e these idioms as a se"arate class of linguistic units or a s"ecificclass of !ord+grou"s.

7n our country research in nglish "hraseology has *een constantlycarried on for at least @H years and has some results. The term"hraseological о С units/ to denote a s"ecific grou" of "hrases !as

introduced *y Soviet linguists and is generally acce"ted in our country.

@H



&reat !ork in this field has *een done *y the outstanding6ussian linguist 2. Shakhmatov in his !ork Syntax/. This !ork!as continued *y 2cad. V.V. Vinogradov. &reat investigations ofnglish "hraseology !ere done *y Prof. 2. $unin, 7. 2rnold andothers.

CL!SSIFIC!TIONS OF )HR!SEOLOGIC!LUNITS

1. $riteria of sta*ility and lack of motivation.. &eneral classification of "hraseological units.#.Structural classification.%. &enetic (etymological) classification.C.Prover*s.

C#i%e#ia o( S%a+ili%y an' Lac3 o( Mo%i/a%ion

Phraseological units are ha*itually defined as non+motivated!ord+grou"s that cannot *e freely made u" in s"eech *ut are

re"roduced as ready+made units the other essential feature of "hraseological units is sta*ility of the lexical com"onents andgrammatical structure.

8nlike com"onents of free !ord+grou"s !hich may varyaccording to the needs of communication, mem*er+!ords of

"hraseological units are al!ays re"roduced as single unchangea*lecollocations. .g., in a red #lower (a free "hrase) the adJective red may

*e su*stituted *y another adJective denoting colour, and the !ord+grou"!ill retain the meaning' [the flo!er of a certain colour[.

7n the "hraseological unit red tape ()рократи(е+кие!етоды) no such su*stitution is "ossi*le, as a change of theadJective !ould cause a com"lete change in the meaning of thegrou"' it !ould then mean [- tape o# a certain colour8. 7t follo!s

that the "hraseological unit red tape is semantically non+motivated,i.e. its meaning cannot *e deduced from the meaning of its com"o+nents, and that it exists as a ready+made linguistic unit !hich doesnot allo! any change of its lexical com"onents and its grammaticalstructure.

&rammatical structure of "hraseological units is to a certaindegree also sta*le'

red tape - a "hraseological unitred tapes - a free !ord+grou"to go to bed + a "hraseological unitto go to the bed - a free !ord+grou".

Still the *asic criterion is com"arative lack of motivation, or

idiomaticity of the "hraseological units. Semantic motivation is *ased on the coexistence of direct and figurative meaning.

@1



Gene#al Classi(ica%ion o( )$#aseological Uni%s

Taking into consideration mainly the degree of idiomaticity "hraseological units may *e classified into three *ig grou"s. Thisclassification !as first suggested *y 2cad. V. V. Vinogradov. Thesegrou"s are'

+ "hraseological fusions (+ра3ени-),+ "hraseological unities (един+тва),+ "hraseological collocations (+лово+о(етани-), or ha*itualcollocations.Phraseological fusions are com"letely non+motivated !ord+grou"s. The

meaning of the com"onents has no connection at least synchronically!ith the meaning of the !hole grou". 7diomaticity is com*ined !ithcom"lete sta*ility of the lexical com"onents and the grammaticalstructure of the fusion,

.g.'to kick the *ucket + у!ират/,at sixes and sevens + в )е+*ор-дке,to see the ele"hant W узнат/ 1изн/,to go for a song + *родат/ за )е+ценок, *all and chain + законна- 1ена,a mareEs nest + вздор,to talk through oneEs hat\W #оворит/ вздор,!hite ele"hant " о)уза, ник(е!ны *ред!ет.Phraseological unities are "artially non+motivated !ord+grou"s as

their meaning can usually *e understood through (deduced from)themeta"horic meaning of the !hole "hraseological unit,

e.g.rto skate on thin ice W ри+коват/,to !ash oneEs dirty linen in "u*lic + выно+ит/ +ор из из)ы,to turn over a ne! leafW на(ат/ нову 1изн/,to *e in sm*Es shoes + )ыт/ на (/е!+ли)о !е+те,as *usy as a *ee + о(ен/ зан-ты,as cool as a cucum*er + хладнокровны,green light + зелена- улица.Phraseological unities are usually marked *y a com"aratively high

degree of sta*ility of the lexical com"onents and grammatical structure.Phraseological unities can have homonymous free "hrases, used indirect meanings.

.g.'to skate on thin iceW to s!ate on thin ice (to risk)to !ash oneEs hands off dirt + to wash one"s hands o## (to !ithdra!

from "artici"ance)to "lay the first role in the theatre + to play the #irst role (todominate).There must *e not less than t!o notional !ordsin meta"horical

meanings.Phraseological collocations are "artially motivated *ut they are

made u" of !ords having s"ecial lexical valency !hich is marked *y acertain degree of sta*ility in such !ord+grou"s. 7n "hraseologicalcollocations varia*ility of com"onents is strictly limited. They differfrom "hraseological unities *y the

@



fact that one of the com"onents in them is used in its direct meaning,the other + in indirect meaning, and the meaning of the !hole grou"dominates over the meaning of its com"onents. 2s figurativeness isex"ressed only in one com"onent of the "hrase it is hardly felt.

.g.'to "ay a visit, tri*ute, attention, res"ectto *reak a "romise, a rule, ne!s, silenceto meet demands, re?uirement, necessity

to set free to set at li*ertyto make money, Journeyto fall ill.The structure V ; (до*олнение) is the largest grou" of

"hraseological collocations.

S%#&c%&#al Classi(ica%ion

Phraseological units may *e defined as s"ecific !ord+grou"sfunctioning as !ord+e?uivalents they are e?uivalent to definite classesof !ords. The "art+of+s"eech meaning of "hraseological units is felt as

*elonging to the !ord+grou" as a !hole irres"ective of the "art+of+s"eech meaning of com"onent !ords. $om"aring a free !ord+grou",e.g. a long day and a "hraseological unit, e.g. in the long run, !e

o*serve that in the free !ord+grou" the noun day and the adJectivelong "reserve the "art+of+s"eech meaning "ro"er to these !ords takenin isolation. The !hole grou" is vie!ed as com"osed of t!o inde"endentunits (2 ;). 7n the "hraseological unit in the long run the "art+of+s"eech meaning *elongs to the grou" as a single !hole. In the long runis grammatically e?uivalent to single adver*s, e.g. #inally, #irstly, etc.

So !e distinguish set+ex"ressions that are nominal "hrases,functioning like nouns,

e.g.'Dack+of+all+trades + !а+тер на в+е руки,!ays and means + +*о+о)ы, +ред+тва,BakerEs dosen + (ертова д1ина,a thorn in the flesh + )ел/!о на #лазу,skeleton in the cu"*oard + +е!ена- тана :ver*al "hrases, functioning like ver*s'to take the *ull *y the horn + де+твоват/ реител/но,to kno! the ro"es " знат/ в+е ходы и выходы,to flog a dead horse + *о*у+ту тратит/ вре!-,to "ut a finger into every "ie + +оват/+- во в+е дела,to talk through oneEs hat + *орот/ (е*ухуadJectival "hrases, functioning like adJectives's"ick and s"an + как + и#оло(ки,(as)cool as a cucum*er + хладнокровны,(as)"oor as a church mouse + о(ен/ )едны,

@#



(as) good as gold + золото (о ре)енке)adver*ial "hrases, functioning like adver*sin a trice D в !#новение ока,at sixes and sevens W в )е+*ор-дке,

*efore you can say Dack 6o*inson/ + !#новенно, *y hook or *y crook " не !ыт/е!, так катан/е!7л)ы!и +ред+тва!и7

"re"ositional and conJunctional "hrases'as long asas !ell asin s"ite ofas soon asinterJ ectional "hrases'!ell, 7 never E F кто )ы !о# *оду!ат/ $ну и нуE&,

*y &eorgeE " $удивление, +о1аление&,like hellE " (ерта + два,my foot " дер1и кар!ан ире,my auntE " )о1е !оE Aдрав+твуте, - ваа тет-Emy eye and Betty MartinU + вот так такUSo, "hraseological units are included into the system of "arts of

s"eech.

Gene%ic 4E%y.ological5 Classi(ica%ion

Phraseological units are created from free !ord+grou"s. But in thecourse of time some !ords + constituents of "hraseological units maydro" out of the language the situation in !hich the "hraseological unit!as formed can *e forgotten, motivation can *e lost and these "hrases

*ecome "hraseological fusions. The sources of "hraseological units aredifferent s"heres of life'

sea life'tell that to the marines W вздорU ври )ол/еUin dee" !aters + в )еде,in lo! !aters $+е+т/ на !ел/& " )ыт/ )ез дене#,to *e at sea + )ыт/ в недоу!ении,to see land $видет/ +уу& " )ыт/ )лизко к цели,to run into difficult !aters " *о*а+т/ в затруднител/ное*оло1ение7fish and fishing'to fish in trou*led !ater + ловит/ ры)у в !утно воде,to drink like a fish + *ит/ за*ое!,to feed the fishes D утонут/7 +традат/ !ор+ко)олезн/7s"ort 'to have the *all at oneEs feet " )ыт/ хоз-ино!

*оло1ени-, и!ет/ в+е *реи!у3е+тва в како!"ли)оделе,

to hit *elo! the *elt " *ри!енит/ за*ре3енны *рие!,не +те+н-т/+- в вы)оре +ред+тв,

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to *ack the !rong horse " *о+тавит/ не на ту лоад/,+делат/ не*равил/ны вы)ор,

the *all is !ith youU > +лово за ва!иUarmy 'to stick to oneEs guns " не +дават/ *озици7 твердо

*роводит/ +во лини,to mask oneEs *atteries " +крыват/, !а+кироват/ +вое

вра1де)ное на+троение,to mark time $!арироват/ на !е+те " воен.& "то*тат/+- на !е+те, )езде+твоват/7

hunting 'to turn tail " о)ратит/+- в )е#+тво, *у+тит/+-наутек, дат/ +трека(а7(as) hungry as a !olf3oosemv (animal life)'crocodile tears lionEs share !hite ele"hantit rains cats and dogstheatre 'to "lay to the gallery " и+кат/ деево *о*ул-рно+ти,

разводит/ де!а#о#и7

to "ull the ro"es + у*равл-т/medicine'to s!eeten the draught + *од+ла+тит/ лекар+твоtechnic'to get u" steam + разве+ти *ары, дат/ вол (ув+тва!!ith full steam on + на в+ех *арах, *о+*еноto grease the !heels + +!азат/ коле+а, дат/ вз-ткуagriculture'to so! oneEs !ild oats + отдават/+- увле(ени-! но+тиto "ut the "lough *efore the oxen + на(инат/ не + то#оконцаto get some*odyEs goat + разозлит/ ко#о+ли)оhistorical events, customs'

*y hook or *y crook " у трактир3иков +таро ?н#лии)ыло в о)ы(ае та3ит/ к +е)е клиентов, хвата- ихкрка!и. Gен3ин " за *лат/е о+тры!и кр(ка!и,!у1(ин " за но#у )ол/и!и крка!и7

"ee"ing Tom " (ере+(ур л)о*ытны (еловек.%+то(ник *рои+хо1дени- данно#о выра1ени- "ле#енда о леди Годиве в Ковентри. Му1 ее, #ра,о)ло1ил #ород )ол/и!и нало#а!и. Годиваза+ту*ила+/ за 1ителе. Гра *о+тавил у+ловие, (тоот!енит нало#, е+ли Годива о+!елит+- *роехат/ в*олден/ о)на1енно (ерез ве+/ #ород. на *рин-лау+ловие. 'знав о) 5то!, 1ители +#оворили+/ вназна(енны (а+ закрыт/ на#лухо +тавни в+ех

до!ов. Годива *роехала *о *у+ты! улица!. Cол/ко*ортно Cо! *од+!атривал в 3елку и о+ле*. ВКовентри до +их *ор е+т/ #ород+кие (а+ы, накоторых в 82 (а+ов открыват+- +тавенки и из нихвы#л-дывает #олова л)о*ытно#о Cо!а7

@C



to !in oneEs s"urs " )ыт/ *о+в-3енны! в рыцари7*родвинут/+- $+редневековы о)ы(а " на#ра1дат/*ора!и *ри *о+в-3ении в рыцари&7 trade '

to talk sho" + #оворит/ *о делу, to make the *est of the *argain + *олу(ит/ доход, intothe *argain + в*рида(у, *est seller + ходкитовар автор тако кни#и.

)#o/e#+s

Besides "hraseological units + !ord+e?uivalents, the language hasset+"hrases !hich are e?uivalents of sentences. They are "rover*s,sayings, a"horisms,

e.g.'custom is the second nature + *ривы(ка втора-натураevery man has a fool in his sleeve + на в+-ко#о !удреца

довол/но *ро+тотыtoo many cooks s"oil the *roth + у +е!и н-нек дит- )ез#лазу.Prover* is a short saying, usually !ell+kno!n and handed do!n

from ancient times, containing !ords of advice, !arning or !isdom.Prover*s are reffered to "hraseological units as they are usually

meta"hors and are coloured stylistically. Prover*s are set+"hrases *ecause they also are not created in the "rocess of s"eech they are "artof the voca*ulary !hich is created *y folk.

