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Transcript of © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter Opener 4. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 4.1...
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 4.1 Overview of four basic tissue types: epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous tissues.
• Brain• Spinal cord• Nerves
Nervous tissue: Internal communication
• Muscles attached to bones (skeletal)• Muscles of heart (cardiac)• Muscles of walls of hollow organs (smooth)
Muscle tissue: Contracts to cause movement
Epithelial tissue: Forms boundaries between different environments, protects, secretes, absorbs, filters• Lining of digestive tract organs and other hollow
organs• Skin surface (epidermis)
• Bones• Tendons• Fat and other soft padding tissue
Connective tissue: Supports, protects, binds other tissues together
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Figure 4.2 Classification of epithelia.
Basal surface
Apical surfaceSimple
Apical surface
Basal surfaceStratified
Squamous
Cuboidal
ColumnarClassification based on cell shape.
Classification based on number of cell layers.
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Figure 4.2a Classification of epithelia.
Basal surfaceStratified
Classification based on number of cell layers.
Basal surfaceSimple
Apical surface
Apical surface
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Figure 4.2b Classification of epithelia.
Cuboidal
Squamous
ColumnarClassification based on cell shape.
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Figure 4.3a Epithelial tissues.
Air sacs of lung tissue
Nuclei of squamous epithelial cells
Function: Allows materials to pass by diffusion and filtration in sites where protection is not important; secretes lubricating substances in serosae.
Location: Kidney glomeruli; air sacs of lungs; lining of heart, blood vessels, and lymphatic vessels; lining of ventral body cavity (serosae).
Description: Single layer of flattened cells with disc-shaped central nuclei and sparse cytoplasm; the simplest of the epithelia.
Photomicrograph: Simple squamous epithelium forming part of the alveolar (air sac) walls (140x).
Simple squamous epithelium
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Figure 4.3b Epithelial tissues.
Nucleus
Function: Secretion and absorption.
Location: Kidney tubules; ducts and secretory portions of small glands; ovary surface.
Description: Single layer ofcubelike cells with large, spherical central nuclei.
Photomicrograph: Simple cuboidal epithelium in kidney tubules (430x).
Simple cuboidal epithelium
Basement membrane
Connective tissue
Simple cuboidal epithelial cells
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Figure 4.3c Epithelial tissues.
Function: Absorption; secretion of mucus, enzymes, and other substances; ciliated type propels mucus (or reproductive cells) by ciliary action.Location: Nonciliated type lines most of the digestive tract (stomach to rectum), gallbladder, and excretory ducts of some glands; ciliated variety lines small bronchi, uterine tubes, and some regions of the uterus.
Description: Single layer of tall cells with round to oval nuclei; some cells bear cilia; layer may contain mucus-secreting unicellular glands (goblet cells).
Simple columnar epithelium
Basement membrane
Photomicrograph: Simple columnarepithelium of the small intestine mucosa (660x).
Mucus of goblet cell
Simple columnar epithelial cell
Microvilli
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Figure 4.3d Epithelial tissues.
Pseudostratified columnar epithelium
Function: Secrete substances, particularly mucus; propulsion of mucus by ciliary action.
Description: Single layer of cells of differing heights, some not reaching the free surface; nuclei seen at different levels; may contain mucus-secreting cells and bear cilia.
Photomicrograph: Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium lining the human trachea (800x).
Cilia
Basement membrane
Pseudo-stratified epithelial layer
Location: Nonciliated type in male’s sperm-carrying ducts and ducts of large glands; ciliated variety lines the trachea, most of the upper respiratory tract.
Trachea
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Figure 4.3e Epithelial tissues.
Stratified squamous epithelium
Function: Protects underlying tissues in areas subjected to abrasion.
Description: Thick membrane composed of several cell layers; basal cells are cuboidal or columnar and metabolically active; surface cells are flattened (squamous); in the keratinized type, the surface cells are full of keratin and dead; basal cells are active in mitosis and produce the cells of the more superficial layers.
