© 2010 Pearson Education Canada

10Forests and Land Management

PowerPoint® Slides prepared by Thomas Pliske, Heidi Marcum, and Nicole Lantz

This week's lecture (mostly in the second class period) will help you understand:

• Resource management• Ecological roles and economic contributions of forests• History and scale of forest loss• Forest management and harvesting methods• Impacts of agricultural land use• Major federal land management agencies• Park and reserves

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Housekeeping ItemsHousekeeping Items• I am working away on the quizzes and will have them

finished by Wednesday.• The instructions for all the assignments are on the web

site, and there is additional guidance and resources on the library's web page at (see the pull-down tab for this course on the right-hand side): http://libguides.viu.ca/content.php?pid=47063

• If you need a teacher/ school for a school presentation, let me know as soon as possible, and I also need the outlines for campus projects today.

• Did anyone go see the film about Wangari Maathai last Thursday – Taking Root?

• 1993: The largest act of civil disobedience in Canadian history

• 12,000 protesters blocked loggers from cutting ancient trees in Clayoquot Sound on Vancouver Island, British Columbia

• Old-growth forests = complex primary forests in which the trees are at least 150 years old

• Jobs depended on the timber industry• Iisaak, meaning “respect,” became a guiding principle for

forestry in the area• Variable retention harvesting = logging selectively to

retain a certain percentage and characteristics of the forest ecosystem (e.g. Wildwood near Cedar)

Battling over the last big trees at Clayoquot Sound

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Blockading the Logging Road...Blockading the Logging Road...

Forest Ecosystems and their status worldwide

• Forests cover over 30% of Earth’s land surface - Provide habitat, maintain soil, air, and water quality, and play key

roles [LIKE WHAT?] in biogeochemical cycles

10-6FIGURE 10.1

There are three major groups of forest biomes (anyone know what a ‘biome’ is?)

• Boreal forest- High-latitude forest- Cold, dry climates with short growing seasons

• Temperate forest- Mid-latitude forest- Seasonal climate (winter season vs. summer growing season)

• Tropical forest- Equatorial-latitude forest- Wet, tropical climate

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Mature forests are complex ecosystems

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FIGURE 10.2

Open-canopy wooded lands and grasslands are drier terrestrial ecosystems

• Drylands:- Shrublands = wooded

areas covered by shrubs and occasional taller trees (e.g. tundra)

- Savannah = open area dominated by grasses with widely scattered trees

- Grasslands = lands dominated by grasses and non-woody vegetation

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Canada is a steward for much of the world’s forest

• 402 million hectares of forested and other wooded land is 25% of the world’s natural forest

• Forests of the north:- Boreal forest (taiga) is the largest forested region of

Canada- Every province except Nova Scotia and Prince Edward

Island• Forests of the west:

- Forest regions: Subalpine, montane, coast, Columbia• Forests of the east:

- Forest regions: Deciduous, Great-Lakes-St.Lawrence, Acadian

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Forests are ecologically valuable and a crucial link in nutrient and water cycles• One of the richest ecosystems for biodiversity

- Structural complexity houses great biodiversity• A forest provides many ecosystem services

- Stabilizes soil and prevents erosion- Slows runoff, lessens flooding, purifies water- Stores carbon, releases oxygen, moderates climate

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Trees perform many ecological services

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FIGURE 10.5

Forest products are economically valued• Benefits: fuel, shelter,

transportation (ships), paper • Helped society achieve a high

standard of living• Softwood = timber harvested

from coniferous trees• Hardwood = timber harvested

from deciduous trees• NTFPs = non-timber forest

products such as medicinal, herbal, decorative and edible products

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FIGURE 10.6

Land conversion• Deforestation = the clearing and loss of forests

- People have cleared forests for millennia- Clearing of land for farming one of the first significant human

environmental impacts- Alters landscapes and ecosystems

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The growth of Canada and the U.S. was fueled by land clearing and logging

• Deforestation propelled growth throughout North America

• Land cleared for farming• Then wood used to fuel

furnaces of industry• Principal cause of

deforestation in Canada was agriculture

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FIGURE 10.7

Agriculture is the major cause ofconversion of forests and grasslands globally

• Agriculture covers more of the planet’s surface than forest• Principal driver of land conversion today• Swidden agriculture = small area of forest cleared and

crops planted- Sustains only one or two seasons of planting- Soil depleted quickly- 7 years required to replenish soil in original clearings to

support crops or forests

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Livestock graze one-fourthof Earth’s land surface

• Most cattle today raised in feedlots, but they have traditionally been raised by grazing on open rangelands

• Grazing can be sustainable if done carefully and at low intensity

• Poorly managed grazing impacts on grassland ecosystems

• Ranchers and environmentalists have joined to preserve ranch land against development and urban sprawl