7f !e com"are 6ussian and nglish "rover*s and "hraseologicalfusions !eEll discover some interesting "henomena. 4irst of all, *othlanguages have analogous "rover*s,

e.g.'there is no smoke !ithout fire + нет ды!а )ез о#н-as the call, so the echo + как аукнет+-, так иоткликнет+-strike iron !hile it is hot + ку 1елезо, *ока #ор-(оdonEt look a gift horse into the mouth + дарено!у кон в зу)ыне +!отр-т.Sometimes the meanings are analogous, *ut the semantic centre of

the "hrases is different in 6ussian and in nglish. 7t may *e ex"lained *ydifferent historical conditions at the same time !hen the "arallel "hrasesa""eared,

e.g.'6ome !as not *uilt in a day. + Мо+ква не +разу+троила+/.Life is not a *ed of roses. + Gизн/ *ро1ит/ + не *оле*ерети.0o in 6ome as the 6omans do. + @ волка!и 1ит/, *о+вол(/и выт/.В (у1о !она+тыр/ +о +вои! у+таво! не +у+-.2s you make your *ed so you must lie on it. + @а! заварил

кау, +а! и ра+хле)ыва.2s they so!, so let them rea". + Hто *о+ее/, то и*о1не/.

@@

4rom' SM2;T7$S

*y 4.6.Palmer



I'io.s0 7dioms involve collocation of a s"ecial kind. $onsider, for

instance, !ic! the buc!et, #ly o## the handle, spill the beans, red

herring. 4or here !e not only have the collocation of !ic! and thebuc!et , *ut also the fact that the meaning of the resultant

com*ination is o"a?ue > it is not related to the meaning of the

individual !ords, *ut is sometimes (though not al!ays) nearer to the

meaning of a single !ord (thus !ic! the buc!et e?uals die).

ven !here an idiom is semantically like a single !ord it does not

function like one. Thus !e !ill not have a "ast tense ]!ic!-the-

buc!eted. 7nstead, it functions to some degree as a normal se?uenceof grammatical !ords, so that the "ast tense form is !ic!ed the

buc!et But there are a great num*er of grammatical restrictions. 2

large num*er of idioms contain a ver* and a noun, *ut although the

ver* may *e "laced in the "ast tense, the num*er of the noun can

never *e changed. =e have spilled the beans, *ut not ] spill the bean

and e?ually there is no ;#ly o## the handles, ;!ic! the buc!ets, ;put

on good #aces, ;blow one<s tops, etc. Similarly, !ith red herring the

noun may *e "lural, *ut the adJective cannot *e com"arative (the > er

form). Thus !e find red herrings *ut not ;redder herring.

There are also "lenty of syntactic restrictions. Some idioms have

"assives, *ut others do not. 'he law was laid down and 'he beanshave been spilled are all right (though some may ?uestion the latter),

*ut ;'he buc!et was !ic!ed is not. But in no case could !e say It was

the = (beans that were spilled, law that was laid down, buc!et that

was !ic!ed, etc.) The restrictions vary from idiom to idiom. Some are

more restricted or ^fro3en_ that others.

2 very common ty"e of idiom in nglish is !hat is usually called

the ^"hrasal ver*_, the com*ination of ver* "lus adver* of the kind

ma!e up, give in, put down. The meaning of these com*inations

cannot *e "redicted from the individual ver* and adver* and in many

cases there is a single ver* !ith the same or a very close meaning >

invent, yield, *uell. ;ot all com*inations of this kind are idiomatic,

of course. Put down has a literal sense too and there are many others

that are *oth idiomatic and not, e.g. ta!e in as in 'he con6uror too!

the audience in, 'he woman too! the homeless children in. There are

even degrees of idiomaticity since one can ma!e up a story, ma!e up

a fire or ma!e up one_s face. Moreover, it is not only se?uences of

ver* "lus adver* that may *e idiomatic. There are also se?uences of

ver* "lus "re"osition, such as loo! a#ter and go #or , and se?uences of

ver*, adver* and "re"osition, such as put up with ( ̂ tolerate_) or do

away with (_kill_).

There are also !hat !e may call "artial idioms, !here one of the!ords has its usual meaning, the other has a meaning that is "eculiar

to the "articular se?uence. Thus red hair refers to hair, *ut not hair

that is red in strict colour terms. $omedians have fun !ith "artial

idioms of this kind, e.g. !hen instructed to ma!e a bed they *ring out



a set of car"enter_s tools. 2n interesting set involves the !ord white,

for !hite coffee is *ro!n in colour, !hite !ine is usually yello!, and

!hite "eo"le are "ink. 9et white is, "erha"s, idiomatic only to some

degree > it could *e inter"reted ^the lightest in colour of that usually

to *e found_. ;ot sur"risingly blac! is used as its antonym for coffee

and "eo"le (though again neither are *lack in colour terms), yet it is

not used for !ine. Thus it can *e seen that even "artial idiomaticitycan *e a matter of degree and may in some cases *e little more than a

matter of collocational restriction. :n a more comic level there is

"artial idiomaticity in raining cats and dogs (in =elsh it rains old

women and stic!s>).

=hat is and !hat is not an idiom is, then, often a matter of degree.

7t is very difficult, moreover, to decide !hether a !ord or a se?uence

of !ords is o"a?ue. =e could, "erha"s, define idioms in terms of

non+e?uivalence in other languages, so that !ic! the buc!et, red

herring, etc., are idioms *ecause they cannot *e directly translated

into 4rench or &erman. But this !ill not really !ork. The 4rench fornurse is garde-malade, *ut !hile this cannot *e directly translated

into nglish it is ?uite trans"arent, o*viously meaning someone !ho

looks after the sick. :n the other hand, loo! a#ter seems ?uite

idiomatic, yet it can *e ?uite directly translated into =elsh (edrych

ar ol).

4irth sa! collocation as Just one of his levels or statements of

meaning. :thers have attem"ted to integrate it more closely to the

other levels of linguistic analysis, to argue, for instance, that it may

*e handled !ithin the level of lexis, !hich is related in a fairly direct

and, in theory, "recise !ay to grammar.

("". %+1HH)



)!RT I*0 *!RIETIES OF ENGLISH

ST!ND!RD ENGLISH0 N!TION!L *!RI!NTS!ND LOC!L DI!LECTS

Standard nglish is the official language of &reat Britain usedin its literary form. 6egional varieties "ossessing a literary form arecalled national vari ants. Local dialects are varieties of nglish

"eculiar to some districts and having no normali3ed literary form. 7n&reat Britain there are t!o variants, Scottish nglish and 7rishnglish, and five main grou"s of dialects' ;orthern, Midland,astern, =estern and Southern. very grou" contains several (u" toten) dialects. The local dialects are used mainly *y the rural

"o"ulation and only for the "ur"oses of oral communication. Localdistinctions are more marked in "ronunciation, less cons"icuous invoca*ulary and insignificant in grammar. The British local dialectsare traced *ack to :ld nglish dialects. ;umerous and distinct, theyare characteri3ed *y "honemic and structural "eculiarities.

:ne of the *est kno!n Southern dialects is $ockney, theregional dialect of London. This dialect exists on t!o levels' ass"oken *y the educated lo!er middle classes and as s"oken *y theuneducated. 7n the first case $ockney is a regional dialect marked *ysome deviations in "ronunciation *ut fe! in voca*ulary and syntax.7n the second case it differs from Standard nglish not only in

"ronunciation *ut also in voca*ulary, mor"hology and syntax.The Scottish Tongue and the 7rish nglish have a s"ecial

linguistic status as com"ared !ith dialects *ecause of the literaturecom"osed in them. The name of 6o*ert Burns, the great national

"oet of Scotland, is kno!n all over the !orld. The "oetic features of2nglo+7rish may *e seen in the "lays *y D.M.Synge and Sean

:E$asey.nglish is the national language of ngland "ro"er, the 8S2,$anada, 2ustralia and ;e! `ealand. 5ence, there exist five nationalvariants' British nglish (B), 2merican nglish (2), $anadiannglish ($n), 2ustralian nglish (2u), ;e! `ealand nglish(;`).

These five varieties of nglish are national variants of the samelanguage, *ecause their structural "eculiarities, es"ecially their!ord+formation system, syntax and mor"hology, as !ell as their!ord+stock and "honetic system are essentially the same. The mainlexical differences of these variants from Standard nglish (&eneralnglish) are connected !ith the lack of e?uivalent lexical units in

one of them, divergences in the semantic structure of "olysemantic!ords and "eculiarities of usage of some !ords on the British 7slesand in the

@



named countries. The historic causes of the deviations in lexis are *asedon the fact of ex"orting the language of the mother country on a certaindate of coloni3ation.

The existing cases of difference *et!een regional lexis and &eneralnglish are classified into several grou"s'

1. cases !hen different !ords are used for the same denotatum,. cases !hen the semantic structure of a "artially e?uivalent !ord is

dif ferent,#. cases !hen other!ise e?uivalent !ords are different in distri*ution,%. it sometimes ha""ens that the same !ord is used !ith somedifferencein emotional and stylistic colouring,C. there may *e a marked difference in fre?uency characteristics.S"ecial !ords used in these variants are called' *riticism,americanism,

canadism, australianism, ne!3ealandism. They have no e?uivalents in&eneral nglish, and they mostly *elong to the follo!ing semanticgrou"s' flora and fauna, trades and agriculture, names of the inha*itantsof the country and the geogra"hical names, everyday life, customs andtraditions, historical events. very national variant includes !ords fromthe language(s) of the native "o"ulation.

!MERIC!N ENGLISH

The variety of nglish s"oken in the 8S2 has received the nameof 2merican nglish. The term variant or variety a""ears mosta""ro"riate for several reasons. 2merican nglish cannot *e called adialect although it is a regional variety, *ecause it has a literarynormali3ed form called Standard 2merican, !hereas a dialect has no

literary form. ;either is it a se"arate language, as some 2mericanauthors, like 5. L. Mencken, claimed, *ecause it has neither grammarnor voca*ulary of its o!n.

2n americanism + a !ord (set ex"ression) "eculiar to the nglishlanguage as s"oken in the 8S2. .g. coo!ie Ea *iscuitE$ #rame house Eahouse consisting of a skeleton of tim*er, !ith *road or shingles laidonEE #rame-up Ea staged or "reconcerted la! caseE guess EthinkE storeEsho"E.

2 general 2and com"rehensive descri"tion of the 2merican variantis given in Prof. 2.0. Sh!eit3erEs monogra"h. 2n im"ortant as"ect ofhis treatment is the distinction made *et!een americanisms *elonging tothe literary norm and those existing in lo! collo?uial and slang.

The difference *et!een the 2merican and British literary norm isnot systematic. The 2merican variant of the nglish language differsfrom British

@A



nglish in "ronunciation, some minor features of grammar, *ut chieflyin voca*ulary.

The historic causes of the deviations. 2merican nglish is *asedon the language im"orted to the ne! continent at the time of the firstsettlements, that is on the nglish of the 1th century. The firstcolonies !ere founded in 1@H, so that the first coloni3ers !erecontem"oraries of Shakes"eare, S"enser and Milton. =ords !hich

have died out in Britain, or changed their meaning may havesurvived in the 8S2. Thus, I guess !as used *y $haucer for thin!.4or more than three centuries the 2merican voca*ulary develo"edmore or less inde"endently of the British stock and !as influenced

*y the ne! surroundings. The early 2mericans had to coin !ordsfor the unfamiliar fauna and flora. 5ence there a""eared bull-#rog Ealarge frogE, moose (the 2merican elk), oppossum, raccoon - (an2merican animal related to *ears), for animals and corn, hic!ory, etc.for "lants. The settlers also had to find names for the ne! conditionsof economic life' bac!-country Edistricts not yet thickly "o"ulatedE,bac!-settlement, bac!woods Ethe forest *eyond the cleared countryE,bac!woodsman Ea d!eller in the *ack!oodsE.

The o""osition of any t!o lexical systems among the variantsdescri*ed is of great linguistic and heuristic value *ecause it furnishesam"le date for o*serving the influence of extra+linguistic factors u"onthe voca*ulary. 2merican "olitical voca*ulary sho!s this "oint verydefinitely' absentee voting Voting *y mailE, dar! horse Ea candidatenominated unex"ectedly and not kno!n to his votersE, to gerrymanderEto arrange and falsify the electoral "rocess to "roduce a favora*le resultin the interests of a "articular "arty or candidateE, all-outer Ean ade"t ofdecisive measuresE.

Many of the foreign elements *orro!ed into 2merican nglishfrom the 7ndian dialects or from S"anish "enetrated very soon not only

into British nglish *ut also into several other languages, 6ussian notexcluded, and so *ecame international. They are' canoe, moccasin s*uaw, tomahaw!, wigwam, etc., and translation loans' pipe o# peace, pale-#ace and the like, taken from 7ndian languages. The S"anish *orro!ings like ca#eteria, mustang, ranch, sombrero, etc. are veryfamiliar to the s"eakers of many uro"ean languages.

2s to the to"onyms, for instance, Iowa, 7ansas, 3ichigan, 3issouri, 5tah (all names of 7ndian tri*es), or other names of to!ns,rivers and states named *y 7ndian !ords, it must *e *orne in mind thatin all countries of the !orld to!ns, rivers and the like sho! in theirnames traces of the earlier inha*itants of the land in ?uestion.

2nother *ig grou" of "eculiarities as com"ared !ith the nglish of

&reat Britain is caused *y some s"ecific features of "ronunciation,stress or s"elling

@



standards, such as aeQ for a'Q in as!, dance, path, etc., or eQ for eiQ inmade, / day and some others.

The 2merican s"elling is in some res"ects sim"ler than its Britishcounter"art, in other res"ects Just different. The suffix -our is s"elled-or, so that armor and humor are the 2merican variants of armour andhumour. &ltho stands for although and thru for through. The ta*le

*elo! illustrates some of the other differences *ut it is *y no means

exhaustive.

British s"elling 2merican s"ellingcosy co1yo##ence o##ense

practice practise 6ewellery 6ewelrytravelling traveling thralldom thraldomencase incase7n the course of time !ith the develo"ment of the modern means of

communication the lexical differences *et!een the t!o variants sho!a tendency to decrease. 2mericanisms "enetrate into Standardnglish and *riticisms come to *e !idely used in 2merican s"eech. 7t!as, for instance, customary to contrast the nglish !ord autumn !iththe 2merican #all 7n reality *oth !ords are used in *oth countries, onlyautumn is some!hat more elevated, !hile in ngland the word #all isno! rare in literary use, though found in some dialects and surviving inset ex"ressions' spring and #all, the #all o# the year are still in fairlycommon use.

