AGRICULTURE AND ENVIRONMENTAL SERVICES DEPARTMENT

N O T E SISSUE 5JUNE 2013 Growing Aquaculture in Sustainable Ecosystems

BY RANDALL BRUMMETT

KEY MESSAGES• Aquacultureisamongthemostsustainableofanimal

proteinproductionsystems.

• Growthofaquacultureisneededtomeetemploymentandfoodsecuritytargetsindevelopingcountries.

• Investmentriskco-varieswithenvironmentalrisktoinfluencesustainability.

• Existingcertificationstandardsdonoteffectivelyaddressecosystemsustainability.

• Prioritiesoflocalcommunitiesshouldinformtargetsettingforemploymentandconservation.

• Locallyadaptedaquaculturezonemanagementcanreduceenvironmentalandinvestmentrisk.

Drivenbyincreasingpopulation,wealth,andthehealthbenefitsofseafood,demandforfinfishandshellfishexceedsestimatedtotalsustainablecatchofwildfishbynearly100percent(TEEB2010).Duetohighlocaldemandandtemperatures,aquacultureisandwillprobablyremainabusinessdominatedbydevelopingcountries,whereaquacultureemployedanestimated16millionpeopleinthevaluechain(0.3pers-yearspertonoffishdeliveredtomarket)in2010,halfofwhichwerewomen.Aquacultureisalreadyacredibleeconomicengineandseafood

productionsystem,havingcontributed40percent—some60millionmetrictons—tototalsupplyin2010(FAO2012).Nearlydoublinginthe13yearsfrom1995to2007,aquacultureneedstonearlydoubleagaininthenext15yearstoensuretheglobalseafoodsupply(OECD2010).However,tosecurethebenefitsofarobustaquaculturesectoroverthelongterm,theindustrymustrespectecologicallimitstogrowth.

Aquacultureinvolvesadiversearrayofproductionschemes,technologies,andspecies,andthusitisimpossibletoprovideasingleestimateforitsecologicalfootprint(Boydetal.2007;Lorenzen,Beveridge,andMangel2012)exceptatthecoarsestofscales(Halletal.2011).Mostoftheavailabledata,however,indicatethataquaculturecomparesfavorablytootheranimalfarmingintermsoffeedefficiency,eutrophyingnutrients,freshwaterconsumption,andlanduse(seeTable,below).

Nevertheless,increasingcompetitionforlandandwateraredrivingintensificationthatsometimespushthelimitsofecosystemstoabsorbimpactsandthusincreasetheriskofcatastrophicfailure.Itisinnoone’sinterestthataquaculturegrowsbeyondthecarryingcapacityofthelocalenvironment.Tooptimizethecost-benefitratioofinvestmentsinaquaculturedevelopment,oneneedstodeterminewhatkindofregulatoryframework,institutional

*Note: Consumptive use is difficult to compare across the wide spectrum of aquaculture production systems. In the vast majority of cases, water outfalls from aquaculture are much cleaner and more easily recycled than for land animals.

Source: Phillips, Beveridge, and Clarke 1991; FAO 2003; Hall et al. 2011; Bouman et al. 2013.

Food conversion (kg feed/kg

edible weight)

Protein efficiency

(%)

N emissions (kg/ton protein

produced)

P Emissions (kg/ton protein

produced)

Land (tons edible product/ha)

Consumptive freshwater

use (m3/ton)

Beef 31.7 5 1,200 180 0.24–0.37 15,497

Chicken 4.2 25 300 40 1.0–1.20 3,918

Pork 10.7 13 800 120 0.83–1.10 4,856

Finfish (average) 2.3 30 360 48 0.15–3.70 5,000

Bivalve mollusks not fed not fed -27 -29 0.28–20.00 0

TABLE. COMPARISON OF SUSTAINABILITY INDICATORS AMONG ANIMAL PROTEIN PRODUCTION SYSTEMS

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arrangement,andmonitoringofecosystemsustainabilitymakethemostsenseformitigatingtheimpactsofourseafoodproductionsystemandmanagingrisk.

