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Transcript of © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Studying Development Physical Development...
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
• Studying Development• Physical Development• Cognitive Development• Social-Emotional Development
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Things You’ll Learn in Chapter 9Q1 Are our childhood friends’ predictions of our adult
personality better than our own self-ratings?
Q2Does prenatal exposure to smoke increase the risk of obesity later in life?
Q3 Why do teenagers seem to sleep so much?
Q4 Do babies learn faster when they’re sitting up than when they’re lying down?
Q5 Do today’s college students want women to propose marriage?
STUDYING DEVELOPMENT
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• Developmental psychology = the study of age-related changes in behavior and mental processes and stages of growth, from conception to death
Theoretical Issues
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Nature or Nurture? • How do both genetics (nature) and life experience
(nurture) influence development?• Nature says development is governed by automatic,
genetically predetermined signals– Maturation = the continuing influence of heredity throughout
development; age-related physical and behavioral changes characteristic of a species
– Critical period = time of special sensitivity to specific types of learning that shapes the capacity for future development
Three Major Issues
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Stages or continuity?• Some developmental theories feature
stages that are discrete and relatively different from each other
• Other theorists believe development follows a continuous pattern with gradual but steady and measureable changes.
Three Major Issues
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Stability or change?• Psychologists who emphasize stability say
measurements of personality in childhood are important predictors of adult personality
• Psychologists who emphasize change disagree
Three Major Issues
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• How to study the entire human life span?• Cross-sectional design = A research technique that
measures individuals of various ages at one point in time and provides information about age difference
• Longitudinal design = A research design that measures a single individual or group of individuals over an extended period and gives information about age changes.
Research Approaches
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Research Approaches
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Martin-Storey et al., 2012• 1976-1978: Researchers asked grade-school children to rate
themselves and their peers on personality factors like likeability, aggression, social withdrawal
• 1999-2003: Researchers asked same participants to complete tests again.
• Peer ratings were better than self-ratings in predicting adult personality
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Is this research cross-sectional or longitudinal?
Q1 Are our childhood friends’ predictions of our adult personality better than our own self-ratings?
Consider these results: • Cross-sectional studies show
that intelligence and reasoning peak in early adulthood and then decline
• Longitudinal studies show gradual increase in intelligence and reasoning until age 60 and then decline
Longitudinal vs. Cross-Sectional
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What might explain the
difference in the results?
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
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• Germinal Period: From conception to implantation
Prenatal Development
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• Embryonic Period: From implantation to 8 weeks
• Fetal Period: From 8 weeks to birth
• Placenta connects fetus to mother’s uterus; serves as link for food and waste; screens out some (but not all!) harmful substances
• Teratogen = An environmental agent that causes damage during prenatal development– Greek word “teras” means “malformation”– Crosses placental barrier
Prenatal Development
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Children whose mothers smoked during pregnancy were more likely to be obese as adults, perhaps due to increased preference for fatty foods from nicotine exposure in the developing brain (Haghighi et al., 2013)
Q2 Does prenatal exposure to smoke increase the risk of obesity later in life?
Environmental Dangers
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• Prenatal brain development
• Brain growth in first 2 years
Early Childhood: Brain Development
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• Motor development = orderly, observable emergence of active movement skills
Early Childhood: Motor Development
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What factors might affect the
speed with which a baby reaches each milestone?
• Hearing is developed, with preference for mother’s voice• Smell and taste are developed, with ability to distinguish
among sweet, salty, and bitter• Touch and pain are highly developed (example: rooting
reflex)• Vision is poorly developed, with vision worse
than 20/200 at birth; vision improves within 6 months to 20/100 and by age 2 is at near-adult acuity
Early Childhood: Sensory and Perceptual Development
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• Adolescence is the psychological period between childhood and adulthood
• Puberty = the biological changes during adolescence that lead to an adult-sized body and sexual maturity
• Growth spurt includes rapid increase in size, weight, and reproductive structures
Adolescence
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Puberty is triggered by changes in the brain and the release of certain hormones that occur only during deep sleep (Shaw et al., 2012)
Q3 Why do teenagers seem to sleep so much?
• Adolescence in the United States is typically the teenage years
• Concept of adolescence varies across cultures• In non-industrialized cultures, children assume
adult responsibilities as soon as possible, with no need for slow transition from childhood to adulthood
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Adulthood: Middle age
Women• Menopause = the cessation
of the menstrual cycle; occurs between 45 and 55
• Decreased production of estrogen produces physical and psychological changes
• Does not cause serious psychological mood swings, loss of sexual interest, or depression
Men• Gradual decline in hormone
levels• Can continue to father
children into 70s or 80s• Male climacteric or
andropause = weight gain, loss of muscle strength, decline in sexual responsiveness, hair loss
• Midlife crisis is myth
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• Gradual changes in heart, arteries and sensory receptors
• Cardiac output decreases, blood pressure increases• Visual acuity and depth perception decline; hearing
acuity declines; smell sensitivity declines• Some decline in cognitive and memory skills
Adulthood: After middle age
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• Ageism = prejudice or discrimination based on physical age; similar to racism and sexism in its negative stereotypes
• Study of n = 1000 older adults found increase in wellbeingwith age, contrary to negativestereotypes (Jeste et al., 2012)
Supreme Court Justice Ruth Bader Ginsberg
Adulthood: After middle age
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
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• Schemas = the cognitive structures, framework, or “blueprints” of knowledge, regarding objects, people and situations, which grow and differentiate with experience
• Assimilation = applying existing mental patterns (schemas) to new information; new information is incorporated (assimilated) into existing schemas
• Accommodation = the process of adjusting (accommodating) existing mental patterns (schemas) or developing new ones to fit better with new information
Piaget: the Basics
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• Remember, stage theories say development occurs in discrete stages. Piaget said each stage is required and leads to mastery of later stages
Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
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• Babies were better at distinguishing between objects they first explored while sitting upright than when theywere lying down
• Why? The seated position may make babies better able to reach for, hold, and manipulate objects
Q4 Do babies learn faster when they’re sitting up than when they’re lying down?
