Web viewOther. Operant Conditioning . Theory (5 AO1) Draw the diagram below. Include the following...

AS Psychology Paper One

Paper One - Social psychology

Assessment – 90 minutes

Section A – 29 marks (Social psychology)

Section B – 29 marks (Cognitive psychology)

Section C – 12 marks (Extended response)

70 marks in total

50% of AS Psychology

First assessment: May/June 2016

Know Your Assessment Objectives

CONTENT + ASSESSMENT = GRADE

Identify, outline, describe…

Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of scientific ideas, processes, theories and studies.

35 – 40%

Explain in a theoretical and/or practical context, using both

quantitative and qualitative data

Apply knowledge and understanding of scientific ideas, processes,

theories and studies.

30 – 35%

Description and evaluation of methodology, studies and theories

Evaluate, analyse and interpret scientific ideas to make judgements

and reach conclusions whilst developing practical design and

procedures

30 – 35%

Social Approach

The Key Question

How can the social approach to psychology help explain the atrocities of Abu Ghraib in 2004?

Use theories of obedience and prejudice to explain the behaviour shown by guards and prisoners after the events of 9/11

Always relate any theories or psychological concepts to the above contemporary issue.

Use the work of Milgram, Tajfel, Sherif, Latane and Zimbardo amongst others

Social Psychology

Theories of Obedience

Definition of Obedience

The Agency Theory (Milgram 1965)

Describe (4xA01)

● Blind obedience● Moral strain● Perception of authority figure● Actions are the responsibility of another● Agentic v autonomous obedience

The Social Impact Theory (Latane 1981)

Describe (4xAO1)

● SxIxN● Strength of Impact● Immediacy of Impact● Number of Sources

Explain genocide using the agency theory of obedience

Extend your explanation to include the Social Impact Theory

Research into Obedience

Milgram (1963) (The Original Experiment)

TAMSFC

Title:

Hypothesis:

Method:

Design:

Sampling Method Used:

Step by Step Procedure:

Findings:

Conclusion:

Additional Notes

Research into Obedience

To what extent do situational factors encourage dissent?

1. Change of I.V - Run down office block (expt. 10) Procedure

Findings

Conclusion in relation to Social Impact Theory

2. Change of I.V - Telephonic instructions (expt. 7) Procedure

Findings

3. Change of I.V – Ordinary Man as Experimenter (Expt. 13) Procedure

Findings

EVALUATION OF MILGRAM’S RESEARCH - GRAVE

Generalisability

Reliability

Applicability

Validity

Ethics

Individual Differences

Student research task

How do levels of obedience/resistance differ when one regards personality, gender, culture and situation?

To what extent is obedience deterministic?

Consider Meeus and Raajmaker’s (1986) study of Administrative Obedience amongst other contemporary research

Personality

Gender

Situation

Culture

Determinism or Free Will

Theories of Prejudice

Definition of prejudice

Definition of discrimination

The Social Identity Theory of Prejudice

Tajfel and Turner 1979

Social Identity (includes in-group and out-group membership)

Stereotyping

Social Categorisation

Social Comparison

In-group favouritism and negative out-group bias

The negative homogeneity effect

Minimal Groups Study (Social Identity Theory)

Tajfel (1979)

Title:

Hypothesis:

Method:

Design:

Findings:

Conclusion:

Additional Notes

Generalisability

Reliability

Applicability

Validity

Ethics

(apply the BPS guidelines)

The Realistic Conflict Theory

Sherif 1966

Key Point Elaboration/Explanation

Additional Notes

Classic Social Study

Title: The Robbers Cave Study-Sherif (1954/1961)

Hypothesis:

Method:

Design:

Findings:

Conclusion:

Experiment 2 – 1961 Notes of Difference – Research

Evaluation of Sherif’s Study - GRAVE

Generalisability

Reliability

Applicability

Validity

Ethics

Contemporary Social Study

Title: Replicating Milgram: Would people still obey today? Burger (2009)

Hypothesis:

Method:

Design:

Findings:

Conclusion:

Additional Notes

Evaluation of Burger’s study - GRAVE

Generalisability

Reliability

Applicability

Validity

Ethics

The Key Social Question

What caused the behaviour of prisoners and guards in Abu Ghraib 2004?