Basement membrane
Location: Nonkeratinized type forms the moist linings of the esophagus, mouth, and vagina; keratinized variety forms the epidermis of the skin, a dry membrane.
Nuclei
Connective tissue
Stratified squamous epithelium
Photomicrograph: Stratified squamous epithelium lining the esophagus (285x).
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Figure 4.3f Epithelial tissues.
Transitional epithelium
Function: Stretches readily, permits stored urine to distend urinary organ.
Description: Resembles both stratified squamous and stratified cuboidal; basal cells cuboidal or columnar; surface cells dome shaped or squamouslike, depending on degree of organ stretch.
Location: Lines the ureters, bladder, and part of the urethra.
Transitional epithelium
Photomicrograph: Transitional epithelium lining the bladder, relaxed state (360x); note the bulbous, or rounded, appearance of the cells at the surface; these cells flatten and elongate when the bladder fills with urine.
Basement membraneConnective tissue
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Figure 4.4 Goblet cell (unicellular exocrine gland).
Microvilli
Golgi apparatus
Rough ER
Nucleus
Secretory vesicles containing mucin
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Figure 4.4a Goblet cell (unicellular exocrine gland).
Microvilli
Golgiapparatus
Rough ER
Nucleus
Secretory vesicles containing mucin
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Figure 4.4b Goblet cell (unicellular exocrine gland).
Microvilli
Golgi apparatus
Rough ER
Nucleus
Secretory vesicles containing mucin
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Figure 4.5 Types of multicellular exocrine glands.
Simple duct structure(duct does not branch)
Compound duct structure(duct branches)
Tubular secretory structure
Alveolar secretory structure
Surface epithelium Duct Secretory epithelium
Simple tubular ExampleIntestinal glands
Simple branched tubular
ExampleStomach (gastric)glands
Compound tubularExampleDuodenal glands of small intestine
Simple
alveolarExampleNo important example in humans
Simple branched alveolar
ExampleSebaceous (oil) glands
Compound tubuloalveolar
ExampleSalivary glands
Compound alveolar
ExampleMammary glands
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Figure 4.5 Types of multicellular exocrine glands. (1 of 2)
Simple duct structure(duct does not branch)
Tubular secretory structure
Alveolar secretory structure
Surface epithelium Duct Secretory epithelium
Simple tubular
ExampleIntestinal glands
Simple branched tubular
ExampleStomach (gastric)glands
Simple
alveolarExampleNo important example in humans
Simple branched alveolar
ExampleSebaceous (oil) glands
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Figure 4.5 Types of multicellular exocrine glands. (2 of 2)
Compound duct structure(duct branches)
Tubular secretory structure
Alveolar secretory structure
Surface epithelium Duct Secretory epithelium
Compound tubuloalveolar
ExampleSalivary glands
Compound alveolar
ExampleMammary glands
Compound tubular
ExampleDuodenal glands of small intestine
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Figure 4.6 Chief modes of secretion in human exocrine glands.
Merocrine glands secrete their products by exocytosis.
Secretory vesicles
Secretorycell fragments
In holocrine glands, the entire secretory cell ruptures, releasing secretions and dead cell fragments.
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Figure 4.6a Chief modes of secretion in human exocrine glands.
Merocrine glands secrete their products by exocytosis.
Secretory vesicles
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Figure 4.6b Chief modes of secretion in human exocrine glands.
In holocrine glands, the entire secretory cell ruptures, releasing secretions and dead cell fragments.
Secretorycell fragments
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Figure 4.7 Areolar connective tissue: A prototype (model) connective tissue.
Extracellular matrixGround substanceFibers• Collagen fiber• Elastic fiber• Reticular fiber
Capillary
Neutrophil
Mast cell
Fat cell
Lymphocyte
Fibroblast
Macrophage
Cell types
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Figure 4.8a Connective tissues.
Connective tissue proper: loose connective tissue, areolarDescription: Gel-like matrix
with all three fiber types; cells: fibroblasts, macrophages, mast cells, and some white blood cells.