$inema and TV are "ro*a*ly the most im"ortant channels for the "assage of americanisms into the language of Britain and otherlanguages as !ell' the &ermans ado"ted the !ord teenager and the

4rench s"eak of Г automati1ation. The British term wireless is re"laced *y the americanism radio. The Jargon of 2merican film+advertisingmakes its !ay into British usage i.e. o# all time (in the greatest film ofall time/). The "hrase is no! firmly esta*lished as standard voca*ularyand is a""lied to su*Jects other than films.

The "ersonal visits of !riters and scholars to the 8S2 and allforms of other "ersonal contacts *ring *ack americanisms.

The existing cases of difference *et!een the t!o variants areconveniently classified into'

1) $ases !here there are no e?uivalent in British nglish + drive-inEa cinema !here you can see the film !ithout getting out of your carE

or Ea sho" !here motorist can *uy things staying in the carE dude ranch

"a sham ranch

70



used as a summer residence for holiday+makers from the citiesE.The noun dude !as originally a contem"tuous nickname given *ythe inha*itants of the =estern states to those of the astern states.

;o! there is no contem"t intended in the !ord dude. 7t sim"lymeans Ea "erson !ho "ays his !ay on a far ranch or cam" Y.

) $ases !here different !ords are used for the same denotatum,such as can, candy, mailbox, movies, suspenders, truc! in the

8S2 and tin, sweets, pillar-box (or letter-box), pictures or #lic!s, braces and lorry in ngland.#) $ases !here the semantic structure of a "artially e?uivalent!ord is different. The !ord pavement, for exam"le, means inthe first "lace Ecovering of the street or the floor and the likemade of as"halt, stones or some other materialE. The derivedmeaning is in ngland Ethe foot!ay at the side of the road1. The2mericans use the noun sidewal! for this, !hile pavement!ith themmeans Eroad!ayE.%) $ases !here other!ise e?uivalent !ords are different indistri*ution. The ver* ride in Standard nglish is mostlycom*ined !ith such nouns as a horse, a bicycle, more seldomthey say to ride on a bus. 7n 2merican nglish com*inationslike a ride on the train, to ride in a boat are ?uite usual.C) The same !ord is used in 2merican nglish !ith somedifference in emotional and stylistic colouring. 4asty, #orexam"le, is a much milder ex"res sion of disa""roval inngland than in the States, !here it !as even consideredo*scene in the 1th century. Politician in ngland meansEsomeone in "olitiesE, and is derogatory in the 8S2.@) There may *e a marked difference in fre?uencycharacteristics. Thus, time-table !hich occurs in 2merican

nglish very rarely, yielded its "lace to schedule.This ?uestion of different fre?uency distri*ution is also of

"aramount im"ortance if !e !ish to investigate the mor"hological "eculiarities of the 2merican variant.

Practically s"eaking the same "atterns and means of !ord+formation are used in coining neologisms in *oth variants. :nly thefre?uency o*served in *oth cases may *e different. Some of thesuffixes more fre?uently used in 2merican nglish are' -ее (dra#teeEa young man a*out to *e enlisted),+ ettte (tambourma6orette Eone ofthe girl drummers in front of a "rocession1), -dom and -ster, as inroadster Emotor+car for long Journeys *y roadE or gangster dom.

2merican slang uses alongside the traditional ones also a fe!s"ecific models, such as ver* stem +er adver* stem +er' e.g.opener-upper Ethe first item on the "rogrammeE and winder-upperEthe last item1, res"ectively. 7t also "ossesses some s"ecific affixesand semi+affixes not used in literary col+

1



lo?uial' -о , -eroot ?aroo, -sie@sy, as in coppo E"olicemanE, #atso лаfat manE, bossaroo E*ossE, chapsie Efello!E.

The trend to shorten !ords and to use initial a**reviations is evenmore "ronounced than in the British variant. ;e! coinages areintroduced' in advertisements, in the "ress, in everyday conversatiorisoon they fade out and are re"laced *y the ne!est creations. 6ingLardner, very "o"ular in the #HEs, makes one of his characters, a

hos"ital nurse, re"eatedly use t!o enigmatic a**reviations' &.4. and B.4. at last the "atient asks her to clear the mystery,

ABhat about %oy tewart2 as!ed the man in bed.Ah, he"s the #ella I was telling you about said 3iss Dyons,

A0e"s my . F.< s 9.F.AМay be Гт a /.F. not to !now, but would you tell me what a

9.F. and .F. are2ABell, you are dumb, aren"t you2 said 3iss Dyons, A& .F,

that"s a girl #riend, and a 9.F. is a boy#riend. I thought everybody!new that.

Particularly common in 2merican nglish are ver*s !ith thehanging "ost"ositive. They say that in 5olly!ood you never meet aman', you meet up !ith him, you do not study a su*Ject *ut study up onit. 7n British nglish similar constructions serve to add a ne! meaning.

The lexical "eculiarities of 2merican nglish are an easy target forironical out*ursts on the "art of some !riters, Dohn 8"dike is mildlyhumorous. 5is short "oem Philological/ runs as follo!s'

The British "uss demurely me!s5is transatlantic kin meo!,The kine in Minnesota moo

;ot so the gentle 0evon co!s'They lo!,2s every schoolchild ought to kno!.

2lthough not sufficiently great to !arrant 2merican nglish thestatus of an inde"endent language, it is considera*le enough to make amixture of variants sound unnatural, so that students of nglish should

*e !arned against this danger.

The 2merican nglish, a"art from British nglish, is not the onlyexisting variant. There are several other variants +!here difference fromthe British standard is normali3ed. They are 2ustralian nglish,$anadian nglish, ;e! `ealand nglish. ach of them

72



has develo"ed a literature of its o!n, and is characteri3ed *y "eculiarities in "honetics, s"elling, grammar and voca*ulary.The voca*ulary of all the variants is characteri3ed *y a high

"ercentage of *orro!ings from the language of the "eo"le!ho inha*ited the land *efore the nglish coloni3ers came. Many ofthem denote some s"ecific realia of the ne! country' local animals,

"lants or !eather conditions, ne! social relations, ne! trades and

conditions of la*our. The local !ords for ne! notions "enetrate intothe nglish language and later on may *ecome international, if theyare of sufficient interest and im"ortance for "eo"le s"eaking otherlanguages. The term international !ords is used to denote !ords

*orro!ed from one language into several others simultaneously or atshort intervals one after another.

Cana'ian Englis$

nglish a""eared in $anada in the 1th cent. !ith the Britishcoloni3ers, !ho met there not only the native "eo"le + 6ed 7ndiansand skimos, *ut !ith the 4rench coloni3ers as !ell, !ho settled in$anada even earlier > in the 1@th cent. $onse?uently there a""earedX4rench $anadaY and XBritish $anadaY. Since the second half of the1Ath cent. there enforced immigration of nglishmen and 2mericans.Besides, ?uite a large grou" of Scots and 7rish moved to $anada, !hosettled the "rovince of ;ova Scotia.Modern $anada is a federal state !hich consists of ten "rovinces andt!o territories. The "o"ulation of $anada is mixed' the main "artconsists of British $anadians (one half) > the descendants of theBritish and 2merican settlers, 4rench $anadians (one third of the

"o"ulation) > the offs"rings of the first settlers of $anada, andre"resentatives of other nations > Slavonic, &ermans, 0utch, 7talians

and the native "eo"le > 7ndians and skimos.The mixed character of the "o"ulation naturally finds its reflection inthe language. $anadian lexis has much in common !ith general2merican, as !ell as !ith British. The $anadian voca*ulary iscom"rised of *orro!ings from the 7ndian languages and from 4rench,

*y the !ay of ne! coinages from nglish !ith the hel" of different!ord+forming means, as !ell as *y giving ne! meaning to old !ords.The 7ndian languages gave names to animals, *irds, fishes "lants, etc.,and also to o*Jects and "henomena !hich !ere ne! for the coloni3ers'

*ar*oka > *ри+*о+о)ление дл- 1арени- или ко*(ени-!-+а, dunch > недо*е(енны хле), huggerum *uff >*од1аренна- ры)а + картоеле!, за*е(енные в

ле*еку, lassie loaf > хле) + *атоко, d!y >нео1иданна- )ур- +о +не#о! или + до1де!, shad >не)ол/о +не#, ram"ole, ram"ike > +ухо *ен/, "ack +удар, a*ito, *ito, a*ordeau + лз, fra3il > лед на дне реки,

*og+slad > +ани дл- *еревозки )ревен, shack + хи1ина,go**y > *о!еанны на (е!+ли)о, "uckerin > )ол/но ,co!ly + 1е+токи, liverish + тонотны, muckered +у+талы, slinky + тонки, slovey > не1ны, !-#ки, lund ++*оконы, to douse + одура(иват/, to glutch + #лотат/, toheck > идти )ы+тро, moolie , mulley > )езро#а- корова.Most of the geogra"hical names in $anada are also *orro!ed from7ndian and 4rench. 7n the "arts of the country inha*ited *y the 4rench,

there are nglish and 4rench names at the same time' Trois+6ivieresor Three 6ivers.Some nglish !ords ac?uired ne! meaning in $anada' airsome +холодны, co3y + 5нер#и(ны, "roud + довол/ны, tidy +)ы+тры, fist + хватат/, to saddle + +о#лаат/+-, hocks +



+а*о#и, ra! > неоте+анны *арен/, r ack + #ре)енка,smack > короткое вре!-, scheme + не+(а+т/е, *atch >+ил/ны +не#, "andy + *о(ти, lo" + волна, frog > названиена*итка.7n $anadian slang there are many lexemes made from the material ofthe nglish language, as !ell as hy*rid com"ounds or collocations'

*ake, !hite nose + нови(ок, corner+*oy + #оро1анин, merry+me+

got > вне)ра(ны ре)енок, omaloor > неукл1и*арен/, hang+ashore + )род-#а, hard!are > +*иртныена*итки, dro"+*all > +ер/#и to go on the *reese > на*ит/+-*/-ны!, to go to oil > +тат/ ни(то1е+тво!, to live fast(against) > +еррдит/+- на ко#о+ли)о, to make !onder +удивл-т/+-, on a "ig_s *ack > в хороих у+лови-х, to makefire > +кандалит/.The !ords used in $anada are called canadianisms (*y analogy !ith2mericanisms and Briticisms).

!&s%#alian Englis$The 2ustralian $ommon!ealth > the British dominion > !as foundedin 1H1 *efore that the states !ere inde"endent colonies, ruledse"arately *y the British &overnment.7n the Hth century the "o"ulation of 2ustralia !as a s"ecial nationdiffering from the British, and it !as united *y the common language,territory, economic relations and culture. :n the 2ustralian continent,the !ord &ustralian does not denote an a*origene, *ut an offs"ring ofthe first nglish settlers, so *y s"eaking a*out 2ustralian nation,2ustralian literature and language, !e mean the nation, literature andlanguage of the !hite "o"ulation.2ustralian nglish has "eculiarities in "ronunciation, intonation,s"elling and grammar. But the greatest difference is o*served in lexis.

7n 2ustralia the first settlers (1AA) found themselves in ?uite ne!natural surrounding. The ne! o*Jects and conce"ts re?uired creatingne! names. 7n this t!o !ays !ere used' making u" !ords of nglishmor"hemes and ex"loiting nglish means of !ord+formation, and

*orro!ing.7n 2ustralian nglish some !ords kee" the meanings !hich inngland *ecame o*solete and even disa""eared, e.g. the !ord stoc!in the meaning +кот/ in ngland is used only in the com*inationlive-stoc!, *ut in 2ustralia this meaning is ke"t in the !ord itself, incom"ounds and derivatives' stockman > *а+тух, stock yard >+кото*ри#онны двор, stock+house > +котны двор, stock+holder = +котовод, stock+run - вы#он, stock+station =

+котовод(е+ка- ер!а, stock+kee"er = владелец ер!ы,to stock+kee" = зани!ат/+- +котовод+тво!, to stock u" =разводит/ +кот, the !ord paddoc! in ngland has the meaningне)ол/о вы#он, лу1ака, *ut in 2ustralia >о#оро1енны зе!ел/ны надел л)о#о раз!ера, to

"addock = *о!е+тит/ за о#раду (о +коте), to "addock land >о#ородит/ зе!л, heifer+"addock > 1ен+ка- кола.The !ord station (+котовод(е+ка- ер!а) ac?uires a *roaderusage in 2ustralia. This !ord is used in a great num*er ofcollocations' heifer+station > ер!а, на которовыра3ивает+- !олодн-к, IJKLMNO LKPKMIQ F ер!а,ра+*оло1енна- во внутренних раонах +траны, station