Ensure clarity through the use of paragraphs

Describe the issue (4 AO1s) using 4-6 clearly differing points of fact

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Explain both sides of the argument (8 AO2s)

Explain how the agentic state may have caused the behaviour of the guards followed by evidence which suggests that the guards were in an autonomous state. Also explain the possible behaviour of the prisoners.

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AS Psychology

Paper One - Cognitive psychology

Section A – 29 marks (Social psychology)

Section B – 29 marks (Cognitive psychology)

70 marks in total

35 – 40%

30 – 35%

Description and evaluation of methodology, studies and theories

procedures

30 – 35%

Cognitive Approach

The Key Question

Is eyewitness testimony reliable?

Use theories and studies which cast doubt on the accuracy of eye-witness testimony. Use the Devlin committee report (1976) as a starting point

Use the work of

Bartlett, Loftus, Atkinson/Shiffrin, Allport/Postman amongst others to view both sides of this argument

Theories of memory

Multi Store Model of Memory - Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968)

Diagram

General description

● 3 stores ● Maintenance rehearsal to keep the thought in STM

● Elaborative rehearsal to store a thought as an engram. This transfers from the STM to the LTM (structural change to brain)

● Retrieval from LTM to STM if the engram is being ‘worked with’ and is required

Features of each store – Task, Capacity, Duration

Short Term Sensory Store

(STSS)

● Acts as a buffer system for the vast incoming stimuli (Task)

Short Term Memory

● Capacity of 5-9 items (Capacity)

Long Term

Memory

● Duration of memory lasts for many years (Duration)

Evaluate the multi store model of memory

SAMSupporting Evidence

Miller 1956

Alternative Viewpoints

Levels of Processing

Methodology Issues

Could the data be flawed in anyway

An Explanation of Long Term Memory

Tulving 1972

What is episodic memory?

Use key words when explaining recalled memories via eye witness testimony

What is semantic memory?

Use key words when explaining memories recalled as eye witness testimony

Is autobiographical memory by nature individual?

Evaluate (3AO3s)

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Reconstructive Memory - Bartlett (1932)

Describe the Reconstructive Memory Theory (5 AO1s) _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Explain how reconstructive memory could lead to differing recall of the same event

(5 AO2s Use the War of Ghosts study to enhance your response) ___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

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Case studies of brain damaged patients - Methodology

Henry Molaison (HM)

How does this case study support/criticise memory theory? (AO1+2)

Clive Wearing

How does this case study support/criticise memory theory (AO1+2)

Explain how qualitative data is used to investigate memory

The Working Model of Memory

Baddeley and Hitch 1974

Diagram to aid revision

Key Terms Required – AO1

Explain the Working Model of Memory (5xAO2s) through an everyday example

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Evaluate the working model of memory

SAMSupporting Evidence

Alternative Viewpoints

Methodology Issues

Classic Cognitive Study

Title: The influence of acoustic and semantic similarity on the long term memory of word sequences Baddeley (1966)

Hypothesis:

Method:

Design:

Findings:

Conclusion:

Additional Notes

Evaluation of Baddeley’s study

Generalisability

Reliability

Applicability

Validity

Ethics

Describe and evaluate one developmental study - Research

● Sebastian and Hernandez-Gil (2012) Developmental pattern of digit span in Spanish population

TAMSFC to describe the study (AO1)

GRAVE to evaluate the study (AO3)

Write a report below (12 marks) 6 x AO1, 6 x AO3

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The Cognitive Key Question

Is eyewitness testimony reliable? What implications does this debate have for society in general?