CERTIFYING SUSTAINABILITYToguideconsumersaboutsustainability,seafoodcertificationseekstocreatemarketincentivesdesignedtoencourageproducerstoreduceenvironmentalimpacts.Aquaculturecertificationschemescertifyindividualfarmsor,inafewcases,collectivesofsmallfarms.However,themostsignificantnegativeecologicalimpactsofaquaculture—lossofbiodiversityandeutrophication—donotoccuratthefarmlevel,butratherreflectthecollectiveimpactsofallfarms,certifiedorotherwise.Anobjectivedeterminationofenvironmentalsustainabilityneedstomovebeyondthefarmleveltothatofthelargeraquaticecosystem,ofwhichaquacultureformsonlyapart.

Systemstoensureecosystem-levelsustainabilityofaquacultureshouldaimtosustainindigenousspeciesabundanceanddiversityatdesirablelevelsandwillrequire(a)spatiallyexplicitregulatory/zoninginstrumentstodefinetheboundariesoverwhichaquaculturesustainabilityshouldbeassessed,and(b)sustainabilityindicatorsandmonitoringsystemsinrespecttothelocalecologicalcarryingcapacitiesofthesezones.Institutionalarrangementsthatassurecomplianceandtransparencywillbeneededtooperationalizethesystem.

Planningattheecosystemlevelwillsimplifypermittingandensurethatfarmsoccupylessenvironmentallysensitiveareas.Withinzones,collectiveactionamongfarmsandwithveterinaryservicestocontroldiseaseswouldbemadeeasier.Onceestablished,zonedaquacultureareascouldbecertifiedcollectivelysothatallfarmshaveaccesstomarkets.NorwayandScotland(salmon)andIreland(bivalves)havepioneereduser-friendlyapproachestoecosystem-levelmanagementbasedonextensive,heuristiccarryingcapacitydatasetsthatcouldinforminitiativeselsewhere.AustraliaandNewZealandareexploringaquacultureparkleasingarrangementsforsalmonandshellfish.

Withincreasingwealth,healthconsciousness,andglobalpopulation,demandforseafoodisincreasing.Atthesametime,scarcitiesofwater,arableland,andpower,combinedwithunstableclimates,willmakegrowingfoodincreasinglychallengingandcostly.Governmentsmaybetemptedtocompromiselong-termsustainabilitytomeetshort-termemploymentandfoodsecuritytargets.Sustainabilityshouldbedefinedinwaysthatthepublicunderstandssothatpolicymakersandresourcemanagerscanfulfilltheirpublictrustresponsibilitiesforsafeseafoodsupplies,thrivingcommunities,healthyecosystems,andbiodiversity.

INVESTING IN SUSTAINABILITYAquaculture,asarelativelybenignsystemfortheproductionofnutritiousfood,canmakeanimportantcontributiontoglobalfoodsecurity,butnewinvestmentof$100billion,attheveryleast,1isneededtomeetanticipateddemand.Thegenerallysmallscaleandorganicgrowthofaquaculturehasmadeitdifficulttoregulateandcontributestothehighlevelsofriskperceivedbypotentialnewinvestors.Becausediseaseandnegativeenvironmentalimpacts,themajorexogenousriskfactorsinaquaculture,aredeterminedprimarilybywatermanagement,productionintensity,andproximityoffishfarmstooneanother,thereareclearincentivesforresponsibleaqua-farmerstosupportzoningandecosystemmonitoringtoensuresustainabilityandprotecttheirinvestments.

Usefulsustainabilityindicatorsshouldreflectanunderstandingofhowecosystemsfunctionandtheservicesthatthepublicexpectsfunctionalecosystemstogenerate.Theyshouldalsoberobustandeasytomonitor,andwouldnecessarilybedeterminedbytheecosystemandinformedbylocalprioritiesratherthanbyfarmedspeciesorculturesystem.Adefinitionofaquaculturesustainabilitythatringstruewiththelargersocietywillcapturecomplexityinarelativelysimpleindexcomprisingalimitednumberoficonicindicators.

