© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Sociological Research 2 10 th edition...

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Sociological Research 2

10th edition

Sociology:A Brief Introduction

Richard T. Schaefer

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Slide 2

• What Is the Scientific Method?• Major Research Designs• Ethics of Research• Feminist Methodology• The Data-Rich Future • Social Policy and Sociological Researc

h: Studying Human Sexuality• Appendix I: Using Statistics and Graph

s• Appendix II: Writing a Research Repor

t


A Look Ahead

• How do sociologists go about setting up a research project?

• How do they ensure that their results are reliable and accurate?

• Can they avoid violating therights of those they study?


What is the Scientific Method?

• Systematic, organized series of steps that ensures maximum objectivity and consistency in researching a problem– Defining the problem– Reviewing the literature– Formulating the hypothesis– Selecting the research design

and collecting and analyzing data– Developing the conclusion


Scientific Method

• Defining the Problem– Operational definition: Explanation of

an abstract concept that is specific enough to allow researchers to assess the concept

• Reviewing the Literature– Refines problem under study


Scientific Method

• Formulating the Hypothesis– Hypothesis: Speculative statement

about the relationship between two or more factors known as variables

– Variable: Measurable trait or characteristic subject to change under different conditions

• Independent variable: Variable hypothesized to cause or influence another

• Dependent variable: Action depends on influence of the independent variable


Scientific Method

• Formulating the Hypothesis (continued)

– Causal logic: Involves relationships between a condition or variable and a particular consequence, with one event leading to the other

– Correlation: Exists when change in one variable coincides with change in another

• Correlation does not necessarily indicate causation


Scientific Method

• Collecting and Analyzing Data– Selecting the Sample

• Sample: Selection from a larger population that is statistically typical of that population

• Random sample: When every member of a population has the same chance of being selected

• Snowball samples (Convenience Samples): participants recruited through word of mouth or by posting notices on the Internet


Scientific Method

• Collecting and Analyzing Data– Ensuring Validity and Reliability

• Validity: Degree to which the measure reflects the phenomenon being studied

• Reliability: Extent to which the measure provides consistent results


Scientific Method

• Developing the Conclusion– Supporting the Hypothesis

• Sociological studies do not always generate data that support original hypothesis

– Controlling for other factors• Control variable: factor held constant to

test the impact of the independent variable


Figure 2-1: The Scientific Method


Figure 2-2: Educational Level and Household Income in the United States

Source: 2010 American Community Survey in Bureau of the Census 2011b:Table S1903; 2011a:Table 233.


Figure 2-3: Causal Logic


Figure 2-4: Impact of a College Education on Income

Source: Author’s analysis of DeNavas-Walt et al. 2011, Detailed Table PINC-03.


Major Research Designs

• Research design: Detailed plan or method for obtaining data scientifically– Surveys– Observation– Experiments– Existing sources


Surveys

• Study that provides sociologists with information about how people act or think– Interview: Researcher obtains information

through face-to-face or telephone questioning– Questionnaire: Researcher uses printed or written

form to obtain information from respondent


Surveys

• Quantitative research: Collects and reports data primarily in numerical form

• Qualitative research: Relies on what is seen in field and naturalistic settings; often focuses on small groups and communities


Ethnography

• Collecting information through direct participation and/or by closely watching a group or community– Ethnography: Efforts to describe

an entire social setting through extended systematic observation

– Observation: Sociologist joins group to get accurate sense of how it operates


Experiments

• Experiment: Artificially created situation that allows researcher to manipulate variables– Experimental group:

Exposed to independent variable– Control group: Not exposed

to independent variable– Hawthorne Effect: Unintended influence

of observers or experiments on subjects


Use of Existing Sources

• Secondary analysis: Research techniques that make use of previously collected and publicly accessible information and data

• Content analysis: Systematic coding and objective recording of data, guided by some rationale


Table 2-1: Top Reasons Men and Women Had Sex

Source: Meston and Buss 2007:506.


