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Transcript of © 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company The Acquisition of Memories and the Working-Memory System Chapter...
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
The Acquisition of Memories and
the Working-Memory System
Chapter 6Lecture Outline
Chapter 6: Working Memory
Lecture OutlineThe Modal ModelWorking MemoryEntering Long-term StorageElaborate EncodingOrganizing and MemorizingLinks Among Acquisition, Storage, and
Retrieval Implications for Successful Studying
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Chapter 6: Working Memory
One way to frame learning and memoryAcquisitionStorageRetrieval
Analogy to creating, storing, and opening a computer file
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Chapter 6: Working Memory
This view is problematic for at least two reasons.New learning is grounded in previously
learned (stored) knowledge.Effective learning depends on how the
information will be later retrieved.
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The Modal Model
Information processing
Each of these systems is separate.
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The Modal Model
The modal model (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968; Waugh & Norman, 1965)Sensory memory (iconic or echoic)Short-term memory (STM)Long-term memory (LTM)
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The Modal Model
Working memory (WM)—a dynamic form of short-term memoryLess like a storage place and more like a
status
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The Modal Model
Working Memory
Long-Term Memory
Time Temporary Long-lasting
Capacity Limited Large
Access Relatively easy
Relatively hard
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The Modal Model
Experiments supporting the modal modelPresented with a long series of words (e.g.,
30)Perform free-recall afterwardLook at the position in the list (serial recall)
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The Modal Model
Primacy effect Better memory for first
few items Long-term memory Memory rehearsal
allows transfer from WM to LTM
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The Modal Model
Recency effect Better memory for the
last few items Last few items are not
displaced by future items
Based on working memory
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The Modal Model
Testing recency claims
Thirty seconds is not enough to wipe out recency.
Another task is needed to do so.
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The Modal Model
Recency effect is the same.
Memory for the rest of the list is better.
Slow presentation aids pre-recency items.
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The Modal Model
Primacy associated with hippocampus
Working memory associated with perirhinal cortex
Support for primacy claims
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Working Memory
Virtually all mental activities require working memory (WM).ReadingGoal-driven behavior
Some tasks demand more WM resources than others.
Individual differences in WM capacity predict some cognitive abilities.
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Working Memory
Digit-span taskThe participant is asked to remember digits.
The list is increased until memory fails. The maximum number is the digit span.
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Working Memory
ChunkingThe ability to condense informationRequires effortReduces load Does not increase WM
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Working Memory
Operation spanAnother measure of working memoryDecide whether equation is true or falseThen remember wordNumber of words remembered is the
operation span
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Working Memory
Reading span Captures active nature of working memory Participant reads sentences and remembers
the last word in each sentence Number of sentences is increased to failure Number of words remembered is the reading
span
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Working Memory
Reading span and operation span correlate strongly with Standardized test performance Reasoning Reading comprehension
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Working Memory
Working memory is often divided into three componentsCentral executive Visuospatial buffer Articulatory rehearsal loop
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Working Memory
WM is an update to the modal modelA dynamic form of STMBut still fragile
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Entering Long-Term Storage
Two types of rehearsalMaintenance rehearsal—recitingRelational or elaborative rehearsal—linking
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Entering Long-Term Storage
Relational, or elaborative, rehearsal is superior.
Repeated exposure does not guarantee memory.
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Entering Long-Term Storage
Remembered greater than forgotten
Frontal areas Hippocampus and adjacent areas
The need for active encoding
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Entering Long-Term Storage
Incidental learning—unintentional Intentional learning—intentional
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Entering Long-Term Storage
Shallow processing—superficial Deep processing—meaningful
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Entering Long-Term Storage
Deeper processing ensures better recall.
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Entering Long-Term Storage
Imagine an experiment in which you cross depth of processing (three levels)Typeface task (shallow)Phonological task (intermediate)Semantic task (deep)
And intention to learn (two levels) Incidental learning Intentional learning
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Entering Long-Term Storage
Depth of processing is strong. Intention to learn has no effect. Intention to learn can lead you to choose a
deeper strategy.
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Elaborate Encoding
Very hard to find info
Very easy to find info
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Elaborate Encoding
Depth of processing promotes recall by facilitating later retrieval.Consider learning as a way to establish
indexing, a path to the information.Connections between items to be
remembered facilitates retrieval.