• Birth to approximately age 2• Schemas are developed through
sensory and motor activities• Object permanence = Piagetian term for an
infant’s recognition that objects (or people) continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard, or touched directly– Gained during sensory/motor stage
Sensorimotor Stage
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• Roughly ages 2 to 7• Ability to employ significant language
and to think symbolically• Thinking is egocentric = the inability to take the
perspective of another person; assumes other see, hear, feel, and think exactly as they do
• Thinking is animistic = belief that all things are living (or animated)
• Lacks operations (reversible mental processes) – thus “preoperational”
Preoperational Stage
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• Beginning approximately age 7• Child can perform mental
operations on concrete objects andunderstand reversibility and conservation, but thinking is tied to concrete, tangible objects and events
• Conservation = the understanding that certain physical characteristics (such as volume) remain unchanged, even though appearances may change
Concrete Operational Stage
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• Beginning around age 11• Can now apply operations to
abstract concepts and hypotheticalsituations
• Imaginary audience = a form of egocentrism where teenagers tend to believe everyone is thinking about them, rather than wrapped up in their own concerns
• Personal fable = adolescents’ belief that they alone have insights or difficulties that no one understands or experiences
Formal Operational Stage
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Unique and invulnerable? What could go wrong?
• Mood swings, poor decisions, risky behaviors previously attributed to personal fable may now be tied to less developed frontal lobe in adolescents
Personal Fable or Brain Development?
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• Vygotsky emphasized sociocultural influence on child’s development, especially the role of adult as instructor
• Zone of proximal development (ZPD) – the area between what children can accomplish on their own and what they can accomplish with the help of others who are more competent.
Vygosky vs. Piaget
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• Criticisms of Piaget• Piaget underestimated abilities– Research shows infants achieve object
permanence earlier than thought– Research shows babies and preschoolers exhibit
non-egocentric responses• Piaget underestimated genetic
and cultural influences
Vygosky vs. Piaget
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SOCIAL-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
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• Attachment = a strong emotional bond with special others that endures over time
• Harlow’s studies of monkeys raised by either a “cloth mother” or “wire mother” showed monkeys preferred contact with cloth mother
• Contact comfort, pleasurable tactilesensations, is a powerful contributorto attachment
Attachment
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• Mary Ainsworth • “Strange situation” observed how infants
responded to the presence or absence of their mother and a stranger in an unfamiliar setting
Attachment
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Parenting Styles
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• Consider this situation:– In Europe, a cancer-ridden woman was near
death, but an expensive drug existed that might save her. The woman’s husband, Heinz, begged the druggist to sell the drug cheaper or to let him pay later. But he refused. Heinz became desperate and broke into his store and stole it.
• Was Heinz right? Why or why not?
Moral Development
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© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development
• Do people high on Kohlberg’s scale act more morally than others?– Some research shows a person’s moral identity is a
good predictor of behavior in real-world situations (Johnston, Sherman, & Grusec, 2013)
– Other research shows situational factors are better predictors of moral behavior (Bandura, 1986, 1992, 2008)
Assessing Kohlberg’s Theory
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• Psychosocial stages = Erikson’s theory that individuals pass through eight developmental stages, each involving a specific crisis that must be successfully resolved
Personality Development
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• Identity vs. role confusion• Intimacy vs. isolation• Generativity vs. stagnation• Ego integrity vs. despair
• Trust vs. mistrust• Autonomy vs. shame/doubt• Initiative vs. guilt• Industry vs. inferiority
• How would you be different if you were a member of the other sex?
• First, some definitions:• Sex = biological characteristic determined at the
moment of conception• Gender = psychological and sociocultural meanings
added to biological maleness or femaleness• Gender roles = societal expectations for
“appropriate” male and female attitudes and behaviors
Sex and Gender Influences
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© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Gender-Role Development
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• Androgyny = exhibiting both masculine and feminine traits; from the Greek andro for “male” and gyn for “female”
• Blending of masculine and feminine traits leads to higher self-esteem and more success in complex society (Bem, 1981, 1993)
• Gender roles are becoming less rigidly defined
Androgyny
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• Both men and women strongly prefer traditional gender roles when it comes to marriage proposals, even at a relatively liberal university in California
• More than 60% of women surveyed were at least “somewhat willing” to take their husband’s name (Robnett & Leaper, 2013)
• “Benevolent sexism” like this looks positive on the surface but contributes to power differentials between men and women (Lasnier, 2013)
Androgyny
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Q5 Do today’s college students want women to propose marriage?
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.