*lack + тузе!ец, station mark > кле!о, station Jack > !-+но*удин#, etc.The !ord pastoralist in great Britain has the meaning ер!ер+овцевод, in 2ustralia > (еловек, зан-ты *роизвод+тво!л)ых *родуктов +ел/+ко#о хоз-+тва, township in



ngland > церковны *риход, in 2ustralia > #ород wattle inngland + *рут, *летен/, +деланны из *рут/ев, in2ustralia > акаци- (the first settlers *uilt their homes from *ranchesof 2ustralian !attle and clay so the !attle itself !as named *y this!ord, and homes of this kind > wattle-and-dub huts or sim"ly wattles.The usage of the same !ord+forming means in ngland and 2ustraliaoften leads to a""earing of differences in lexis, !hich can *e "ossi*ly

ex"lained *y the long distance *et!een the countries.The analysis of the follo!ing extract "roves this fact.=e Xem*ossedY. This hideous !ord !as the invention of somemilitary genius and meant sim"ly that !e got a*oard trucks. 5avingGembussedH !e travelled the fe! miles to Liver"ool rail!ay station.There !e GdebussedH and GentrainedH. The train then chuggederratically do!n to 0arling 5ar*our, !here !e GdetrainedH andXem*arkedY. veryone got a*oard and no s"ies had o*served usembussing or debussing, entraining or detraining , nor evenem*arking. (4rom' 6.Brandon, The ;aked 7sland).The ver*s embus, debus, entrain, and detrain are not registered indictionaries.To the same kind of !ords the follo!ing lexemes can *e referred'greyness > +еры цвет, sundo!ner > )род-#а ((еловек,которы на заходе +олнца и3ет *и3и и крова нано(/) t!o+u" > и#ра дву!- !онета!и > на*одо)ие и#рыв орл-нку, milk+*ar > !оло(ное кае, "ush > тол*а,

"eo"leless > )езлдны, to unsit > лиат/ !е+та, sundo!n +)род-1ни(ат/ (*ack+formation from sundo!ner ), finali3e >заверат/, закан(иват/, and its derivative finali3ation.The noun &ustralia !as the *asis for forming such derivatives and!ord+com*inations as' australism > ав+трализ!, australiana +ав+тралиана, un+2ustralian > (у1ды ?в+тралии, "an+

2ustralian + *роав+трали+ки, 2ussie (slang) > ав+тралиец(formed from the stem 2ustralian !ith the hel" of the suffix >ie),=estralian > 1ител/ Aа*адно ?в+тралии (*lending of thenouns =est 2ustralian), australite > ав+тралит (meteorite found inthe states of Victoria, South and =est 2ustralia), australi3e >натурализоват/+- в ?в+тралии, 2ustralian gri" >ав+трали+кое, т.е. +ил/ное, дру1е+коеруко*о1атие, 2ustralian "olicy > *олитика за*ре3ени-и!!и#рации из +тран ?зии.7n collo?uial s"eech and es"ecially slang 2ustralians use manyshortenings' a*o > a*origine + тузе!ец, *acca > to*acco, exes >ex"ences, moles > moleskin trousers > )рки из !оле+кина,

;or+=ester > +еверо+за*адны ветер, this after > thisafternoon, my trou*s > my trou*les, "u* > "u*lic, man+o_+!ar > manof !ar, god+o_mighty > god+almighty, etc.Very often 2ustralians use suffixes >y and >ie for !ord+formation,and they do not give diminutiveness to the !ords as it ha""ens inngland, *ut make the !ords sound a *it rough and friendly' roughy(rough) + #ру)и-н, shre!dy (shre!d) > *роницател/ны(еловек. The suffix can Join the cut stem of the !ord' "ossie >

"osition, adJie > adJutant, cryssie > chrysanthemum to the stem of thefirst element of of a com"ound' milky > milkman, footie > foot*all tothe stem of the !ord !hich is "art of a !ord+com*ination' *ussy > *usdriver, trammy > tram conductor, rocky > rock !alla*y >

ка!енны кен#уру.0ifferences of 2ustralian nglish in the s"here of literary layer ofvoca*ulary can *e o*served in "hraseology as !ell' to do a "erish +у!ират/, to do a get > )ы+тро удалит/+-, to !hi" the cat >*отер-нно#о не вороти/ (cf. !ith nglish to cry over spilt



mil! ), to *e !ithin cooee, to kee" in touch *y cooeeing > )ыт/,дер1ат/+- в *ределах +лыи!о+ти (the !ord cooee in themeaning окликать, аукать !as *orro!ed from the language ofthe a*origines of the country), to kee" out of harm_s !ay >дер1ат/+- от #реха *одал/е, to get *ushed +за)лудит/+-, *ush+telegra"h > ло1ны +лух, (from thevoca*ulary of *ushrangers, !here this !ord had the meaning

*ереда(а +ведени о дви1ении *олице+кихотр-дов (ерез +оо)3ников), to "ay on tick > *латит/ вра++ро(ку.The num*er of *orro!ings from other languages is not large. Theseare mainly *orro!ings from a*origine languages. 2ccording to thecensus of 1## geogra"hical names of 2ustralia include a*out %HH!ords of native "o"ulation, !hich makes one third of the !holenum*er of geogra"hical names. The melody and unusual sounding ofthe !ords ins"ired 0.0.Lang to create a "oem !hich consists of thegeogra"hical names only '

7 like the native names as Paratta2nd 7lla!arra, and =oolloomooloo,

;ando!ra, =oogarora, Bulkomatta,Tenah, Toonga**ie, Mittagong, Meroo...

(4rom' S.D.Baker, The 2ustralian Language, Sydney, 1%C, ".1A).

2t "resent the !ords of native origin are *roadly used for the namesof hotels, shi"s, "et names, etc.2s for the names of large settlements, the 2ustralians did not sho!much inventiveness' there are t!o $ardiffs, t!o Virginias, Liver"ool,Toronto and others in 2ustralia.

:ther *orro!ings from the a*origine languages mainly refer to thenames of o*Jects and events of everyday life' coolamon > +о+уддл- хранени- влды, *oomerang + )у!еран#, !oomera >*ри+*о+о)ление дл- !етани- ко*/-, !al"a > родлодки, !addy + ду)инка, ta*ee > ритуал/на- *е+н/тузе!цев, corro*oree > рели#иозные *раздни(ные*л-+ки, (in collo?uial language this !ord also means у!,*роизводи!ы #ру**о лде), hum"y, uloo + хи1ина,miah (mia+mia) + ала, lava+lava > на)едренна- *ов-зка,gina+gina > 1ен+ка- оде1да, gin, lu*ra > тузе!на-1ен3ина или девука, coo*oo + ре)енок, kangaroo +кен#уру, dingo > дин#о (дика- ав+трали+ка- +о)ака),

malee > ав+трали+ка- акаци-, mulga > разновидно+т/5вкали*та, etc.The s"eech of 2ustralians !as enriched *y the !ords !hich lost thenative colour' cooee > окликат/, аукат/, !illy+!illy + +!ер(,

Ja**er + -зык (to Ja**er + #оворит/), *illy > котелок дл-ки*-(ени- воды, *ogie + ку*ат/+-, dilly*ag > !еок,+*летенны из травы и ове(/е ер+ти, gi**er +ка!ен/ (mainly it is used in collocations' gi**er "lains, gi**ercountry), myall > дики, не*риру(енны, etc.The Hth century sa! the tendency of *roadening the num*er of

*orro!ings from a*origine languages. The a""earing of the genre ofhistorical novel devoted to to the years of gold rushes and to the

severe life of first settlers naturally arose interest to the native "eo"leof the country, and that !as the reason of enriching litatrary languageof 2ustralian nglish *y the native !ords.nlarging the num*er of *orro!ings !as facilitated *y the fact thattill recently in 2ustralia there !as no system of terminology reflecting



flora and fauna of the continent !hich com"rises thousands ofendemic "lants and animals. 7n 1CC the dictionary 2ustralian2*original =ords and Place ;ames, !hich included a*out threethousand of !ord entries, !as "u*lished in Mel*ourne. There is a veryinteresting idea in the 7ntroduction' X2ustralian "eo"le are no!sho!ing an inclination to favour the use of a*original names for theirhomes, the idea could "erha"s *e extended to other things or "laces

for !hich an 2ustralian name !ould *e desira*le, !ith advantage tothe furthering of the gro!th of a distinct national feeling.Y (4rom'S.D.ndacott, 2ustralian 2*original =ords and Place ;ames,Mel*ourne, 1CC, 4ore!ord).

Ne 6ealan' Englis$

;e! èaland is one of the farthest former dominions of &reat Britain,and from the first days of its develo"ment is economically closelyconnected !ith 2ustralia. Their relations found reflection in thevoca*ulary. ;e! èalanders_ s"eech and es"ecially ;e! èalandslang include a great num*er of australianisms, !hich a""eared indifferent historical "eriods of the develo"ment of the country. 7n theearly years of coloni3ation there a""eared such !ords as' *ush > ле+(alongside !ith bush in ;e! èaland the !ord #orest is still used,!hereas in 2ustralia it came out of usage long ago), *ack*locks >внутренние раоны +траны, "addock > о#оро1еннызе!ел/ны надел или *риу+аде)ны у(а+ток,Rridironing, s"otting > вы)оро(на- +ку*ка зе!ли, "ost+and+rail fence > о)!азанны #лино за)ор из *рут/евакации, *reak > за)ор, которы *о !ере надо)но+тиле#ко раз)ирает+- и *ерено+ит+- на дру#ое !е+то,s?uatter + зе!левладелец, cocky > !елки ер!ер+арендатор, stock+!hi" + кнут, stock + +кот (together !ith it the

!ord cattle is used in ;e! èaland), mo* > отара, +тадо, та)ун(the !ord #loc! is also used ).7n the years of gold rush such common for 2ustralia and ;e!èaland !ords a""eared in the language as' digger >золотои+кател/, *арен/, to fossick + и+кат/ золото,nugget > золото +литок, reef > золотоно+на- 1ила, shanty+ трактир, colour > золото *е+ок, etc.:ther !ords of 2ustralian origin are everyday !ords of ;e! èalandnglish' tucker + еда, dam"er > *ре+на- ле*ека, lollies +конеты, sundo!ner, s!agger > )род-#а, +езонныра)о(и, !o!ser + хан1а, sheila + девука, *illy > котелокдл- ки*-(ени- воды, dincum + (е+тны, etc.

The divergence of the ;e! èaland and British voca*ulary definitelyis not limited *y the australianisms s"read in ;e! èaland. Thoughthe influence of literary nglish on ;e! èalanders_ s"eech is great itcannot slo! do!n the "rocess of creating ne! !ords. :ne of suchearly creations is the !ord 4ew1ealander !hich on the da!n ofcoloni3ation meant native (Maori). The !hites in their turn !erecalled *y the !ord pa!eha, !hich !as *orro!ed from Polinesian("akeha aggression, "akeha customs, "akeha Maori). By the end ofthe 1th cent. the !ord 4ew1ealander *roadens its meaning and *eginsto *e used to name any mem*er of the "o"ulation. Sometimes

;e!3ealanders are called pig-islanders, !hich has the historical *asis' the "igs *rought to ;e!

èaland on shi"s *y ca"tain $ook multi"lied in num*er, got !ild and *ecame a threat to the economy of the country. By the !ay, the ;e!èaland !ild "ig is called $a"tain Coo!er .$oloni3ation of ;e! èaland *egan on the !estern coast of the South7sland, its inha*itants till no! have ke"t the name coasters. The first



coloni3ers settled in "oor d!ellings called shac!s, cob cottages or!hares on the coast, and then "enetrated further into the country >bush. Later on this !ord gave *irth to a num*er of ;e! èalandcollocations' *ushfighting > воны + !аори, *ushlayer >+тел3а-+- ле+на- ку!аника, до+тавл-ва- !но#охло*от *ри ра+(и+тке ле+ных у(а+тков, *ush+siddy >ра)о(и на ле+но *ро+еке, *о которо +тволы

дерев/ев *ере*равл-т+- на ле+о*ил/ны завод, *reak+do!n men > ра)о(ие, о(и3а3ие от коры и +у(/ев+тволы дерев/ев, *ush+sickness > название одно из)олезне +кота, *ush !ar*ler, *ush ha!k, *ush !ren >*ороды новозеланд+ких ле+ных *тиц.The years of hard and "ersistent !ork "assed in the time of gold rushand *oom land develo"ment there !ere *orn and disa""eared boomcities, boom towns$ the "rofile of the national economics !asdetermined. Land o!ners !hich earlier "referred to live in &reatBritain (absentees), moved to ;e! èaland or sold the land in "arts(bloc!s, sections) to s?uatters. &radually the landsca"e of the countrychanged' thick forests gave !ay to "astures and fields, !ild animals!ere killed. $oniferous forests characteristic of ;e! èaland +endemic "ine trees kauri, totara, kahikatea, rimu, maire > !ereenergetically cut do!n. s"ecially valua*le !as the gigantic tree kauriused in shi"+*uilding. Like most ;e! èaland trees, it gro!s veryslo!ly, that is !hy the cruel cutting out of that tree !as a sad loss forthe nature.$onse?uences of coloni3ation turned out to *e disastrous for animal!orld as !ell, !hich is es"ecially rich and various among the *irds.Since the *eginning of the Hth cent. the government of ;e! èalandhas *een taking care of the environment and the la! no! "rotects

"lants, animals and *irds. There are *irds sanctuaries too, for the

;e!3ealanders have gro!n more conscious of their *irds and trees.They are "roud of fantails and shining cuckoos, the tius, and strangeflightless *irds, the !ood hen or the !eka, and the ki!i. The *ush tothe ;e!3ealander means the stillness and ?uiet of trees. 7t means thetotara, the rimu and the maire, it means the lance!ood andco"rosomas, the ri**on!ood and "uriri !ith *right "ink flo!ers, therata !ith red *lossoms flaming on a hillside.

)!RT *ILEXICOGR!)HY

The ultimate goal of lexicogra"hy is the art of making dictionaries. Lexi+cology deals !ith !ords, forms and structure, lexical meaning, usage anddiachronic analysis (origin and develo"ment). Lexicogra"hy is a""liedkno!ledge of lexicology. There is a constant give and take reci"rocalrelationshi" *et!een lexicology and lexicogra"hy. They *oth strive forcom"leteness and systemati3ation. The only distinction is that lexicogra"hy isexhaustive in listing and descri*ing all the existing !ords, i.e. the lexicalunits in a language, !hich is not the case !ith lexicology that only choosesexam"les to "rovide rules and "rinci"les.