Function: Wraps and cushions organs; its macrophages phagocytize bacteria; plays important role in inflammation; holds and conveys tissue fluid.
Location: Widely distributed under epithelia of body, e.g., forms lamina propria of mucous membranes; packages organs; surrounds capillaries.
Epithelium
Lamina propria
Photomicrograph: Areolar connectivetissue, a soft packaging tissue of the body (340x).
Elastic fibers
Ground substance
Fibroblast nuclei
Collagen fibers
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Figure 4.8b Connective tissues.
Connective tissue proper: loose connective tissue, adipose
Description: Matrix as in areolar, but very sparse; closely packed adipocytes, or fat cells, have nucleus pushed to the side by large fat droplet.
Photomicrograph: Adipose tissue fromthe subcutaneous layer under the skin (350x).
Nucleus of adipose(fat) cell
Function: Provides reserve food fuel; insulates against heat loss; supports and protects organs.
Location: Under skin in subcutaneous tissue; around kidneys and eyeballs; within abdomen; in breasts. Fat droplet
Adipose tissue
Mammary glands
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Figure 4.8c Connective tissues.
Connective tissue proper: loose connective tissue, reticularDescription: Network of
reticular fibers in a typical loose ground substance; reticular cells lie on the network.
Photomicrograph: Dark-staining network of reticular connective tissue fibers forming the internal skeleton of the spleen (350x).
White blood cell(lymphocyte)Location: Lymphoid organs
(lymph nodes, bone marrow, and spleen).
Spleen
Reticular fibers
Function: Fibers form a soft internal skeleton (stroma) that supports other cell types including white blood cells, mast cells, and macrophages.
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Figure 4.8d Connective tissues.
Connective tissue proper: dense connective tissue, dense regular
Description: Primarily parallelcollagen fibers; a few elastic fibers;major cell type is the fibroblast.
Function: Attaches muscles tobones or to muscles; attachesbones to bones; withstands greattensile stress when pulling force isapplied in one direction.
Location: Tendons, mostligaments, aponeuroses.
Shoulderjoint
Ligament
Tendon
Collagenfibers
Nuclei offibroblasts
Photomicrograph: Dense regular connectivetissue from a tendon (430x).
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Figure 4.8e Connective tissues.
Connective tissue proper: dense connective tissue, dense irregular
Description: Primarily irregularlyarranged collagen fibers; someelastic fibers; fibroblast is themajor cell type.
Function: Withstands tensionexerted in many directions;provides structural strength.
Location: Fibrous capsules oforgans and of joints; dermis of theskin; submucosa of digestive tract.
Shoulderjoint
Fibrousjointcapsule
Photomicrograph: Dense irregular connectivetissue from the fibrous capsule of a joint (430x).
Collagenfibers
Nuclei offibroblasts
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Figure 4.8f Connective tissues.
Connective tissue proper: dense connective tissue, elastic
Description: Dense regularconnective tissue containing ahigh proportion of elastic fibers.
Function: Allows tissue to recoilafter stretching; maintains pulsatileflow of blood through arteries; aidspassive recoil of lungs followinginspiration.
Location: Walls of large arteries;within certain ligaments associatedwith the vertebral column; withinthe walls of the bronchial tubes.
Photomicrograph: Elastic connective tissuein the wall of the aorta (250x).
Aorta
Heart
Elasticfibers
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Figure 4.8g Connective tissues.
Cartilage: hyaline
Description: Amorphous but firmmatrix; collagen fibers form animperceptible network;chondroblasts produce the matrixand when mature (chondrocytes)lie in lacunae.
Function: Supports and reinforces;serves as resilient cushion; resistscompressive stress.
Location: Forms most of theembryonic skeleton; covers theends of long bones in joint cavities;forms costal cartilages of the ribs;cartilages of the nose, trachea, andlarynx.
Costalcartilages Photomicrograph: Hyaline cartilage from
a costal cartilage of a rib (470x).
Matrix
Chondrocytein lacuna
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Figure 4.8h Connective tissues.