Using individual research and theoretical facts, evaluate the reliability of eyewitness testimony and the effect it has had on society.

Describe the issue (5 AO1s)

Explain the lack of reliability in eye witness testimony through historic research

AO2 Outline of research findings linked to answer

Research 1 – 2xAO2

Research 2

Research 3

Research 4

Research 5

Research 6

To What Extent is Eyewitness Testimony Reliable?

Link this conclusion to the effect on criminal investigations

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AS PsychologyPaper Two

Biological psychology

Section A – 29 marks (Biological psychology)

Section B – 29 marks (Learning psychology)

70 marks in total

35 – 40%

30 – 35%

Evaluation and analysis of studies, theories and methodology

procedures

30 – 35%

Biological Approach

The Key Question

How effective is drug therapy for treating addictions?

For example, the use of methadone to treat heroin addiction

Base your response on classical and contemporary research. Compare therapies from other approaches to understanding this contemporary issue.

Describe the role of the central nervous system and neurotransmitters in human behaviour

(4 AO1s)

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Draw a neuron and explain action potential, neurotransmitters, receptors and synaptic transmission. Show how messages are sent via the PNS

Identify two differing types of recreational drug

Describe the effect on the transmission process in the CNS (2x3 AO1) - Research

Drug One________________________________________

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Drug Two________________________________________

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Describe the structure of the brain

Use simple diagrams as aids

Explain aggressive behaviour through brain functioning

Explain aggression through the role of hormones

Explain aggression through the role of evolution and natural selection

The Freudian explanation of aggression

An alternative viewpoint

The Superego

The Ego

The Id

Balance and Conflict Resolution

Freud’s interpretation of aggression

Describe and evaluate one twin study

Gottesman and Shields (1966)

TAMSFC

Describe and Evaluate One Adoption Study

Ludeke et al (2013)

TAMSFC (AO1)

Ludeke et al 2013

Classic Biological Study

The Murderer’s Brain

Title: Brain abnormalities in murderers indicated by positron emission tomography (PET) (1997)

Hypothesis:

Method:

Design:

Findings:

Conclusion:

Additional Notes

Evaluation of Raine’s study - GRAVE

Generalisability

Reliability

Applicability

Validity

Ethics

Contemporary Biology Study

Heroin Addiction

Title: Abnormal function of the posterior cingulate cortex in heroin addicted users during resting-state and drug-cue stimulation task Li et al (2013)

Hypothesis:

Method:

Design:

Findings:

Conclusion:

Evaluation of Li et al (2013)

Generalisability

Reliability

Applicability

Validity

Ethics

The Key Biological Question

How effective is drug therapy for treating addiction?

For example, the use of methadone to treat heroin addiction

Compare the effectiveness and ethics of other approaches to curing addiction

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AS Psychology Paper Two

Learning Psychology

Section A – 29 marks (Biological psychology)

Section B – 29 marks (Learning psychology)

70 marks in total

35 – 40%

30 – 35%

Description and evaluation of methodology

procedures

30 – 35%

Learning Approach

The Key Question

Is the influence of role models and celebrities something that causes anorexia?

Base your response on classical and contemporary research. Offer the behaviourist perspective and use counter arguments from other approaches to fully develop this

contemporary issue.

Consider how all types of learning theory help to understand the possible cause of anorexia.

Classical Conditioning (5 AO1)

Draw the diagram

Include the following terms

UCS (Naturally occurring)

CS (Externally determined)

NS (No association)

UCR (Naturally occurring)

CR (Externally determined)

Saliva

Using the above example, explain what is meant by the following terms

Extinction

Spontaneous Recovery

Stimulus Generalisation

Briefly outline the 1909 Pavlov dog study

Describe and evaluate the use of animals in laboratory experiments (AO1 followed by AO3)

Concentrate solely on the Ethics Scientific Procedures Act (1986)

Operant Conditioning Theory (5 AO1)