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Deforestation is proceeding rapidly in many developing nations

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FIGURE 10.10

Logging here or there

Imagine you are an environmental activist protesting a logging operation that is cutting old-growth trees near your hometown. If the protest is successful, the company will move to a developing country and cut its primary forest instead. • Would you still protest the logging in your hometown?• Would you pursue any other approaches? • In what ways do managed forests differ from their wild relatives?

weighing

the issues

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Forest Management Principles• Forestry (silviculture)

= a professional field of managing forests by balancing forests as ecosystems and as sources of wood products

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Public forests in Canada are managed for many purposes

• Canadian Forest Service preserves timber on Dominion lands

• Crown land (which is provincial) used for timber and non-timber forest products

• Vancouver Island is one of the few places in BC with extensive private forest holdings (94% of the land base in BC is publicly owned)

• Multiple use = policy where forests were to be managed for recreation, wildlife habitat, mineral extraction, and various other uses (didn’t always work in practice)

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2003-2008: National Forest Strategy• Ecosystem-based management• Better environmental, social, and economic sustainability of

forest communities through legislation and policies• Recognizing rights of Aboriginal peoples• Diversification of markets for forest products• Better skills and knowledge of forest practitioners• Engaging Canadians in sustainability through urban forests• Support private woodlots for forest sustainability• National forest reporting system• [Unfortunately, the feds don't control most of the land base.]

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Ecosystem-based management• Ecosystem-based management =

managing the harvesting of resources to minimize impact on the ecosystems and ecological processes (not just seeing forests as “tree farms”)

- Carefully managing ecologically important areas

- Protecting some forested areas• It is challenging for managers to

determine how to implement this type of management, but it has been done

- Ecosystems are complex, and our understanding of how they operate is limited

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Photo by Peter Donovan

Adaptive management evolves and improves

• Adaptive management = systematically testing different management approaches and aiming to improve methods

- Monitoring results and adjusting methods as needed - A fusion of science and management- Time-consuming and complicated

• A guiding principle for forest management in Canada- West Arm Demonstration Forest Experiments- Donna Creek Biodiversity Project- Grizzly Bear Habitat Project

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Plantation forestry has grown in North America

• Reforestation = planting of trees after logging• Afforestation = planting of trees where forested cover has not

existed for some time• Even-aged trees =

all trees are the same age

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FIGURE 10.12

Maximum sustainable yield

• Maximum sustainable yield = aims to achieve the maximum amount of resource extraction

- Without depleting the resource from one harvest to the next • Populations grow most rapidly at an intermediate size

- Population size is about half its carrying capacity- Managed populations are well below what they would

naturally be

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Timber is harvested by several methods

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FIGURE 10.14

Leaving even-aged stands

• Clear-cutting = all trees in an area are cut, leaving only stumps

- Most cost-efficient- Greatest impact on forest ecosystems- May mimic some natural forms of disturbance- Soil erosion

• Seed-tree cutting = a small number of seed-producing trees are left standing to reseed the area

• Shelterwood cutting = a small number of trees are left to provide shelter for the seedlings

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Leaving uneven-aged stands• Selection systems = only

select trees are cut- Single tree selection =

widely spaced trees are cut- Group tree selection = small

patches of trees are cut• All methods, especially

clearcutting, disturb habitat- Change forest structure and

composition- Increase erosion, siltation,

runoff, flooding, landslides

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Fire policy has stirred controversy

• For over 100 years, all forest fires were suppressed

- But many ecosystems depend on fires- Fire suppression allows woody accumulation, which

produces kindling for future fires• Housing development near forests and climate

change will increase fire risk

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Prescribed fires are misunderstood• Prescribed (controlled) burns = burning areas of

forests under carefully controlled conditions- Effective- May get out of control- Impeded by public misunderstanding and political

interference

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Salvage logging• Removal of dead trees following a natural disturbance• Seems logical, but is really destructive

- Snags (standing dead trees) provide nesting cavities for countless animals

- Removing timber from recently burned areas increases erosion and soil damage

- Promotes future fires- Increases commercial logging in national forests- Decreases oversight and public participation• Any examples of current salvage logging?

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Sustainable Forestry is Gaining Sustainable Forestry is Gaining GroundGround

• Sustainable forestry certification = only products produced sustainably can be certified- International Organization for Standardization (ISO),

Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) have different standards

- Consumers look for logos to buy sustainably produced timber

- Companies such as Home Depot sell sustainable wood- Encourages better logging practices

Why have we created parks and reserves?

