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© 2013 Cengage Learning
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OutlineOutline
Sex and Gender Gender Differences Across Cultures
Hofstede’s Study Cognitive Differences Conformity and Obedience Aggressiveness
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Outline (cont’d.)Outline (cont’d.)
Gender Differences Across Cultures (cont’d.) Personality Sex and Sexuality Mate Selection, Mate Poaching, and Jealousy Division of Labor Summary
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Outline (cont’d.)Outline (cont’d.)
Culture, Gender Roles, and Stereotypes Culture and Gender Stereotypes Culture, Gender Role Ideology, and Self-Concept Ethnicity and Gender Roles
Changing Cultures, Changing Gender Roles Conclusion
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SEX AND GENDERSEX AND GENDER
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Sex and GenderSex and Gender
Sex: physical characteristics and differences between men and women
Sex roles: behaviors men and women engage in directly related to biological differences and process of reproduction
Gender: behaviors that culture deems appropriate for men and women
Gender roles: degree to which person adopts gender-specific behaviors ascribed by his/her culture
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Sex and Gender (cont’d.)Sex and Gender (cont’d.)
Gender identity: degree to which person has awareness or recognition that he or she adopts a particular gender role
Gender stereotypes: psychological or behavioral characteristics typically associated with men and women
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GENDER DIFFERENCES GENDER DIFFERENCES ACROSS CULTURESACROSS CULTURES
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Gender Differences Across CulturesGender Differences Across Cultures
Studies in US demonstrate how men and women are different, or not, on variety of psychological and behavioral outcomes
Do same differences occur in other cultures? To what degree do differences occur?
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Hofstede’s StudyHofstede’s Study
“Masculinity v. Femininity” Degree to which a culture will foster, encourage, or
maintain differences between males and females
High on masculinity: Moralistic attitudes about sex; double standards Encourages passive role of women
Low on masculinity: Matter-of-fact attitudes about sex; single standard Encourages active role of women
See Table 6.1 in text
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Cognitive DifferencesCognitive Differences
Common folklore that males are better at mathematical and spatial reasoning tasks, and females better at verbal comprehension tasks
Male superiority on tasks found in tight sedentary, agriculturally based cultures
Female superiority found in cultures that are loose, nomadic, and based on hunting and gathering
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Conformity and ObedienceConformity and Obedience
One common stereotype is that females are more conforming and obedient than males
In actuality, degree to which difference in conformation occurs varies among cultures
Tight cultures foster greater gender difference on conformity, with females more conformist than males
Loose cultures foster less gender difference on conformity, sometimes with males more conforming than females
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AggressivenessAggressiveness
Common gender stereotype is that males are more aggressive than females
Support for this stereotype in all cultures exists Males account for disproportionate amount of
violent crime in industrialized and nonindustrialized societies
Hormones may contribute, to some degree, to aggressiveness
Culture and environment can act to encourage or discourage emergence of aggressiveness
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PersonalityPersonality
Five Factor Model of Personality Women universally reported higher scores on
Neuroticism, Agreeableness, Warmth, and Openness to Feelings
Men scored higher on Assertiveness and Openness to Ideas
Differences between men and women were largest in Europe and U.S.
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Sex and SexualitySex and Sexuality
Major cultural differences in degree of importance placed on values concerning chastity, especially for women
Many traditional, conservative cultures view chastity as virtue among non-married women
Other cultures more open and explicit about sex, approving of sexual partners before marriage
Cultural differences in attitudes toward sex also related to attitudes toward sexual orientation
Culture affects practice of circumcision and FGM
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Mate Selection, Mate Poaching, Mate Selection, Mate Poaching, and Jealousyand Jealousy
Cultural differences in mate poaching and jealousy explained by evolutionary model: Males look for younger, chaste mates to bear
offspring; females look for mates that can provide resources for offspring
Males more jealous about sexual infidelity; females more jealous of emotional infidelity: Women sleeping with others threaten man’s ability to
create offspring; men falling in love with other women threatens woman’s family
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Division of LaborDivision of Labor
Biological differences between men and women lead to division of labor in evolutionary history
Men generally physically bigger and stronger Provide shelter, food, protection
Women carry children, give birth, and breastfeed Care for infants and newborns
Biggest cultural differences between men and women is division of labor in house However, women take brunt of housework in all
societies
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Division of Labor (cont’d.)Division of Labor (cont’d.)
See Figure 6.2 in text: family roles of mothers See Table 6.1 in text: average percentage of
male participation in activities in societies
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SummarySummary
How does culture influence gender? Process of learning gender roles begins very
early in life American culture: boys and girls given different
types of toys and dressed according to gender Gender is construct that develops in children as
they are socialized in their environments Different cultures must deal with different
external factors; thus, gender differences vary by culture
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CULTURE, GENDER CULTURE, GENDER ROLES, AND ROLES, AND
STEREOTYPESSTEREOTYPES
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Culture and Gender StereotypesCulture and Gender Stereotypes
Many gender-related stereotypes universally held across cultures
Williams and Best (1982): High degree of pancultural agreement across all
countries studied in characteristics associated with men and women
Characteristics associated with men were stronger and more active than those associated with women across all countries
Cultural differences exist for favorability
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Culture and Gender Role IdeologyCulture and Gender Role Ideology
Gender role ideology: judgments about what males and females ought to be like or do
Williams and Best (1990): Traditional scores Egalitarian scores Masculinity/femininity
Gibbons (studies in younger populations): Being “kind and honest” is universal for boys and girls Adolescents from wealthy/individualistic countries
were less traditional than those from poorer countries
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Ethnicity and Gender RolesEthnicity and Gender Roles
Androgyny: gender identity involving endorsement of male and female characteristics
Gender identities of African Americans are more androgynous than those of European Americans
Adolescent girls with androgynous identity have higher levels of self-acceptance than either feminine or masculine girls
For boys, masculine, not androgynous, identity is associated with highest level of self-acceptance
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CHANGING CULTURES, CHANGING CULTURES, CHANGING GENDER CHANGING GENDER
ROLESROLES
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Changing Cultures, Changing Changing Cultures, Changing Gender RolesGender Roles
United Nations: commitment to equal rights and opportunities for men and women
Obstacle to this is violence against women Despite desires for equality, inequality still
persists strongly around world People of different ethnic backgrounds in U.S.
have different gender role expectations Much of cultural changes due to economics give
rise to tensions between tradition and progress, conservatism, and liberalism
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CONCLUSIONCONCLUSION
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ConclusionConclusion
Gender and its permutations—roles, identities, stereotypes—share important link with culture
Gender roles are different for males and females in all cultures
Some stereotypic notions about gender differences are universal across cultures
Studying gender differences in U.S. is challenging because of cultural and ethnic diversity
All cultures help to define roles, duties, and responsibilities appropriate for males or females