Draw the diagram below

Include the following terms

Stimulus

Response

Strengthen

Weaken

Positive Reinforcement

Negative Reinforcement

Primary and Secondary Re-inforcers = examples

Punishment

Success

Failure

Alternative Response (try again)

Give Up

Properties of Reinforcement (AO1)

Primary and Secondary Reinforcement (AO1)

Schedules of Reinforcement (AO1)

Social Learning Theory (5 AO1)

Draw two diagrams below

a. Describe AO1b. Explain through parent/child learning

Use the following terms

Attention

Observation

Imitation

Shaping and Behaviour Modification

Vicarious Reinforcement

Individual Differences

Offer examples in order to apply the following information (AO2)

What affects attention?

What affects retention?

What affects reproduction of behaviour?

What affects motivation in terms of reinforcement?

The Imitation of Aggression

Bandura, Ross and Ross (1961 and 1963)

Using TAMSFC, describe the original experiments carried out by Bandura et al.

There are several findings which need to be offered

Describe the findings

Bandura (1965)

The Bobo doll experiment with vicarious reinforcement

What do the Bobo doll studies tell us about aggression and the social learning theory?

Evaluate (AO3) the work of Bandura

Generalisability

Reliability

Applicability

Validity

Ethics

Describe how learning theories explain the acquisition and maintenance of phobias

What is a phobia?

Give examples of phobias?

Explain how phobias arise and continue through

● Classical conditioning● Operant conditioning● Social learning theory

Treatments for Phobias

Explain Systematic Desensitisation (6AO2)

Explain Aversion Therapy OR Token Economy Therapy

(6 AO2)

How can different environmental influences and experiences affect a person’s learning/behaviour?

Conditioning - Rewards and Punishments on gender, culture and age

Social Learning Theory - Models observed on gender, culture,and age

Developmental Psychology

Development of behaviour occurs through patterns of rewards and punishments

Explain the above for a child of 3 years preparing for school at the age of 5 years

Extend by showing that development is through the observations of significant others

Classic Learning Study

Little Albert (1920) Conditioned Emotional Reactions

Watson and Rayner

You should now be able to fully describe any study using the

TAMSFC Framework

Offer a one/two tailed, and null hypothesis to show full understanding here

Classic Learning Study

Little Albert

You should be able to evaluate any study using the GRAVE Framework

Describe and evaluate one of the contemporary studies below

● Becker et al. (2002) Eating behaviours and attitudes following prolonged exposure to television among ethnic Fijian adolescent girls

● Bastian et al. (2011) Cyber-dehumanization: Violent video game play diminishes our humanity

● Capafons et al. (1998) Systematic desensitisation in the treatment of the fear of flying

The Learning Key Debate

Is the influence of role models and celebrities something that causes anorexia?

Consider how other approaches view anorexia and compare explanations.

4 AO1 – Describe the issue in detail

8 AO3 – Evaluate through alternative approaches

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Methodology (AO3)

The Social Approach

You are gathering data via questionnaire survey.

Your independent variable is age (IV) which is the difference or the cause)

Your dependent variable is level of prejudice (DV) which is the measured outcome or the effect)

Self-Report Questionnaires

Explain self-reporting data

Give examples (explain) researcher effects with self-reporting data

Types of Questions

Consider the IV and the DV

Give examples of questions you could ask to gather this information from 100 people in BSB.

Structured examples

Semi structured examples

Unstructured examples

Sampling

You require a sample of 100 students for your study into prejudice and age. Explain how you would obtain these participants using the following sampling methods.

Opportunity Sampling

Whoever is available at the time

Random Sampling

Whoever is available at the time but with less researcher choice than opportunity

Stratified Sampling

A sample of participants which is a true reflection of the population it is taken from. Consider participant variables such as age, gender or nationality

Volunteer Sampling

A willing, knowing and motivated sample who offer their assistance possibly for financial gain

Evaluate each type of sampling

Opportunity Sampling

Whoever is available at the time

Random Sampling

Whoever is available at the time but with less researcher choice than opportunity

Stratified Sampling

A sample of participants which is a true reflection of the population it is taken from. Consider participant variables such as age, gender and nationality

Volunteer Sampling

A willing, knowing and motivated sample who offer their assistance possibly for financial gain

Analysis of Quantitative Data

Measures of Central Tendency

Participant Level of Prejudice

Show the working out!