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Elaborate Encoding
Memory connections facilitate retrieval.We can use this to help retrieval.
“What words are related in meaning to the word I’m now considering?”
“What words have contrasting meaning?”
“What is the relationship between the start of this story and the way the story turned out?”
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Elaborate Encoding
Craik and Tulving (1975)
Example Result
Elaborate “The great bird swooped down and carried off the struggling chicken.”
Better memory
Simple “She cooked the chicken.”
Worse memory
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Elaborate Encoding
Craik and Tulving (1975)
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Elaborate Encoding
Elaborate sentences result in richer retrieval paths.
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Organizing and Memorizing
Katona (1940) argued that the key to creating connections in the material to be remembered is organization.
We memorize well when we find order in the material.
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Organizing and Memorizing
Mnemonics improve memory through organization.
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Organizing and Memorizing
Peg-word systems: items are “hung” on a system of already well known “pegs” “One is a bun, two is a shoe . . .”
First-letter mnemonicsRoy G. BivKing Phillip Crossed the Ocean to Find Gold
and Silver
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Organizing and Memorizing
Mnemonics Help
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Organizing and Memorizing
The procedure is actually quite simple. First you arrange items into different groups. Of course one pile may be sufficient depending on how much there is to do. If you have to go somewhere else due to lack of facilities that is the next step; otherwise you are pretty well set. It is important not to overdo things. That is, it is better to do too few things at once than too many. In the short run, this may not seem important but complications can easily arise. A mistake can be expensive as well. At first, the whole procedure will seem complicated. Soon, however, it will become just another facet of life. It is difficult to foresee any end to the necessity for this task in the immediate future, but then, one never can tell. After the procedure is completed one arranges the materials into different groups again. Then they can be put into their appropriate places. Eventually they will be used once more and the whole cycle will then have to be repeated. However, that is part of life.
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Organizing and Memorizing
What is the pattern?
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Organizing and Memorizing
Ambiguous pictures are understood and remembered better if they are identified (Wiseman & Neisser, 1974)
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Links Among Acquisition, Storage, and Retrieval
Memory is facilitated by organizing and understanding.What the memorizer was doing at the time of
exposure matters.The background knowledge of the memorizer
matters.
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Links Among Acquisition, Storage, and Retrieval
Acquisition, storage, and retrieval are not easily separable.New learning is grounded in previously
learned (stored) knowledge.Effective learning depends on how the
information will later be retrieved.
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Links Among Acquisition, Storage, and Retrieval
Implications for studyingUnderstand through self-questioningActively engageForm connectionsSpaced learning
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Chapter 6 Questions
Which group would perform the WORST on a memory test?
a) Participants engaged in shallow processing without previous warning of a memory test.
b) Participants engaged in medium processing with previous warning of a memory test.
c) Participants engaged in deep processing without previous warning of a memory test.
d) Participants engaged in deep processing with previous warning of a memory test.
Someone with a larger working-memory capacity is likely to perform better than someone with a smaller working-memory capacity on which of the following tasks?
a) following directions
b) efficient reading
c) learning a computer language
d) all of the above
Which statement about working memory is TRUE?
a) It has unlimited storage capacity.
b) It functions as a storage container.
c) Information in it is fragile and easily lost.
d) It refers mainly to the resources that are retained over long intervals.
Which of the following would be the LEAST help in improving recall of a difficult-to-understand paragraph?
a) quizzing yourself in order to improve comprehension of the paragraph
b) chunking the sentences in the paragraph into smaller, meaningful groups
c) repeating the paragraph aloud many times
d) giving the paragraph a meaningful title
Veronica wanted to go to the grocery store but was out of paper for writing a shopping list. She came up with several possible ways to remember what she needed to buy (listed below). Which of her ideas is a simple mnemonic strategy?
a) Using the peg-word system to associate different items on the shopping list with words in an easy-to-remember rhyme.
b) Imagining what she can cook with all of the items on the list and imagining what all the food would taste like.
c) Composing a long story with all the items on her list.
d) Repeating all the items on her list multiple times.
What causes the recency effect?
a) The last words heard are still in working memory at testing.
b) The first words heard are also the first words to leave working memory.
c) Words that get more attention are better encoded into long-term memory.
d) Experimenters tend to provide easier words first as warm-up.