Cartilage: elastic
Description: Similar to hyalinecartilage, but more elastic fibersin matrix.
Function: Maintains the shape ofa structure while allowing greatflexibility.
Location: Supports the externalear (pinna); epiglottis.
Photomicrograph: Elastic cartilage fromthe human ear pinna; forms the flexibleskeleton of the ear (800x).
Chondrocytein lacuna
Matrix
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Figure 4.8i Connective tissues.
Cartilage: fibrocartilage
Description: Matrix similar to butless firm than that in hyalinecartilage; thick collagen fiberspredominate.
Function: Tensile strength allowsit to absorb compressive shock.
Location: Intervertebral discs;pubic symphysis; discs of kneejoint.
Photomicrograph: Fibrocartilage of anintervertebral disc (125x). Special stainingproduced the blue color seen.
Collagenfiber
Chondrocytesin lacunae
Intervertebraldiscs
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Figure 4.8j Connective tissues.
Others: bone (osseous tissue)
Description: Hard, calcifiedmatrix containing many collagenfibers; osteocytes lie in lacunae.Very well vascularized.
Function: Supports and protects(by enclosing); provides levers forthe muscles to act on; storescalcium and other minerals andfat; marrow inside bones is thesite for blood cell formation(hematopoiesis).
Location: Bones
Photomicrograph: Cross-sectional viewof bone (125x).
Lamella
Centralcanal
Lacunae
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Figure 4.8k Connective tissues.
Connective tissue: blood
Description: Red and white bloodcells in a fluid matrix (plasma).
Function: Transport respiratorygases, nutrients, wastes, and othersubstances.
Location: Contained within bloodvessels.
Photomicrograph: Smear of human blood(1670x); shows two white blood cellssurrounded by red blood cells.
Plasma
White bloodcells:• Lymphocyte• Neutrophil
Red bloodcells(erythrocytes)
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Figure 4.9a Muscle tissues.
Skeletal muscle
Description: Long, cylindrical,multinucleate cells; obviousstriations.
Function: Voluntary movement;locomotion; manipulation of theenvironment; facial expression;voluntary control.
Location: In skeletal musclesattached to bones or occasionallyto skin.
Photomicrograph: Skeletal muscle(approx. 440x). Notice the obvious bandingpattern and the fact that these large cells aremultinucleate.
Striations
Nuclei
Part of musclefiber (cell)
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Figure 4.9b Muscle tissues.
Cardiac muscle
Description: Branching, striated,generally uninucleate cells thatinterdigitate at specializedjunctions (intercalated discs).
Function: As it contracts, itpropels blood into the circulation;involuntary control.
Location: The walls of the heart.
Photomicrograph: Cardiac muscle (900x);notice the striations, branching of cells, andthe intercalated discs.
Striations
Nucleus
Intercalateddiscs
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Figure 4.9c Muscle tissues.
Smooth muscle
Description: Spindle-shapedcells with central nuclei; nostriations; cells arranged closelyto form sheets.
Function: Propels substances orobjects (foodstuffs, urine, a baby)along internal passageways;involuntary control.
Location: Mostly in the walls ofhollow organs.
Photomicrograph: Sheet of smoothmuscle (720x).
Smoothmusclecell
Nuclei
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Figure 4.10 Nervous tissue.
Nervous tissue
Description: Neurons arebranching cells; cell processesthat may be quite long extend fromthe nucleus-containing cell body;also contributing to nervous tissueare nonexcitable supporting cells.
Function: Neurons transmitelectrical signals from sensoryreceptors and to effectors (musclesand glands) which control theiractivity; supporting cells supportand protect neurons.
Location: Brain, spinalcord, and nerves.
Photomicrograph: Neurons (350x).
Neuronprocesses
Nuclei ofsupportingcells
Cell bodyof a neuron
Neuron processes Cell body
Axon Dendrites
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Figure 4.11 Classes of membranes.
Cutaneous membraneThe cutaneous membrane(the skin) covers the body surface.