Calculate the means

Calculate the medians

Calculate the modes

Draw a frequency table for the above raw results table

Draw a bar chart

● Label the x and y axis using the IV and DV● Give it a title

● Make it accurate using a thin line

Measures of dispersion

Calculate the range

Evaluate similar ranges in terms of reliability when using repeated measures design

Calculate the standard deviation

What does the standard deviation tell us?

Analysis of qualitative data

Qualitative data comes from open questions or un/semi structured interviews. It is a way of taking rich, in depth data and attempting to give it some sort of measurement to allow reliable analysis.

e.g How prejudiced is this individual from the transcript/question response?

Thematic analysis is the most common form of analysis in qualitative research . It emphasizes pinpointing, examining, and recording patterns (or "themes") within data.

Themes are patterns across data sets that are important to the description of a phenomenon and are associated to a specific research question. The themes become the categories for analysis.

Thematic analysis is performed through the process of coding in six phases to create established, meaningful patterns.

These phases are:

● familiarization with data, ● generating initial codes, ● searching for themes among codes, ● reviewing themes, ● defining and naming themes, ● and producing the final report●

Below is an article written by an American attorney. You have to decide to what extent it could be considered racist.

● http://www.amren.com/features/2014/05/confessions-of-a-public-defender/Research definitions of racism and generate 3 initial codes (key pointers of casual racism)

Read the article once to familiarise yourself and then as a pair colour code the argument.

Score the article as below

A – Racist (Red)

B – Undecided (Yellow)

C – Not racist (Green)

To what extent is the article racist?

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Ethical guidelines

In 2009, the British Psychological Society (BPS) issued a code of ethics and conduct

Describe and explain how you might inadvertently break these rules in research

http://www.bps.org.uk/system/files/documents/code_of_ethics_and_conduct.pdf

The above code of conduct revolves around the following areas

● Respect● Competence● Responsibility● Integrity

The table below offers a simplified version suitable for A Level Study

RESPECT

Describe (AO1)

What does this mean?

Evaluate (AO3)

Give an example of how you might break the code

Respect Individual Differences

Maintain Confidentiality

Ensure Informed Consent

Resist Psychological Harm

COMPETENCEY

Describe (AO1) Evaluate (AO3)

Seek Advice

Ensure Line Management is Effective

Resolve Any Ethical Issues Which Arise

RESPONSIBILITY

Description Evaluate

Ensure No Individual is Psychologically Harmed

Ensure Each Individual is Debriefed

Ensure Each Individual Is Allowed the Right to Withdraw

INTEGRITY

Description (AO1) Evaluate (AO3)

No Deception

Avoid transference and counter-transference

Challenge Misconduct

Methodology (AO3)

The Cognitive Approach

Experiments

Laboratory Field Natural

AO1 Description AO1 AO1

AO3 Evaluation AO3 AO3

When evaluating, consider strengths and weaknesses. Base these on two spectrums

Ecological Validity

(To what extent the findings are representative of real life scenarios)

Consider

● The mundane realism of the task(s) in the experiment. Are they normal day to day activities

● The artificiality of the settingLow ___________________________________________________ High

Reliability

To what extent is the experiment controlled

● How easy would it be to replicate it exactly 10 years later?)

High ____________________________________________________ Low

Extraneous Variables

Give examples of the following

Participant variables

Situational variables

Controls

A psychologist must attempt to ensure that any possible extraneous variables are controlled to avoid a confounding variable affecting the results.