Research Today

2-1: Surveying Cell Phone Users– Are you a cell phone–only user? If so, do you

generally accept calls from unknown numbers? What problems might result from excluding cell phone–only users from survey research?

– Which of the problems that arise during telephone surveys might also arise during Internet surveys? Might Internet surveys involve some unique problems?


Research Today

2-2: Gender Messages in Scouting– Did you participate in scouting as a child?

If so, were you aware of the gender messages you were receiving as part of the scouting experience? How did you react?

– If you were a Scout leader yourself, what kind of gender model would you attempt to be? How would you become that kind of model?


Ethics of Research

• Code of Ethics (ASA, 1997)– Maintain objectivity and integrity in research– Respect subjects’ right to privacy and dignity– Protect subjects from personal harm– Preserve confidentiality– Seek informed consent– Acknowledge collaboration and assistance– Disclose sources of financial support


Table 2-2: Existing Sources Used In Sociological Research


Table 2-3: Major Research Designs


Ethics of Research

• Confidentiality• Conflict of Interest• Value Neutrality

– Investigators have ethical obligation to accept research findings even when the data run counter to their personal views, to theoretically based explanations, or to widely accepted beliefs


Taking Sociology to Work

Dave Eberbach, Associate Director, Iowa Institute for Community Alliances

– Do you know what you want to be doing 10 years from now? If so, how might a knowledge of statistics help you in your future occupation?

– What kinds of statistics might you find in the Human Service Planning Alliance’s data warehouse? Where would they come from?


Feminist Methodology

• Feminist perspective had greatest impact on current generation of researchers– See work and family as closely integrated– Recently, interested in self-injury– Studies tend to overlook women– Tend to involve and consult

subjects more than other researchers


The Data Rich Future

• Massive increases in available data allow sociologists to undertake new research– H1N1 flu strain– crime patterns– Increased data raises

concern about individual privacy


Research Today

2-3: Lying for Love Online– Have you tried using an online dating

service? If so, were you truthful in describing yourself online? Did the people you were matched with turn out to be truthful?

– Why do you think online daters engage in deception if they are hoping eventually to meet someone face-to-face?


Studying Human Sexuality

• Looking at the Issue– Important to increase

scientific understanding of human sexuality

• Privacy concerns• Preconceptions• Myths• Beliefs

– Many people oppose research on human sexuality



• Applying Sociology– Little reliable national data on

patterns of sexual behavior in U.S.– Government funding for studies

of sexual behavior is controversial



• Applying Sociology– Federal government is major source

of funding for sociological research– According to Weber’s ideal of value

neutrality, sociologists must remain free to reveal information that is embarrassing or supportive of government institutions



• Initiating Policy– Sociologists developed the National Health

and Social Life Survey (NHSLS) to better understand sexual practices of adults in U.S.

• Private funding• NHSLS data allow interest groups

to address public policy issues


Figure 2-5: Median Age of First Sex

Source: Durex 2007.


Using Statistics

• Percentage: Shows portion of 100• Mean: Average; sum of a series of

values divided by the number of values• Mode: Single most common

value in a series of values• Median: Midpoint that divides

a series of values into two groups with equal numbers of values


Reading Graphs

• Tables and figures allow social scientists to display data and make it easier to develop conclusions– Cross-tabulation: Shows relationship

between two or more variables– Graphs are often easier for public to understand


Figure 2-6: Changing Attitudes Toward the Legalization of Marijuana

Source: Gallup 2011; see Newport 2012b in references.


Figure 2-7: People Who Favor Legalization of Marijuana by Gender and Age

Source: Gallup 2011; see Newport 2012b in references.


Writing a Research Report

• Finding Information– Check textbooks– Use library catalog– Use computerized periodical indexes– Examine government documents– Use newspapers– Ask people, organizations, and agencies– Consult instructor


Writing a Research Report

• Writing the Report– Focus on topic– Develop an outline– Work ahead of deadline– Read paper aloud

• Including Citations and References

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Sociological Research 2 10 th edition...

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Transcript of © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Sociological Research 2 10 th edition...