1.Ty"es of dictionaries1. Pro*lems in lexicogra"hy.. #.5. S!eet a*out dictionaries.

Ty"es o( 'ic%iona#ies



1. Monolingual (ex"lanatory) *ilingual (translation) multilingual.

. &eneral + very general lexical stock and voca*ulary s"ecific >covers some s"ecific "arts or areas of voca*ulary.

#. The si3e of the dictionaries could *e' "ocket, standard, encyclo"edic.

%. S"ecific such as' linguistic, medical or technical, etymological, "honological, etc.

C. Linguistic monolingual dictionaries !hich deal !ith one s"ecific as+ "ect from linguistics' dictionary of "ro"er names of "rover*sloan!ords "hraseology, etc.

7n standard dictionaries there is information and order W al"ha*eticallylisted !ords, "honetic transcri"tion and a !ord class.

)#o+le.s in Lexicog#a"$y

1. Selection of head !ords + selection of the items included in thedictionary is done according to the ty"e and si3e (general, "ocketdictionary).

. 2rrangement of lexical entries W the !ay the items are arranged, e.g.each other, !here these t!o !ords should *e listed under or :.orthey

should *e se"arated, e.g. department store under 0 or S. =hatevero"tion is im"lied there has to *e used only one "rinci"le.

#.. Pro*lem of homonymy and "olysemy, e.g. pupil and pupil E +!hether they have different entries in the dictionary

%. =hether to list all the com"ounds of a !ord, all thederivatives "ossi*le !hether to list the o*solete !ords, thearchaic !ords or slang !ords.

C. 0efinition of meaning + there are t!o ty"es of dictionaries'

a. linguistic ty"e + the inter"retation is given in metalinguistic!ay use of language is to descri*e language (sense) $

b. encyclo"edic ty"e + using geogra"hical and historical data todefine the !ords + (reference).

H0See% a+o&% Dic%iona#ies

tudy o# the ocabulary

7t !ill, "erha"s, *e most convenient to *egin !ith that as"ect ofthe dictionary !hich makes it the reverse of the grammar. 4rom this

"oint of vie! !e have already defined a dictionary as a collection of

the isolated "henomena of a language + those !hich cannot easilyand conveniently *e *rought under general rules. 7t follo!s fromthis that the main function of a dictionary is to give the meanings ofse"arate !ords. Some dictionaries confine themselves strictly to thisfunction. But a dictionary !hich does not sacrifice everything togiving as large a voca*ulary as "ossi*le in the shortest s"ace oughtto give a good deal more than this.

7dioms fall entirely !ithin the "rovince of the dictionary, *ecause the meaning of each idiom is an isolated fact !hich cannot *e inferred from the meaning of the !ords of !hich the idiom ismade u"' a dictionary !hich ex"lains the meaning of do !ithoutex"laining that of 0ow do you do2 is useless as a guide to themeanings of !ords.

2 thoroughly useful dictionary ought, *esides, to giveinformation on various grammatical details, !hich, though they fallunder general rules of grammar, are too numerous or too ar*itraryand com"licated to *e treated of in detail in any *ut a full reference+grammar' such a dictionary ought to give full information a*out



those grammatical constructions !hich characteri3e individual!ords, and cannot *e deduced !ith certainty and ease from a sim"legrammatical rule. Thus it ought to give full information a*out the

"re"ositions *y !hich ver*s are connected !ith the !ords theygovern (think of, think a*out, think over, "art from, "art !ith). (...)

2s convenience of reference re?uires that a dictionary should *eas little *ulky as is consistent !ith efficiency, it is advisa*le that its

sco"e should *e

C



distinctly defined and strictly limited, 2 dictionary of nglish for "ractical use *y foreigners, or a 4rench or &erman dictionary for "ractical use *y nglish s"eakers, is, in the nature of things, mainly adictionary of the "resent stage of these languages' its foundation is themodern collo?uial and literary language, !hich involves, of course, theinclusion of a certain num*er of archaic !ords used in the higherliterature, together !ith a certain amount of slang and vulgarisms and

those dialectal !ords !hich, have found their !ay into generalliterature and conversation. (...)Most of our larger nglish dictionaries, are also com"romises

*et!een an ex"anded dictionary and an a*ridged cyclo"edia. Thefundamental distinction *et!een a dictionary and a cyclo"edia is, thatthe dictionary has to ex"lain !ords, the cyclo"edia has to ex"lainthings. The main function of the dictionary is to identify each !ord !ithits meaning or meanings, and give the details of its linguistic use as faras they do not fall entirely and exclusively under the "rovince ofgrammar. This is clearly sho!n in the use !e make of dictionaries offoreign languages. 7f !e are ignorant of the meaning of the 4rench!ord #leur , !e look it u" in our 4rench+nglish dictionary, !here !efind the nglish translation Eflo!erE, !ithout any further comment, it

*eing assumed that !e kno! !hat a flo!er is. =e feel that thetranslation is a surer guide to the meaning than the most ela*oratedefinition. 7n an nglish dictionary for nglish "eo"le the samemethod of translation is follo!ed as far as "ossi*le' commence and

purchase are defined *y *eing translated into the sim"ler E*eginE andE*uyE, and !e fall *ack on definition only !hen a*solutely o*liged todo so. Some of the more naive among the older dictionaries o"enly giveu" the attem"t to define *y such evasions as telling us that dog is Ethename of a !ell+kno!n animalE. ven =alkerEs cele*rated definition of aflea as Ea small insect of remarka*le agilityE !ould *e of little use toany one !ho did not kno! already !hat a flea !as.

But it may ha""en that in reading 4rench !e come across thename of some flo!er that is not found out of 4rance, or, at any rate, notin ngland, so that !hen !e look u" the !ord in the 4rench dictionary,the only ex"lanation !e find is Ename of a flo!erE !ith, "erha"s, the

*otanical name, !hich "ro*a*ly conveys no meaning to our minds !ehave not, therefore, learnt anything from the dictionary *eyond !hat !ecould "ro*a*ly have gathered from the context !ithout any further hel".

;evertheless, the dictionary has done everything in its "o!er to identifythe !ord !ith the thing ex"ressed *y it it is our !ant of kno!ledge ofthe thing itself !hich "revents us from "rofiting *y the dictionaryEsidentification. 7f !e look u" the *otanical name in a cyclo"edia, !ecan ac?uire a more or less definite idea of the thing itself+ the flo!er.

There can *e no ?uestion of the usefulness and convenience of the *rief ex"lanations of the ideas and o*Jects ex"ressed *y rare !ords

!hich our larger dictionaries give' these ex"lanations afford the readerenough information to



ena*le him to form an idea of the real nature of the thingre"resented *y the unfamiliar !ord !ithout o*liging him to !adethrough a sea of detail.

. But it is a ?uestion !hether it !ould not *e *etter to "u*lish suchinformation in a se"arate *ook than to mix it u" !ith the legitimatematerial of a dictionary + namely, the identification of familiar ideas!ith the !ords !hich ex"ress them. 2n educated 4renchman Just

*eginning nglish is ignorant of the meaning of the commonest ver*sand adJectives in nglish, *ut he !ill not re?uire to *e told !hat oxygenis, or ho! lithogra"hy is carried on. 7t is not meant that these !ordsshould *e excluded from a "ractical dictionary on the contrary, theyare exam"les + es"ecially the latter + of a numerous class of !ords!hich form a de*ata*le ground *et!een necessary, everyday !ords and

"urely s"ecial and technical !ords.2 further reason for se"arating the s"ecial or encyclo"edic from

the general or lexical !ords lies in the different treatment theyre?uire. =hile the former demand, or, at least, allo!, a more or lessela*orate and lengthy descri"tion of the thing they denote,accom"anied, "erha"s, !ith "ictures or diagrams, they are generally

*arren from the linguistic "oint of vie!, for they offer neither

varied shades of meaning nor irregularities of form, nor do theyenter into idiomatic com*inations or s"ecial grammaticalconstructions. =ith the lexical !ords the relations are reversed' thegreater the num*er of irregularities of form a !ord offers, and themore com"lex and varied its meanings and idiomatic com*inationsand s"ecial constructions are, the more indis"ensa*le for ex"ressingideas, and the more inde"endent of encyclo"edic treatment it is sureto *e.

=e arrive, then, at the result that for "ur"oses of "ractical studyof modern languages !e re?uire dictionaries !hich are strictlylimited to the modern language, and exclude all encyclo"edicelements + that is, all !ords of !hich it is conceiva*le that aneducated native might say that he had never seen them in literature orthat he did not kno! !hat they meant. Such a dictionary !ould, ofcourse, include de*ata*le !ords, unless it !ere intended for veryelementary "ur"oses, in !hich case it might exclude even such!ords as a*acus, ha*eas cor"us, iam*ic, na*o*, oxygen.

But it !ould *e very difficult to lay do!n any general "rinci"les *y !hich !e could exclude all encyclo"edic !ords!ithout hesitation, and the ordinary com"romise has its "racticaladvantages. (...)

The first *usiness of a dictionary is to give the meanings of the!ords in "lain, sim"le, unam*iguous language. There must *e noEetymological translation1, no translation into o*solete or dialectal !ords.=hen !e look u" 7sece in an :ld+nglish dictionary and find it

translated EleechE as !ell as E"hysicianE, !e ought to *e ?uite sure thatleech here has its genuine modern meaning, and is not a mere re"etitionof the meaning of the other !ord.

2gain, some dictionary+makers think it necessary to translate everyslang

77



or collo?uial !ord or ex"ression in one language into a slang !ord orex"ression in the other language. The result is that they sometimes usesome "rovincial or o*solete !ord or ex"ression !hich may *e ?uiteunintelligi*le to the maJority of their readers, and, indeed, may soon

*ecome unintelligi*le to all of them, for nothing *ecomes o*soletesooner than a certain class of slang collo?uialisms. Most languages areso am*iguous in themselves that it is folly to go out of oneEs !ay to

make them more so and in a dictionary everything is detached andisolated, so that there is *ut little context to hel". 7n fact, !ithout thehel" of ?uotations it is almost im"ossi*le to define meanings !ithcertainty. (...)

Nuotations are next in im"ortance to definitions. 7ndeed, in a largedictionary or thesaurus, the ?uotations are the, dictionary, and theirarrangement is a matter of almost su*ordinate im"ortance. They cannot,of course, *e given !ith any great fullness in most short dictionaries.But in some cases a ?uotation is *oth shorter and clearer than adefinition. 2ll sentences that have anything of the character of "rover*s orformulae deserve a "lace in every dictionary. Such sentences, indeed, canhardly *e regarded as ?uotations, any more than idioms, !hich are asmuch a "art of the common stock of the language as the !ords

themselves' like them, they cannot *e constructed a "riori. (...)7n the first "lace, it must *e *orne in mind that the ultimate ideas of

language are *y no means identical !ith those of "sychology, still less!ith those of meta"hysics. Language is not in any !ay concerned !ithsuch "sychological "ro*lems as the1 origin of our ideas of s"ace andmatter for at the time !hen language !as evolved, these conce"tions!ere already stereoty"ed in the form of sim"le ideas, inca"a*le of any

*ut deli*erate scientific analysis. ven such universally kno!n facts asthe "rimary data of astronomy have had little or no influence onlanguage, and even the scientific astronomer no more hesitates to talk of[the rising to the sunY than did the astrologers of ancient $hald5ea.Language, in short, is *ased not on things as !e kno! or think them to

*e *ut as they seem to us. (...)2t first, the meanings of !ords !ill *e learnt mechanically one *y

one *y associations !ith their context. 7n every language there are acertain num*er of !ords !hich the learner remem*ers at once, either

*ecause they are *orro!ed from or are cognate !ith !ords alreadyfamiliar to him in his o!n or some other language, or through somechance resem*lance to kno!n !ords. These !ords are, as it !ere,centres round !hich other !ords crystalli3e, each ne! associationleading to further associations, till at last the chief "art of the ele+mentary voca*ulary of the language forms a solid mass of associationseach connected in various !ays !ith others.

4rom' 'he Practical tudy o# Danguages *y 5enry S!eet

78



CONCLUSION

METHODS !ND )ROCEDURES OF LEXICOLOGIC!L

!N!LYSIS

1. Procedures of linguistic investigation.. $ontrastive analysis.#. Statistical analysis.%. 7mmediate constituents analysis.C. 0istri*utional analysis.@. Transformational analysis.. $om"onental analysis.A. Method of semantic differential.

)#oce'&#es o( Ling&is%ic In/es%iga%ion

2c?uaintance !ith the currently used "rocedures of linguisticinvestigation is of considera*le im"ortance *oth for language learnersand for "ros"ective teachers as it gives them the "ossi*ility to o*serve

ho! linguists o*tain ans!ers to certain ?uestions and is of hel" in the "re"aration of teaching material. 7t also hel"s language learners to *ecome good o*servers of ho! language !orks and this is the onlylasting !ay to *ecome *etter users of language.

The "rocess of scientific investigation may *e su*divided intoseveral stages' 1. o*servation . classification of the data o*tainedthrough o*servation #. generali3ation, i.e. the collection of data andtheir orderly arrangement must lead to the formulation of agenerali3ation or hy"othesis, rule or la! %. verifying "rocess.

2ll methods of linguistic analysis are traditionally su*divided intoformali3ed and non+formali3ed "rocedures. The selection of this or that

"articular "rocedure largely de"ends on the goal set *efore the

investigator.