Draw a diagram below to show this process and then explain how a confounding variable could affect the results of a memory test on colour identification of 5 year olds.

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Operationalisation of the independent and dependent variables

The op of the IV

The IV is the aspect of change between conditions or groups

For example

Condition – Using imagery to improve memory recall

Groups – Older peoples performance in memory recall

The operationalisation of the IV considers how you would introduce this change

For example

Imagery – Is operationalised by attaching a corresponding photo of the word to the list to be recalled

Age – Is operationalised by grouping all people 18 years and over as older, and 17 and below as younger

The operationalisation of the IV must be absolutely specific to the experiment at hand

Operationalise the following IVs when considering an experiment into memory recall of a list of 20 words

● The time of day____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

● Ethnicity

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

● Climate____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

The operationalisation (op) of the DV

After the IV has been introduced, (the cause), we then measure the effect. The way in which you measure the results is known as the op of the DV. It must

● Clearly state what you are measuring● How you will measure it

● And what scale of measurement you will be using eg number of correctly recalled words between 0 – 20

Operationalise the following dependent variables

1. Prejudice

2. Aggression

3. Independence

4. Obesity

Hypotheses

A hypothesis is a statement of what will or will not happen.

It is a prediction of what you believe or do not believe will occur to the DV when the IV is introduced.

Experimental or alternate hypothesis

If you are conducting a laboratory, field or natural experiment, then you state

‘The experimental hypothesis is …’

If you are conducting a non- experimental study such as an observation or survey, then you state

‘The alternate hypothesis is …’

Directional or non-directional hypothesis

A directional hypothesis states the IV will affect the DV in one definite way. This is known as a one tailed hypothesis

E.g. The one tailed experimental hypothesis is that a rainy day will lower the happiness rating of people

A non-directional hypothesis states the IV will affect the DV, but is unsure which. This is known as a two tailed hypothesis

E.g. The two tailed experimental hypothesis is that a rainy day will affect the happiness rating of people

The null hypothesis

A null hypothesis states that there will be no significant effect of the IV on the DV

E.g. The null hypothesis is that a rainy day will have no significant effect on the happiness rating of people

Effect of Results on the Hypothesis

Using either descriptive or inferential statistics, you accept or reject your one or two tailed hypothesis.

If you accept either the one/two tailed, you reject the null

If you reject either the one/two tailed, you must accept the null

Complete the table below

IV Sunny day

DV People’s mood

Op of IV

Op of DV

One tailed hypothesis

Two tailed hypothesis

Person, Object, Measurement

Write suitably detailed hypotheses for the following three words (Students own words)

The one tailed alternate hypothesis is that ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

The one tailed experimental hypothesis is that ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

The two tailed hypothesis is that ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

The null hypothesis is that ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Experimental and research design

Independent Groups

When the sample of participants is split into 2 or more groups

The control group (DV measured) and experimental group (IV introduced, DV measured)

E.g. Short participants throw and catch a ball against a wall. Tall participants do the same. The op of the DV is how many are caught. The op of the IV is in cms. Short is 170 cms and below, tall is 171 cms and above

Matched Pairs

This is the same as independent groups but where a possibly confounding participant variable is controlled.

E.g. The average IQ of group A matches the average IQ of group B when the sample is split and tested on learning a new language either online or with a teacher

Repeated Measures

When the sample group remains whole but carries out the control test followed by the experimental test (or vice versa)

E.g. The group learn French online followed by Italian with a teacher over 2 x 60 hour courses

Outline one possible experiment you could carry out using independent groups

Outline one where you feel matched pairs would be preferable

Outline one where repeated measures would need to be employed

Order Effects

Using repeated measures has one main weakness. Order effects

They occur when condition A influences the results in test B

Example One

Practice effect…where performance in test A improves or hinders performance in test B

Explain a detrimental effect using the recall of words in a list (control) and similar words with corresponding images (experimental)

Example Two

Fatigue effect … where performance in test B hinders performance in test A due to either physical or psychological tiredness. Explain using a physiological IV on a psychological DV

In order to control possible order effects which could confound results and damage the internal validity of results, the following techniques are used.