Cutaneousmembrane (skin)
Mucous membranes
Mucous membranes line bodycavities that are open to theexterior.
Mucosa ofnasal cavity
Mucosa ofmouthEsophagusliningMucosa oflung bronchi
Visceralperitoneum
Parietalperitoneum
Parietalpericardium
Visceralpericardium
Visceralpleura
Parietalpleura
Serous membranes line bodycavities that are closed to theexterior.
Serous membranes
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Figure 4.11a Classes of membranes.
Cutaneous membraneThe cutaneous membrane(the skin) covers the body surface.
Cutaneousmembrane (skin)
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Figure 4.11b Classes of membranes.
Mucous membranes
Mucous membranes line bodycavities that are open to theexterior.
Mucosa ofnasal cavity
Mucosa ofmouthEsophagusliningMucosa oflung bronchi
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Figure 4.11c Classes of membranes.
Visceralperitoneum
Parietalperitoneum
Parietalpericardium
Visceralpericardium
Visceralpleura
Parietalpleura
Serous membranes line body cavities that are closed to the exterior.
Serous membranes
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Figure 4.12 Tissue repair of a nonextensive skin wound: regeneration and fibrosis.
ScabBlood clot in incised wound
Epidermis
Vein
Regenerating epithelium
Inflammatorychemicals
Migratingwhiteblood cell
Artery
Fibroblast
Macro-phage
Budding capillary
Regenerated epithelium
Fibrosed area
Regeneration and fibrosis effect permanent repair:• The fibrosed area matures and contracts; the epithelium thickens.• A fully regenerated epithelium with an underlying area of scar tissue results.
Organization restores the blood supply:• The clot is replaced by granulation tissue, which restores the vascular supply.• Fibroblasts produce collagen fibers that bridge the gap.• Macrophages phagocytize dead and dying cells and other debris.• Surface epithelial cells multiply and migrate over the granulation tissue.
2Inflammation sets the stage:• Severed blood vessels bleed. • Inflammatory chemicals are released.• Local blood vessels become more permeable, allowing white blood cells, fluid, clotting proteins, and other plasma proteins to seep into the injured area.• Clotting occurs; surface dries and forms a scab.
31
Area of granulation tissue in growth
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Figure 4.12 Tissue repair of a nonextensive skin wound: regeneration and fibrosis. (1 of 3)
Scab
Blood clot inincised wound
Epidermis
Vein
Inflammatorychemicals
Migrating whiteblood cell
ArteryInflammation sets the stage:• Severed blood vessels bleed. • Inflammatory chemicals are released.• Local blood vessels become more permeable, allowing white blood cells, fluid, clotting proteins, and other plasma proteins to seep into the injured area.• Clotting occurs; surface dries and forms a scab.
1
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Figure 4.12 Tissue repair of a nonextensive skin wound: regeneration and fibrosis. (2 of 3)
Regenerating epithelium
Area of granulationtissue ingrowth
Macrophage
Budding capillary
Fibroblast
Organization restores the blood supply:• The clot is replaced by granulation tissue, which restores the vascular supply.• Fibroblasts produce collagen fibers that bridge the gap.• Macrophages phagocytize dead and dying cells and other debris.• Surface epithelial cells multiply and migrate over the granulation tissue.
2
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Figure 4.12 Tissue repair of a nonextensive skin wound: regeneration and fibrosis. (3 of 3)
Regeneratedepithelium
Fibrosed area
Regeneration and fibrosis effect permanent repair:• The fibrosed area matures and contracts; the epithelium thickens.• A fully regenerated epithelium with an underlying area of scar tissue results.
3
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Figure 4.13 Embryonic germ layers and the primary tissue types they produce.
16-day-old embryo(dorsal surface view)
Epithelium(from all threegerm layers)Ectoderm
MesodermEndoderm
Inner lining ofdigestive system(from endoderm)
Nervous tissue(from ectoderm)
Muscle and connec-tive tissue (mostlyfrom mesoderm)