Con%#as%i/e !nalysis

$ontrastive linguistics attem"ts to find out similarities anddifferences in languages. 0etailed com"arison of the structure of anative and a target lan guage is called contrastive analysis. The necessityof this analysis is very great for a language learner. :ne of maJor

"ro*lems in learning of the second language is interference caused *ythe difference *et!een the mother language of the learner and the targetlanguage. This analysis is a""lied to reveal the features of sameness anddifference in the lexical meaning and the semantic structure ofcorrelated !ords in different languages, e.g.' но#а + foot, leg рука+arm, hand (а+ы + clock, !atch.

nglish' head of a "erson + in 6ussian' #олова



of a *ed из#олов/еof а +о in +торонаof a match #оловкаof a ta*le #лаваof an organi3ation #лава, на(ал/ник

0ead corres"onds to different !ords in 6ussian.$ontrastive analysis on the level of the grammatical meaning reveals

that correlated !ords in different languages may .differ in thegrammatical com"onent of the meaning, e.g. news, money, hair + in6ussian they have the grammatical meaning of "lurality, in nglish theyare singular.

2nother exam"le' in 6ussian there is no category of definite+ness indefiniteness, in nglish this category is ex"ressed *y means ofarticles.

$ontrastive analysis deals !ith idiomatic ("hraseological) side ofthe language too.

5e is a heavy smoker, + 5e smokes a lot5e is a hearty eater. + 5e likes to eat.7n general, contrastive analysis is of "aramount im"ortance for

scientists and language+learning "eo"le, as it "redicts ty"ical errors.

S%a%is%ical !nalysis

Statistical analysis has considera*le im"ortance not only *ecauseof its "recision *ut also *ecause of its relevance to certain "ro*lems ofcommunication engineering and information theory. Statistical analysisis of great im"ortance in the selection of voca*ulary of a foreignlanguage for teaching "ur"oses.

7t is common kno!ledge that very fe! "eo"le kno! more than1HI of the !ords of their mother language. :ut of a*out CHH,HHH !ordslisted in the E:0 the "assive/ voca*ulary of an educated nglishmancom"rises no more than #H.HHH !ords and+of these %,HHH + C,HHH are

"resumed to *e sufficient for .the daily needs. Thus, it is evident that the, "ro*lem of selection of teaching voca*ulary is of vital im"ortance.Statistic analysis hel"s to determine+the fre?uency of occurrence

of the !ords. 5ence, it gives the o""ortunity to decide !hich meaningis "rimary (or secondary), and colloca*ility of !ords. Statistical analysisshould not *e confused !ith "urely numerical counts (the first involvesthe use of some mathematical formula).

AH



I..e'ia%e Cons%i%&en%s !nalysis

7mmediate constituents analysis has the aim to segment a set oflexical units into t!o maximally inde"endent se?uences orimmediate constituents (7$) thus revealing the hierarchical structureof the set.

.g.' fat manEs !ife - fat manEs !ifede nationali3e *lue eye ed.This kind of analysis is !idely used in !ord+formation.

Dis%#i+&%ional !nalysis

0istri*utional analysis in its various forms is !idely usedno!adays *y lexicologists. By distri*ution !e understand theoccurrence of a lexical unit relative to other lexical units of the samelevel (!ords relative to !ords, mor"hemes relative to mor"hemes,etc.). 7n other !ords *y this term !e understand the "osition !hichlexical units occu"y or may occu"y in the text or in the flo! ofs"eech, e.g.' he teaches she "lays.

0istri*ution and meaning are interde"endent. 7t is only thedistri*ution of other!ise com"letely identical lexical units thataccounts for the difference in the meaning o# water tap and tapwater, li#e-boat and boat-li#e.

7t should *e noted that not only !ords in a !ord+grou" *ut also!hole !ord+grou"s may ac?uire a certain denotational meaning due toa certain distri*utional "attern to !hich this "articular meaning isha*itually attached. .g., ha*itually the !ord "receding ago denotes acertain "eriod of time (an hour ago, a month ago) and the !hole !ord+grou" denotes a certain tem"oral unit. 7n this "articular distri*utional

"attern any !ord is *ound to ac?uire an additional lexical meaning ofa certain "eriod of time (a grief ago, three cigarettes ago). 0istri+

*utional "attern as such seems to "ossess a com"onent of meaningnot to *e found in individual !ords making u" the !ord+grou" (a

grief, a cigarette).0istri*utional analysis is mainly a""lied *y the linguists to findout same ness or difference of meaning, e.g.' cage+*ird + *ird+cage

*oat+life + life+*oat.By distri*ution !e understand the a"tness of a !ord in one of

its meanings to collocate or to co+occur !ith a certain grou", orcertain grou"s of !ords having some common semantic com"onent,e.g.' 5e stopped at the corner of the street. + 5e stopped to greet me.+ 5e stopped !riting blind man, girl, etc., blind "assion, love, furyblind hand!riting, ty"e.

This analysis is used in !ord+formation too, to find out the!ord+meaning, the lexical restrictions of the stem, the "art ofs"eech, etc. Thus, the analysis of the derivational "attern ; ish

sho!s that the suffix -ish is "ractically never com*ined !ith thenoun+stems denoting units of time, s"ace, etc. ([nourish[). They areusually noun+stems denoting living *eings (clo!nish, *oyish, etc.),and colour (reddish).

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CONCISE DICTION!RY OF LINGUISTIC

TERMS

Кратки +ловар/"+*раво(никлин#ви+ти(е+ких тер!инов

Аббревиатура (a++#e/ia%ion5 " +лово, о)разованноеиз названи на(ал/ных )укв или из на(ал/ныхзвуков +лов, вход-3их в и+ходное +лово+о(етание$инициал/на- а))ревиатура&.

Антонимия (an%ony.y5 " +е!анти(е+ка-*ротиво*о+тавленно+т/, *ротиво*оло1но+т/.

Антонимы (an%ony.s5 " +лова, и!е3ие*ротиво*оло1ные зна(ени-. +ново антони!ии-вл-ет+- нали(ие в зна(ении +лова ка(е+твенно#о*ризнака, которы !о1ет возра+тат/ или у)ыват/ идоходит/ до *ротиво*оло1но#о.

Антропоним ("#o"e# na.e5 " +о)+твенное и!-лде.

Антропонимика " раздел -зыкознани-,изу(а3и +о)+твенные и!ена лде.Апокопа (a"oco"e5 " от*адение коне(но#о

)езударно#о #ла+но#о, *ривод-3ее к +окра3ени+лова.

?р#о $argot& " -зык отдел/ных +оциал/ных #ру**,+оо)3е+тв, и+ку++твенно +оздавае!ы + цел/-зыково#о о)о+о)лени- $ино#да *отано -зык&,отли(а3и+- нали(ие! +лов, не*он-тных лд-!не*о+в-3енны!.

Арготизмы (a#go%is.s5 " +лова и о)ороты,вход-3ие в +о+тав како#о"ли)о ар#о.

Архаизмы (a#c$ais.s5 " у+тарелые дл-

о*ределенно 5*охи, выедие из у*отре)лени--зыковые 5ле!енты $+лова, выра1ени-, аик+ы&,за!ененные дру#и!и.

Аферезис (a"$ae#esis5 " ти* +ловоо)разовани-+*о+о)о! у+е(ени- на(ала +лова.

Аффикс (a((ix5 " +лу1е)на- !оре!а, т.е. (а+т/+лова, видоиз!ен-3а- лек+и(е+кое ли)о#ра!!ати(е+кое зна(ение корн- $о+новы& иливыра1а3а- отноени- !е1ду +лова!и в+лово+о(етании и *редло1ении7 о)3ее названиев+ех !оре!, за и+кл(ение! корн-.

Аффиксация (a((ixa%ion5 " *ри+оединениеаик+ов к корн-! или о+нова!.

Валентност слова (/alency o( a o#'5 1+*о+о)но+т/ +лова в+ту*ат/ в +лово+о(етани- +дру#и!и +лова!и.

Варваризм (+a#+a#is.5 " ино-зы(ное +лово иливыра1ение, не до конца о+военное заи!+тву3и!-зыко!, (а3е в+е#о в +в-зи + трудно+т-!и#ра!!ати(е+ко#о о+воени-.

A%



Внутренняя форма слова (inne# (o#. o( a o#'5 1!ороноло#и(е+ки +о+тав о+новы, указыва3и на!отивированну +в-з/ ее зву(ани- + данны!зна(ение!. Sno!dro" " цветок, *о-вл-3и+- из"*од+не#а.

Вулгаризм (/&lga#is.5 " #ру)ое +лово иливыра1ение, выход-3ее за *ределы литературно

лек+ики.!ейксис ('eixis5 " на*равление лин#ви+тики,у+танавлива3ее +в-з/ знаков + внени! !иро!,!отивы и интенции #овор-3их, ролеву +труктуру,+труктуру ко!!уникативных +итуаци.

!еминутив ('i.in&%i/e5 " у!ен/ител/но"ла+кател/на- ор!а +лова.!енотат ('eno%a%&.5 " *ред!ет или -вление

окру1а3е на+ де+твител/но+ти, + которы!+оотно+ит+- данна- -зыкова- единица.

!ериват ('e#i/a%i/e5 " *роизводное +лово.!еривационное значение 4'e#i/a%ional .eaning5 1

зна(ение, +оздавае!ое +ловоо)разовател/ны!и

аик+а!и, о#рани(ива3ее и уто(н-3ееве3е+твенное зна(ение корн-.

!еривация ('e#i/a%ion7 a((ixa%ion5 " о)разованиеновых +лов *ри *о!о3и аик+ов.

!иалект ('ialec%5 " разновидно+т/ о)3енародно#о-зыка, у*отре)л-е!а- +равнител/но о#рани(енны!(и+ло! лде, +в-занных о)3но+т/территориал/но, +оциал/но, *рое++ионал/но.

!иалектизмы ('ialec%is.s5 " +лова из разныхдиалектов, нередко и+*ол/зут+- в -зыкехудо1е+твенно литературы +о +тили+ти(е+коцел/.

!иахрония ('iac$#ony5 " и+тори(е+ка-*о+ледовател/но+т/ развити- отдел/ных -зыковых-влени и развитие +и+те!ы -зыка в цело! как*ред!ет лин#ви+ти(е+ко#о изу(ени-.

!истрибутивный мето" ('is%#i+&%ional .e%$o'5 1 в+труктурно лин#ви+тике !етод ра+*ределени--зыковых 5ле!ентов *о *ри+у3и! данно!у -зыкузакона!.

!оминанта ('o.inan%5 " один из (ленов+инони!и(е+ко#о р-да, из)ирае!ы как но+ител/#лавно#о зна(ени-, *од(ин-3е#о +е)е в+е до"*олнител/ные +!ы+ловые и +тили+ти(е+кие оттенкизна(ени-, выра1ае!ые дру#и!и (лена!и р-да.

!ублеты ('o&+le%s5 " двона- разновидно+т/данно -зыково единицы.#аргон ( 8a#gon5 " то 1е, (то ар#о, но + оттенко!уни(и1ени-.$аимствования 4+o##oing "#o"e#7 (o#eign o#'7 loan1

o#'5 1 ино-зы(ные +лова.$вукопо"ра%ателные слова ("$one%ic sy.+ols5 1

+лова, *о +вое!у звуково!у оор!лени-вл-3ие+- во+*роизведение! релективныхво+клицани лде, звуков и криков, издавае!ых1ивотны!и, *тица!и, звуков -влени *рироды,звуков, издавае!ых *ред!ета!и, и т.д.

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$начение слова (.eaning o( a o#'5 " закл(енныв +лове +!ы+л, +одер1ание, +в-занное + *он-тие!как отра1ение! в +ознании *ред!етов и -вленио)Sективно#о !ира. Aна(ение входит в +труктуру+лова в ка(е+тве е#о +одер1ани- $внутренне+тороны&, *о отноени к которо!у зву(аниевы+ту*ает как !атериал/на- о)оло(ка $внен--

+торона&. Tто един+тво внутренне#о и внене#о в+лове +оздает+- в резул/тате у+тановлени-*о+то-нно и неразрывно +в-зи !е1ду зна(ение! изву(ание!. Aна(ение +лова и закл(енное в не!*он-тие взаи!о+в-заны, но 5то не одно и то 1е.Пон-тие в +лове в+е#да одно, а зна(ени у +лова!о1ет )ыт/ не+кол/ко. Пон-тие -вл-ет+-о)Sективны! ото)ра1ение! окру1а3е на+де+твител/но+ти, а к зна(ени !о1ет )ыт/до)авлена +у)Sективна- оценка. Aна(ение +лова+кладывает+- из е#о лек+и(е+ко#о зна(ени-, т.е.!атериал/но#о +одер1ани-, выра1ае!о#о о+ново+лова, и #ра!!ати(е+ко#о зна(ени-, т.е. *оказател-

разли(ных отноени, о)ы(но наход-3е#о +воевыра1ение в ор!ал/но *ринадле1но+ти +лова. В+а!о+то-тел/ных +ловах лек+и(е+кое зна(ение*рео)ладает над #ра!!ати(е+ки!, в +лу1е)ных+ловах лек+и(е+кое зна(ение одновре!енно -вл-"ет+- и #ра!!ати(е+ки!.

&"иома (i'io.5 " разеоло#и(е+ка- единица илиразеоло#и(е+кое +ра3ение.

&"иоматика (i'io.a%ics5 " +овоку*но+т/ идио!данно#о -зыка7 раздел -зыкознани-, изу(а3иидио!ы.

&"иоматическое выра%ение (i'io.a%ic ex"#ession51 то 1е, (то идио!а.

&"иоматичност (i'io.a%ici%y5 " от+ут+твие!отивированно+ти.&мплицитный (i."lici%5 " *одразу!евае!ы,

невыра1енны, неразвернуты.&нвариант (in/a#ian%5 " +труктурна- единица

-зыка $оне!а, !оре!а, лек+е!а и т.д.& вотвле(ении ее от конкретных реализаци.