Counterbalancing

Split the sample in half

Group 1 carry out test A then B

Group 2 carry out test B then A

This balances any possible positive or negative effects on the D.V

Randomisation

This can operate should there be more than 2 conditions

A-B-C, C-A-B, B-C-A

This aids validity to a greater extent as all possible combinations lessen order effects.

A = words only B = images only C = words and images only

Situational and Participant Variables

These extraneous variables occur more often when there is less control over the experiment. They lower the internal reliability of any study.

Experiments

Laboratory Field Natural

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High Reliability less Reliability Low Reliability

Examples of Situational Variables Examples of Participant Variables

Reliability

The extent to which a study could be identically replicated

Validity

The extent to which the operationalisation of the variables (IV and DV) measure what they intended to measure.

Thought

Is it possible to have one without the other in terms of reliability and validity?

Answer this fully and correctly and you are a fully-fledged member of the clever party

Research the following

Researcher effects

What are they?

Give examples

Demand Characteristics

What are they?

Give examples

Draw a diagram to show how researchers attempt to protect the IV’s effect on the DV

Inferential Statistics

● Statistical analysis of raw results ● Testing to what extent the results may be down to chance● Offering a statement of probability and certainty regarding the hypothesis

Levels of significance

p < 99% or 0.01 states that there is a 1% chance that the results were down to chance and not the result of the IV on the DV (the cause on the effect)

p < 95% or 0.05 states that there is a 5% chance that the results were down to chance and not the result of the IV on the DV (the cause on the effect)

Statistical analysis must be stringent to at least 95% certainty to accept an experimental/alternate hypothesis. If it does not reach this level, the null hypothesis must be accepted.

For particularly sensitive research, such as anti-psychotic drugs, testing must be much more rigorous than p > 0.01

Which test should I use?

Follow the 3 D method. Consider the study at hand and answer the following questions

Difference or Correlation

Is this a test of cause and effect, or strength of association between variables?

Design

Is this independent groups/matched pairs or repeated measures?

Is the raw data nominal or ordinal?

Nominal data – Tally data, basic data

Ordinal/Interval data – The data can be rank ordered from the lowest to highest score

If it is a one tailed hypothesis, we test to p > 95% or p < 0.05If it is a two tailed hypothesis, we split the rejection of the hypothesis into two, as there are two possible outcomes. p here

would only be p > 90% or 0.10

Observed and Critical Values

The critical value is the point at which a hypothesis can be accepted or rejected. It is a purely statistical point and has nothing to do with the behavioural element of

many studies.

Hypothesis testing for reliability

1. Decide which test is appropriate for your study (3Ds)2. Gather your raw data and calculate the observed value. This can be done easily

online although the exam will ask for some aspect of the test to be completed manually.

3. Have your hypothesis at hand4. Remember how many participants (N) took part

5. Decide which level of significance you wish to test for6. Go to the correct statistical table, compare the observed and critical values, and

claim (or otherwise) significance of results7. If the results are significant, accept the directional hypothesis. If they are not, reject it

and accept the null hypothesisWhich Test?

Type I Error

A type I error occurs when one rejects the null hypothesis when it is true. The probability of a type I error is the level of significance of the test of hypothesis, and is denoted by *alpha* (a).

Type II Error

A type II error occurs when one rejects the alternative hypothesis (fails to reject the null hypothesis) when the alternative hypothesis is true. The probability of a type II error is

denoted by *beta* (b)

Evidence of Practical

During the psychology course, you will conduct the following research studies

● Social – A survey by questionnaire ● Cognitive – A laboratory experiment● Biological – A correlational study

● Learning – An observation Guidelines for study

Each study must be designed, carried out, analysed, and concluded by the acceptance or rejection of both the null and experimental hypothesis.