• Monumentalism = preserving areas with enormous, beautiful or unusual features, such as Clayoquot Sound

• Offer recreational value to tourists, hikers, fishers, hunters and others

• Protected areas offer utilitarian benefits, such as clean drinking water and flood buffers

• Use sites that are otherwise economically not valuable and are therefore easy to protect

• Preservation of biodiversity

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National Parks Service - 1st in the World• Created in 1911 to administer parks and monuments

- 43 national parks in Canada- 16 million people visit national parks each year- Banff was the first national park in Canada

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Wildlife Refuges• Managed by the Canadian Wildlife Service• Wildlife and habitat management

- Wildlife havens- Some allow hunting, fishing, wildlife observation,

photography, environmental education

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Photo:Animal Planet

Not everyone supports land set-asides

• Restriction of activities in wilderness areas generated opposition

• The wise-use movement = a coalition of individuals and industries that oppose environmental protection

- Protecting private property, transferring federal lands to state or private hands, promoting motorized recreation on public lands

- Some farmers, ranchers, and groups representing timber, mineral and fossil fuel industries

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Nonfederal entities also protect land

• Each Canadian province has agencies that manage resources on provincial Crown lands

• Land trusts = local or regional organizations that purchase land to preserve it

- The Nature Conservancy is the world’s largest land trust- There has been a dramatic increase in land trusts since 1970s- Do you know of any local and regional land trusts and/or

other trusts operating on Vancouver Island?- What about the concept of a conservation covenant or

easement?

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Parks and reserves are increasing internationally• Many nations have established national parks

especially for ecotourism- Protected areas now cover 10% of the world’s land area- Paper parks = Areas protected on paper but not in reality

• World heritage sites = protected areas that fall under national sovereignty but are designated or managed by the United Nations (see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Heritage_Site)

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Transboundary and peace parks• Transboundary park = an area of protected land

overlapping national borders- For example, Waterton-Glacier National Park on the

Canadian-American border (see http://www.tripadvisor.com/Attraction_Review-g143026-d144767-Reviews-Waterton_Glacier_International_Peace_Park-Glacier_National_Park_Montana.html)

• Peace parks = transboundary reserves that help ease tensions by acting as buffers between nations

• Biosphere reserves = land with exceptional biodiversity

- Couple preservation with sustainable development- We have two on Vancouver Island and a third proposed

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Biosphere reserves couple preservation with sustainable development (several in Canada)

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FIGURE 10.19

The design of parks and reserves has consequences for biodiversity

• Fragmentation = when large contiguous expanses of habitat is chopped into small, disconnected ones

- Threatens species- Central issue in biodiversity

conservation

10-42FIGURE 10.21

The SLOSS dilemma• Which is better to protect

species?- A Single Large Or Several

Small reserves?- Depends on the species: tigers

vs. insects• Corridors = protected land

that allows animals to travel between islands of protected habitat

- Animals get more resources- Enables gene flow between

populations

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Conclusion

• Resources must be managed sustainably to avoid overexploitation and overharvesting

• There are federal, provincial and regional agencies to oversee and manage publicly held land and natural resources

• Resource management policies consider sustained yield, multiple use, timber production, recreation, wildlife habitat, and ecosystem integrity

• Public support resulted in parks, wilderness areas and other reserves

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QUESTION: ReviewWhich of the following is not part of the ecological value of forests?

a) Erosion preventionb) Decreased floodingc) Carbon storaged) Climate moderatione) All of the above are values of forests

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QUESTION: ReviewWhich of the following statement regarding forest management is false?

a) Deforestation in Canada has occurred for centuriesb) Timber companies move on after an area is deforestedc) Tropical countries have lost the majority of forests so

timber companies won’t be going thered) Governments in developing countries help logging

companies at the expense of native people

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QUESTION: ReviewWhich agency preserves timber on Dominion lands?

a) Canadian Wildlife Serviceb) Canadian Forest Servicec) Bureau of Land Managementd) Ministry of Forests and Range

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QUESTION: ReviewTree harvesting by clear-cutting….

a) Cuts all trees in an area, leaving only stumpsb) Cuts most trees, but leaves some to produce seedsc) Cuts most trees, but leaves some to shelter seedlingsd) Produces uneven-aged tree stands

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QUESTION: ReviewThe National Forest Strategies for 2003-2008 included all of the following, except:

a) Ecosystem-based managementb) Diversification of markets for forest productsc) Increased harvesting under times of economic stressd) Recognizing legal rights of Aboriginal peoples

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QUESTION: Review“Monumentalism” refers to:

a) Protecting very large treesb) Protecting areas with large buildingsc) Growing the largest crops possibled) Preserving lands with enormous or beautiful features

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QUESTION: Review

How does habitat fragmentation threaten species?

a) Large lands are chopped into small piecesb) Small lands are not protectedc) Species are able to find each other more easilyd) It does not threaten species

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QUESTION: Interpreting Graphs and Data

What is the largest cause of deforestation in Canada today?

a) Developmentb) Agriculturec) Hydroelectricityd) Forest roads

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