&ноязычные слова (+!. заимствования ) 1+лова, заи!+твованные из дру#их -зыков.Aаи!+твование -вл-ет+- е+те+твенны! +лед+твие!у+тановлени- 5коно!и(е+ких, *олити(е+ких,кул/турных +в-зе + дру#и!и народа!и, ко#да

в!е+те + реали-!и и *он-ти-!и *риход-то)озна(а3ие их +лова.&нтернационалная лексика (in%e#na%ional o#'s5

1 +лова о)3е#о *рои+хо1дени-, +у3е+тву3ие во!но#их -зыках + одни! и те! 1е зна(ение!, ноо)ы(но оор!л-е!ые в +оответ+твии +онети(е+ки!и и !ороло#и(е+ки!и нор!а!иданно#о -зыка. +новну (а+т/ интернационал/нолек+ики +о+тавл-т тер!ины из о)ла+ти науки итехники, о)3е+твенно"*олити(е+ко 1изни,5коно!ики, литературы и и+ку++тва.

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'ексикология (Lexicology5 1 раздел -зыкознани-,зани!а3и+- изу(ение! +ловарно#о +о+тава -зыка.

'ексикология историческая " лек+иколо#и-,изу(а3а- +ловарны +о+тав -зыка в е#о развитии$в диахрони(е+ко! *лане&.

'ексикология описателная " лек+иколо#и-,зани!а3а-+- во*ро+а!и зна(ени- +лов, их

+тили+ти(е+ко характери+тико, о)Sе!о!,+труктуро +ловарно#о +о+тава в +инхронно! *лане.'ексикон (/oca+&la#y5 1 за*а+ +лов.'ексическое значение слова (lexical .eaning o( a

o#'5 1 +одер1ание +лова, т.е. у+танавливае!а-наи! !ыление! +оотне+енно+т/ !е1ду звуковы!ко!*лек+о! и *ред!ето! или -вление!де+твител/но+ти, которые о)озна(ены 5ти!ко!*лек+о! звуков. Uо+ителе! лек+и(е+ко#озна(ени- -вл-ет+- о+нова +лова. Лек+и(е+коезна(ение +кладывает+- из ве3е+твенно#о зна(ени-,но+ителе! которо#о -вл-ет+- корен/ +лова$не*роизводна- о+нова&, и деривационно#о

зна(ени-, выра1ае!о#о +ловоо)разовател/ны!иаик+а!и.етафора (.e%a"$o#5 " у*отре)ление +лова в

*ерено+но! зна(ении на о+нове +ход+тва в како!"ли)о отноении двух *ред!етов или -влени. Вотли(ие от дву(ленно#о +равнени-, в которо!*риводит+- и то, (то +равнивает+-, и то, + (е!+равнивает+-, !етаора +одер1ит тол/ко второе.@ход+тво !е1ду *ред!ета!и или -влени-!и !о1ет)ыт/ о+новано на +а!ых разли(ных (ертах.

ето" (.e%$o'5 " *одход к изу(ае!о!у !атериалу,е#о +и+те!атизаци- и теорети(е+кое о+!ы+ление.

ето"ика (.e%$o'ics5 " +*о+о) нахо1дени-ново#о !атериала, т.е. +овоку*но+т/ *рие!овна)лдени-, 5к+*ери!ента и о*и+ани-.

ето"ология (.e%$ology5 " *ри!енение к*роце++у *ознани- *ринци*ов !ировоззрени-, т.е.+оотне+ение *олу(енных данных + дру#и!иунда!ентал/ны!и наука!и, и в *ерву о(еред/ +ило+оие.

етонимия (.e%ony.y5 " у*отре)ление названи-одно#о *ред!ета в!е+то названи- дру#о#о *ред!етана о+новании внене или внутренне +в-зи !е1дуни!и. @в-з/ !о1ет )ыт/ !е1ду *ред!ето! и!атериало!, из которо#о *ред!ет +делан, !е1ду

+одер1и!ы! и +одер1а3и!, !е1ду де+твие! иорудие! 5то#о де+тви-, !е1ду авторо! и е#о *роиз"ведение!, !е1ду !е+то! и лд/!и, наход-3и!и+-на 5то! !е+те.

ногозначност ("olyse.y5 " нали(ие у одно#о ито#о 1е +лова не+кол/ких +в-занных !е1ду +о)озна(ени, о)ы(но возника3их в резул/татеразвити- *ервона(ал/но#о зна(ени- 5то#о +лова.Мно#озна(но+т/ возникает разны!и *ут-!и. Uовоезна(ение !о1ет о)разоват/+- *уте! *ерено+аназвани- *о +ход+тву, *о ункции, *о +!е1но+ти,т.е. +о*рика+ани ве3е в *ро+тран+тве или вовре!ени. @!. метафора, метонимия, синекдоха.

AA



оносемия (.onose.y5 " однозна(но+т/.орфема (.o#"$e.e5 " зна(и!а- (а+т/ +лова,

далее недели!а-. Море!ы корневые $root mor"hemes&и +лу1е)ные $affixational& " *ри+тавка, +уик+,окон(ание и +оединител/на- #ла+на-.

)ейтралная лексика (ne&%#al o#'s5 1 +лова, не*рикре*ленные к о*ределенно!у +тил ре(и,

и!е3ие +тили+ти(е+кие +инони!ы $кни1ные,раз#оворные, *ро+торе(ные&, на оне которых онилиены +тили+ти(е+ко окра+ки.

)еологизм (neologis.5 " +лово или о)орот ре(и,+озданные дл- о)озна(ени- ново#о *ред!ета иливыра1ени- ново#о *он-ти-. По+ле то#о как +лововходит в ирокое у*отре)ление, оно *ере+тает )ыт/неоло#из!о!, а некоторые +о вре!ене! вход-т вразр-д у+таревих +лов.

)оминативное значение слова (no.ina%i/e.eaning5 1 лек+и(е+кое зна(ение, не*о+ред+твенно+в-занное + отра1ение! в +ознании *ред!етов,-влени, отноени о)Sективно

де+твител/но+ти. @лова, и!е3ие но!инативноезна(ение, о)разут +во)одные +лово+о(етани-.

*кказионализм (nonce1o#'5 " +лово,о)разованное *о не*родуктивно !одели,и+*ол/зуе!ое тол/ко в у+лови-х данно#оконтек+та.

*кказионалный (occasional5 " не +оответ+тву3ио)3е*рин-то!у у*отре)лени, но+-3ииндивидуал/ны характер, о)у+ловленны+*еции(е+ки! контек+то!.

*мографы ($o.og#a"$s5 " разные +лова,+ов*авие *о на*и+ани, но не *о *роизноени.!о#раы называт так1е #раи(е+ки!ио!они!а!и.

*монимия ($o.ony.y5 " звуковое +ов*адение двухили не+кол/ких -зыковых единиц, разли(ных *озна(ени.

*монимы ($o.ony.s5 " +лова, *ринадле1а3ие кодно и то 1е (а+ти ре(и и одинаково зву(а3ие,но разли(ные *о зна(ени.

*монимы полные+ или абсол,тные+ (co."le%e$o.ony.s5 1о!они!ы, у которых +ов*адает в+-+и+те!а ор!.

*монимы частичные ("a#%ial $o.ony.s5 "о!они!ы, у которых +ов*адат *о зву(ани не в+е

ор!ы.*мофоны ($o.o"$ones5 " разные +лова, одинаковозву(а3ие, но и!е3ие разное на*и+ание. Cак1еназыват+- онети(е+ки!и о!они!а!и.

*моформы ($o.o(o#.s5 " о!они!и(ные ор!ы7+лова, +ов*ада3ие в +вое! зву(ании ли/ вотдел/ных ор!ах $то 1е (а+ти ре(и или разных(а+те ре(и&. !оор!ы так1е называт#ра!!ати(е+ки!и о!они!а!и.

*номатопея (ono.a%o"oeia5 " звуко*одра1ание,о)разование +лов, у+ловно во+*роизвод-3их*риродные звуки, крики 1ивотных и т.д., а так1е+оздание +лов *уте! звуко*одра1ани-.

A



*снова слова (+ase7 s%e.5 " (а+т/ +лова, в которо+одер1ит+- е#о лек+и(е+кое зна(ение и котора-о+тает+-, е+ли отн-т/ окон(ание и ор"!оо)разу3и +уик+.

ара"игма ("a#a'ig.5 " +овоку*но+т/ ор!+ловоиз!енени- одно#о и то#о 1е +лова.

аронимия ("a#ony.y5 " )лизо+т/ двух или )олее

+лов *о зву(ани *ри разли(ии их зна(ени-,+озда3а- *о(ву дл- их +!еени- в ре(и.аронимы ("a#ony.s5 " однокоренные +лова,

)лизкие *о зву(ани, но разные *о зна(ени или(а+ти(но +ов*ада3ие в +вое! зна(ении.

ейоративный ("e8o#a%i/e5 " +одер1а3иотрицател/ну оценку, *рида3инеодо)рител/ны оттенок зна(ени, на*ри!ер,уни(и1ител/ные +уик+ы.

рофессионализм ("#o(essionalis.5 " +лово иливыра1ение, +во+твенное ре(и то или ино*рое++ионал/но #ру**ы.

рофессионалная лексика ("#o(essional lexis5 1

лек+ика, +во+твенна- данно *рое++ионал/но#ру**е, и+*ол/зуе!а- в ре(и лде, о)Sединенныхо)3е *рое++ие.

рямое значение ('i#ec% .eaning5 1 лек+и(е+коезна(ение +лова или выра1ени- в +о)+твенно!+!ы+ле в отли(ие от *ерено+но#о зна(ени-7ло#и(е+кое зна(ение в отли(ие от на+лаива3их+-на не#о 5!оционал/но"5к+*ре++ивных оттенков.

сихолингвистика ("syc$oling&is%ics50 8. тра+л/-зыкознани-, изу(а3а- *роце++ ре(и + то(ки зрени-+оотноени- !е1ду +одер1ание! ре(ево#о акта ина!ерение! лица #овор-3е#о $*иу3е#о&,дела3е#о +оо)3ение. 2. тра+л/ -зыкознани-,изу(а3а- +в-зи !е1ду +одер1ател/но +тороно-зыка и о)3е+твенны! !ыление!, о)3е+твенно1изн/ #овор-3е#о коллектива. Пред+тавл-- +о)о+интез *+ихоло#ии и лин#ви+тики, *+ихолин#ви+тиказани!ает+- таки!и *ро)ле!а!и, как во+*рини"!ае!о+т/ ре(и, законо!ерно+ти овладени- -зыко!$развитие ре(и у дете, дву-зы(ие&, отноениелин#ви+ти(е+ких *роце++ов к *ознани и т.д.

уризм ("&#is.5 " +тре!ление к +охранени-зыка в не*рико+новенно! виде, )ор/)а *ротивв+-ких нове+тв $неоло#из!ов, ино-зы(ныхзаи!+твовани&, о#ра1дение литературно#о -зыка

от *роникновени- в не#о ненор!ированныхлек+и(е+ких и #ра!!ати(е+ких 5ле!ентов, (тонередко -вл-ет+- е+те+твенны! дл- развити- -зыка.

азговорная лексика (collo9&ial o#'s5 1 @лова,у*отре)л-3ие+- в не*рину1денно )е+еде. V "

ас/ирение значения (ex"ansion o( .eaning5 1увели(ение +е!анти(е+ко#о о)Sе!а +лова в*роце++е и+тори(е+ко#о развити-. Hа3е в+е#ора+ирение зна(ени- *рои+ходит в резул/тате*ерено+а названи- *о ункции, вы*олн-е!о дву!-*ред!ета!и.

H



е"упликация (#e'&"lica%ion5 " *олное или(а+ти(ное *овторение корн-, о+новы или цело#о+лова как +*о+о) о)разовани- +лов, о*и+ател/ныхор!, разеоло#и(е+ких единиц.

елевантный (#ele/an%5 " +*о+о)ны +лу1ит/ дл-разли(ени- -зыковых единиц.

ема (#$e.e5 " *ри актуал/но! (ленении -дро

вы+казывани-, +одер1ание +оо)3ени-, то, (то#овор-3и +оо)3ает, от*равл--+/ от те!ы.еферент (#e(e#en%5 " *ред!ет !ы+ли,

отра1а3и *ред!ет или -вление о)Sективноде+твител/но+ти и о)разу3и то *он-тиное +о"дер1ание, + которы! +оотно+ит+- данна- единица.

о"ной язык (na%i/e lang&age5 " -зык, у+ваивае!ыре)енко! в ранне! дет+тве *уте! *одра1ани-окру1а3и! е#о взро+лы!.

0вобо"ное словосочетание ((#ee o#'1co.+ina%ion5 1 +лово+о(етание, +оздавае!ое в ре(и *оодно из +у3е+тву3их +интак+и(е+ких !оделе,разеоло#и(е+ки не +в-занное, ле#ко

разла#а3ее+- на +о+тавл-3ие е#о (а+ти.0емантика (se.an%ics50 8. @!ы+лова- +торона

$зна(ение отдел/ных -зыковых единиц: !оре!,+лов, +лово+о(етани, а так1е #ра!!ати(е+кихор!&. 2. Cо 1е, (то семасиология.

0емантическое поле (se.an%ic (iel'50 7.@овоку*но+т/ -влени или о)ла+т/де+твител/но+ти, и!е3ие в -зыке +оответ+твиев виде те!ати(е+ки о)Sединенно +овоку*но+тилек+и(е+ких единиц. 2. @овоку*но+т/ +лов ивыра1ени, о)разу3их те!ати(е+ки р-д и*окрыва3их о*ределенну о)ла+т/ зна(ени.

0емасиология (se.asiology5 " раздел -зыкознани-,изу(а3и зна(ени- +лов и выра1ени и из!енени-5тих зна(ени.