Write in the past tense where necessary

1. Title – Ask a question here2. Aim – Offer the IV and DV in this sentence3. Hypothesis – Offer the correctly operationalised IV and DV here. State the one tailed

and null hypothesis4. Method – Identify the type of research method you5. Design – Identify which design you used6. Sampling method – Identify the sampling method you used 7. Procedure – Offer a step by step set of guidelines such that your project could be

carried in exactly the same way ten years later. Include● Time of study● List of apparatus● Diagram (if appropriate)● How the sample was gathered● Who did what and how● How you ensured it was ethical (follow the BPS code)

8. Results section to show descriptive and inferential statistics9. What the results tell you about the significance of the study10.Relationship of results to hypothesis and concluded theory11.Evaluation of the study (GRAVE)12.How would you improve aspects of the study in terms of validity, reliability and ethics

Specific requirements for each study are outlined

This should be presented in a report style

Social Approach

The Questionnaire (from the syllabus)

In conducting the practical research exercise, studentsmust:

● design and conduct a questionnaire to gather bothqualitative and quantitative data to look for a difference

in the data

● consider questionnaire construction, sampling decisionsand ethical issues

● collect and present an analysis of quantitative data usingmeasures of central tendency, measures of dispersion,

(including range and standard deviation as appropriate),bar graph and frequency table

● collect and present an analysis of qualitative data usingthematic analysis

● consider strengths and weaknesses of the questionnaire

● write up the procedure, results and discussion section ofa report.

Suitable examples

● A questionnaire to see if males or females perceivethemselves to be more obedient.

● An investigation into in-group favouritism.

Cognitive Approach

The Laboratory Experiment (from the syllabus)

● design and conduct a laboratory experiment to gatherquantitative data and include descriptive statistics as

analysis and a non-parametric test of difference

● make design decisions when planning and conductingtheir experiment, including experimental design,

sampling decisions, operationalisation, control, ethicalconsiderations, hypothesis construction, experimenter

effects and demand characteristics

● collect, present and comment on data gathered,including using measures of central tendency (mean,

median, mode as appropriate); measures of dispersion(including range and standard deviation as appropriate);

bar graph, histogram, frequency graph as relevant;normal distribution if appropriate and draw conclusions

● use a Mann-Whitney U or Wilcoxon non-parametric testof difference to test significance (as appropriate),

including level of significance and critical/observedvalues

● consider strengths and weaknesses of the experiment,and possible improvements

● write up the procedure, results and discussion section ofa report.

Suitable examples● Dual task experiment to investigate components of

working memory.

● An experiment to look at the levels of processing model of memory

Biological Approach

The Correlational Study (From the syllabus)

● design and conduct a correlational study

● link their research to aggression or attitudes to drug use

● include inferential statistical testing (Spearman’s rho)and explain the significance of the result and the use oflevels of significance. Students must also be able to usedescriptive statistics (strength/direction) to explain the

relationship

● produce an abstract of the research method and adiscussion section which includes conclusions

● include research question/hypothesis, research method,sampling, ethical considerations, data-collection tools,

data analysis, results, discussion.

Suitable examples

● A correlation into age and attitudes to drug use.

● A correlation to see if there is a relationship betweenheight and a self-rating of aggressive tendencies.

The Learning Approach

The Observation

● ensure that observations relate to an aspect of learnedbehaviour, such as behaviour of different sexes, drivingcharacteristics, age-related behaviour, politeness and

helping behaviour

● ensure that observations enable the gathering of bothqualitative and quantitative data (including the use of note

taking, tallying and thematic analysis)

● analyse the findings to produce results, including using achi squared test

● evaluate the studies in terms of validity, reliability,generalisability and credibility

● write up the results of the quantitative data, includingappropriate graphs and tables

● write up the results of the qualitative analysis (thematicanalysis).

Suitable examples● How age and sex affect driving speed.

● Investigating the differences in helpful or polite behaviourin men and women.

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