0емиотика (se.io%ics5 " наука о) о)3их +во+твахзнаковых +и+те!, +о+то-3а- из трех (а+те:+е!антики, изу(а3е отноение знаков ко)озна(ае!о!у, +интактики, ра++!атрива3еотноени- знаков !е1ду +о)о, и *ра#!атики,и++леду3е отноени- знаков и тех, кто и!и*ол/зует+-.

0игнификативный (signi(ica%i/e5 " вы-вл-3изна(ение данно единицы +е!анти(е+ко#о уровн-$!оре!ы, +лова и т.д.& в *ротиво*о+тавление

дру#и! единица! то#о 1е уровн-.0инек"оха (synec'oc$e5 " *ерено+ зна(ени- +одно#о -влени- на дру#ое *о *ризнакуколи(е+твенно#о отноени- !е1ду ни!и: у*отре)"ление названи- цело#о в!е+то названи- (а+ти,о)3е#о в!е+то (а+тно#о и нао)орот. Wвл-ет+-разновидно+т/ !етони!ии.

0инкопа (synco"e5 " вы*адение звука или #ру**ызвуков внутри +лова.

0инонимика (synony.y5 " раздел лек+иколо#ии,изу(а3и +инони!ы.

1



0инонимический ря" (synony.ic set& " р-длек+и(е+ких или разеоло#и(е+ких +инони!ов.

0инонимия (synony.y5 " +ов*адение в о+новно!зна(ении $*ри +охранении разли(и в +!ы+ловыхоттенках и +тили+ти(е+ко окра+ке& !оре!, +лов,+интак+и(е+ких кон+трукци, разеоло#и(е+кихединиц.

0инонимы (synony.s5 " +лова, )лизкие *о +вое!узна(ени, выра1а3ие одно и то 1е *он-тие, норазли(а3ие+- или оттенка!и зна(ени-, или+тили+ти(е+ко окра+ко, или и те! и дру#и!.@инони!ы, как *равило, *ринадле1ат к одно и то1е (а+ти ре(и и вы+ту*ат как взаи!оза!ен-е!ые5ле!енты вы+казывани-.

0инонимы абсол,тные (a+sol&%e7 co."le%e7 "e#(ec%synony.s5 1+лова, *олно+т/ +ов*ада3ие *озна(ени и у*отре)лени, + воз!о1ны!ра+хо1дение! в +о(етае!о+ти.

0инонимы и"еографические (i'eog#a"$icsynony.s5 1 +инони!ы, разли(а3ие+- оттенка!и

зна(ени-.0инонимы контекстуалные (con%ex%&al synony.s51 +лова, +)ли1а3ие+- +вои!и зна(ени-!и ву+лови-х контек+та.

0инонимы стилистические (s%ylis%ic synony.s5 1+инони!ы, +ов*ада3ие *о зна(ени, норазли(а3ие+- *ринадле1но+т/ к разли(ны!+тил-! ре(и, +те*ен/ у*отре)ител/но+ти,5к+*ре++ивно окра+ко и т.*.

0инхрония (sync$#ony5 " +о+то-ние -зыка нао*ределенно! 5та*е и+тори(е+ко#о развити- вка(е+тве цел/но +и+те!ы лек+и(е+ких, #ра!"!ати(е+ких и онети(е+ких 5ле!ентов как *ред!етлин#ви+ти(е+ко#о изу(ени-.

0ловарная статя (a#%icle7 en%#y5 " +тат/-,разS-+н-3а- за#олово(ное +лово в +ловаре.

0ловарный состав языка (o#'s%oc35 " в+-+овоку*но+т/ +лов, вход-3их в +о+тав како#о"ли)о-зыка, вкл(а- е#о о+новно +ловарны онд.

0лово (o#'5 " о+новна- крат(аа- единица-зыка, выра1а3а- +вои! звуковы! +о+таво!*он-тие о *ред!ете, *роце++е, -влении де+т"вител/но+ти, их +во+твах или отноени-х !е1дуни!и. В +лове +о(етат+- *ризнаки: онети(е+ки$звуково ко!*лек+&, лек+ико"+е!анти(е+ки

$зна(ение& и #ра!!ати(е+ки $!ороло#и(е+ка-+труктура и +о+тавно 5ле!ент или *отенциал/ны!ини!у! *редло1ени-&.

0ловообразование 4o#'1(o#.a%ion7 o#'1+&il'ing50 70Раздел -зыкознани-, изу(а3и +труктуру +лов изаконы их о)разовани-. 2. )разование новых +лов*уте! +оединени- дру# + дру#о! корневых и аик"+ал/ных !оре! ли)о )езаик+ны! +*о+о)о! *оо*ределенны! !одел-!, +у3е+тву3и! в данно!-зыке.



0ловосочетание (o#'1co.+ina%ion5 1 +оединениедвух или )олее зна!енател/ных +лов, +в-занных *о+!ы+лу и #ра!!ати(е+ки, выра1а3ее единое, нора+(лененное *он-тие и *ред+тавл-3ее +о)о+ло1ное наи!енование -влени о)Sективноде+твител/но+ти.

0ловоформа (o#' (o#.5 " данное +лово в данно

#ра!!ати(е+ко ор!е.0равнително-исторический мето" ($is%o#icalco."a#a%i/e .e%$o'5 " лин#ви+ти(е+ки !етод $+и+те!анау(ных *рие!ов& во++тановлени-незаик+ированных *ролых -зыковых актов*уте! их +равнени- + +оответ+тву3и!и )олее*оздни!и акта!и, изве+тны!и *о *и+/!енны!*а!-тника! или 1иво!у у*отре)лени в+о*о+тавл-е!ых -зыках. При!енение +равнител/но"и+тори(е+ко#о !етода +*о+о)+твует изу(ениво*ро+а о законо!ерно+т-х развити- -зыка вотдаленну 5*оху, вы-влени и+конных +лов -зыкаи заи!+твовани, а так1е *уте *роникновени-

*о+ледних, *озвол-ет у+тановит/ #енети(е+което1де+тво -зыковых единиц, #лавны! о)разо! во)ла+ти онетики и !ороло#ии, дает !атериал дл-реени- отдел/ных *ро)ле!, которы!и зани!ает+-+равнител/но"и+тори(е+кое изу(ение -зыков$*рои+хо1дение род+твенных -зыков, ихвзаи!оотноени- в ходе и+тори(е+ко#о развити-,(ерты о)3но+ти и разли(и- в 5то! развитии и т.д.&.

0у%ение значения (#es%#ic%ion o( .eaning5 1у!ен/ение +е!анти(е+ко#о о)Sе!а *он-ти- в*роце++е и+тори(е+ко#о развити- или в контек+тере(ево#о у*отре)лени-.

0уффикс (s&((ix5 " +лу1е)на- !оре!а,наход-3а-+- *о+ле корн- и +лу1а3а- дл-о)разовани- новых +лов.

0уффиксация (s&((ixa%ion5 " *ри+оединение+уик+ов к корн-! и о+нова! как +*о+о)+ловоо)разовани- и ор!оо)разовани-.

Тема (%$e.e5 " *ри актуал/но! (ленении*редло1ени- та е#о (а+т/, котора- +одер1ит (то"тоизве+тное, знако!ое и +лу1ит от*равно то(ко дл-*ереда(и ново#о.

Термин (%e#.5 " +лово или +лово+о(етание, то(ноо)озна(а3ее какое"ли)о *он-тие, *ри!ен-е!ое внауке, технике, и+ку++тве. Cер!ины, как *равило,

однозна(ны, и! не +во+твенна так1е 5к+*ре++и-.Транскрипция (%#ansc#i"%ion5 " *ереда(а звуковино-зы(но#о +лова $о)ы(но +о)+твенно#о и!ени,#ео#раи(е+ко#о названи-, нау(но#о тер!ина& *ри*о!о3и )укв ру++ко#о алавита.

Транслитерация (%#ansli%e#a%ion5 " *ереда(а )уквино-зы(но#о +лова *ри *о!о3и )укв ру++ко#оалавита.

1разеологическая е"иница ("$#aseological &ni%5 1лек+и(е+ки недели!ое, у+то(ивое в +вое! +о+таве и+труктуре, цело+тное *о зна(ени +лово+о(етание,во+*роизводи!ое в виде #отово ре(ево единицы.

#



1разеологически связанное значениеслова ("$#aseologically +o&n' .eaning5 - лек+и(е+коезна(ение, +у3е+тву3ее или *рио)ретае!оетол/ко в +о+таве разеоло#и(е+ко единицы.

1разеологические выра%ения ("$#aseologicalex"#essions5 1 у+то(ивые в +вое! +о+таве о)ороты,+е!анти(е+ки дели!ые и +о+то-3ие *олно+т/ из

+лов +о +во)одны!и зна(ени-!и $(то +)ли1ает их+о +во)одны!и +лово+о(етани-!и&, но в *роце++ео)3ени- во+*роизводи!ые как #отовые ре(евыеединицы $(то +)ли1ает их + разеоло#и(е+ки!иединица!и&. К разеоло#и(е+ки! выра1ени-!отно+-т+- *о#оворки и *о+ловицы, но+-3иехарактер о)разно ти*изации, разно#о родаизре(ени-, крылатые +лова, а так1е у+то(ивые+о(етани-, вы*олн-3ие но!инативну ункци.

1ункционалные стили ((&nc%ional s%yles5 1+тили, выдел-е!ые в +оответ+твии + о+новны!иункци-!и -зыка, +в-занны!и + то или ино+еро де-тел/но+ти (еловека. >ункционал/ные

+тили не о)разут за!кнутых +и+те!, !е1ду+тил-!и +у3е+твует ирокое взаи!оде+твие,вли-ние одно#о на дру#ие. Признаки,характеризу3ие отдел/ны +тил/$*реи!у3е+твенное и+*ол/зование в не!о*ределенных лек+и(е+ких +ред+тв,+интак+и(е+ких кон+трукци и т.д.&, *овтор-т+- вдру#их -зыковых +тил-х, не #овор- у1е о то!, (то*одавл-3ее )ол/ин+тво -зыковых +ред+тв-вл-ет+- о)3и! дл- в+ех +тиле $!е1+тилевые+ред+тва -зыка&. Кро!е то#о, +ледует и!ет/ ввиду, (то +тил/ " кате#ори- и+тори(е+ка-:*одви1ны не тол/ко #раницы !е1ду +тил-!и, но и#раницы отдел/но#о +тил- в ходе е#о развити-.

2вфемизм (e&"$e.is.5 " +!-#(а3еео)озна(ение како#о"ли)о *ред!ета или -влени-,)олее !-#кое выра1ение в!е+то #ру)о#о.

2ксплицитный (ex"lici%e5 " -вно выра1енны,развернуты.2кстралингвистический (ex%#aling&is%ic5 "

вне-зыково, отно+-3и+- к реал/ноде+твител/но+ти, в у+лови-х котороразвивает+- и ункционирует -зык. К5к+тралин#ви+ти(е+ки! у+лови-! развити- -зыкаотно+-т+- в *ерву о(еред/ о)3е+твенно"

*олити(е+кие акторы.2тимология (e%y.ology50 8. Раздел -зыкознани-,изу(а3и *рои+хо1дение и и+тори отдел/ных+лов и !оре!. 2. Прои+хо1дение и и+тори- +лови !оре!.



Lis% o( Li%e#a%&#e

Baker S.D. The 2ustralian Language. Sydney, 1%C.

ndacott S.D. 2ustralian 2*original =ords and Place ;ames, 1CC.

&in3*urg 6.S., Khidekel S.S., Knya3eva &.9., Sankin 2.2. 2

$ourse in Modern nglish Lexicology. Mosco!, 1@@.

nglish Lexicology. Lectures com"iled *y students from the

ST.$yril Methodious 8niversity, nglish 0e"artment > Sko"Je,

6e"u*lic of Macedonia.

Palmer 4.6. Semantics. 2 ne! :utline. $am*ridge 8niv. Press,

1.

S!eet 5. The Practical Study of Languages. :xford 8niv. "ress,

1@%.

=ел-ева C.М., Пота*ова %.?. ?н#ли+ки -зык за*редела!и ?н#лии. > Ленин#рад, 1@1.



CONTENTS

7ntroduction' the o*Ject of lexicology......................................................................................................tymological survey of the nglish language......................................................................................................

7. =ord structure and !ord formation..........................................2ffixation......................................................................................$om"osition.................................................................................$onversion....................................................................................Shortening....................................................................................

77. Semasiology.............................................................................Meaning........................................................................................Lexical meaning' stylistic reference.............................................$hange of meaning.......................................................................2m*iguity of meaning.................................................................Synonyms.....................................................................................

u"hemisms..................................................................................2ntonyms.....................................................................................

;eologisms and archaisms...........................................................

777.Phraseology.............................................................................4ree !ord+grou"s and "hraseological units...................................$lassifications of "hraseological units.........................................

7V.Varieties of nglish.................................................................Standard nglish. ;ational variants and local dialects..................2merican nglish.........................................................................$anadian nglish

2ustralian nglish ;e! `ealand nglish..................................................................

V.Lexicogra"hy............................................................................

$onclusion' methods and "rocedures of lexicological analysis.. ..

2""endix' $oncise dictionary of linguistic terms.......................

List of literature<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<

C



В.М. Широких, Л.П. Кудреватых

Теоретические материалы по

лексикологии современного

английского языка

Корректор М.В.Пер!-кова ри#инал"!акет: U.@. Xлохина

Ид лиц. !"# $%& от $'.($.)*.Под*и+ано в *е(ат/ .08.2004. >ор!ат Y0хA%[email protected]а*е(атано на ризо#рае.'+л. *е(. л. . '(."изд. л. . Cира1 5кз. Aаказ

Глазов+ки #о+удар+твенны*еда#о#и(е+ки ин+титут 42<Y28, #.Глазов, ул. Перво!а+ка-, д. 2B

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