LifeCycleAssessment(LCA)seekstodefinesustainabilityinthebroadsensebycomparingfoodproductionsystemsintermsofimpactonprocessesthatgovernglobalbiogeochemicalcycles(PelletierandTyedmers2008).SomeLCAindicators(forexample,acidification,ecotoxicity,eutrophication)arerelevantattheecosystemlevel(forexample,Fordetal.2012).Curyetal.(2011)andSmithetal.(2011)haveexploredtrophiccascadesthatmightbeadaptableaslocalindicatorsofecosystemstress.Fortheseapproaches,however,dataandanalysistosupportapracticallocaldefinitionofecosystemsustainabilityandcost-effectivemonitoringsystemaregenerallylacking.

Tobeeffectiveinprojectdesignandimplementation,weneedanarrowerdefinitionofsustainabilitythatincludestheestablishmentofaworkableapproachtoecosystem-levelmanagement.Thisshouldbeajointeffortbetweenthepublicregulatory,research,andveterinaryservicesandprivatesectorinvestors.Concertedresearchthatcouldestablishatestableframeworkforensuringaquaculturesustainabilityforpilotingwould:

• Developasimplifiedbiodiversity/waterqualityindexofsustainabilityattheecosystemlevel;

1 Industryestimateofcostat2012pricesofbuildingtypicalaquaculturefarmstodoublesupply,notconsideringnewtechnology.

3

• Adaptspatialplanningtoaquaticecosystemdelineationandaquaculturezoning;and

• Elaborateinstitutionalframeworksforadaptivemanagement,monitoring,andenforcement.

Ecosystemsinwhichaquacultureandotherhumanactivitiesoccurwillchange,butnotallchangeisbad.Well-managedaquaculturegeneratesmodest(relativetothegoodsandservicesitgenerates),oftenunnoticeable,changesthatdonotupsetthenaturalbalanceoftheecosystem.Inmanycases,impactsofaquaculturewillbepositiveintermsofecosystemservices.Indicatorsofsustainabilityshouldcapturethesechangestoenablesoundmanagement.

CONCLUSIONSToimprovetheclimateforaquacultureinvestmentsoastosustainablymeetfoodsecurityandeconomicdevelopmenttargets

withoutcausingenvironmentaldegradation,anewapproachtomanaginggrowthisneeded.Spatialplanningwillidentifybestsitesthataregoodforaquaculture,awayfromenvironmentallysensitiveareasandamenabletoappropriatemonitoring.Asindicatorsofsustainability,existingcertificationsystemsarenotadequate.Neededareobjectiveindicatorsthattakeintoaccountthecollectiveimpactsofaquacultureattheecosystemlevel.

OpportunitiesexisttolearnfromexistinginitiativesinAustralia,Ireland,NewZealand,Norway,andtheUnitedKingdom.Theseshouldbeassessedforrobustnessandapplicabilityacrossarangeoflikelyecosystemswhereaquacultureispracticed(forexample,tropicallagoons,floodplainrivers,coastalbays,estuaries,coralreefs,andsoon).Thelevelofimpactsfromaquaculturethatistolerableshouldbeassessedforarangeofecosystemservicesconsideredindicativeofecosystemhealthandthewishesofinformedlocalcommunities.Reliabilityandpracticality(includingcost-effectiveness)ofmeasurementsshouldbeconsideredintheselectionofindicators.

WHAT’S IN IT FOR ME?

Compliancewithaquaculturezoningwilldependuponthedegreetowhichstakeholdersperceiveadvantageincollectiveecosystemmanagement.Cost/benefitanalysismustconsiderconstraintsimposeduponresourceusersaswellasreturnsoninvestmentintheconservationofecosystemservices.Costswillincludelimitationsonfarmerbehaviorwithinzones,scientificmonitoringandtheneedforcommunicationandcollaborationamongfarmersandbetweenfarmersandregulators.Motivationstoestablishandoperatesus-tainableaquaculturezonesvaryamongstakeholders,butthebenefitsaremany:

What’s in it for farmers?• Reduceriskofpoorstockperformance,diseaseandfishkills;• reducethecostandcomplexityofenvironmentalimpactassessment;• laytheframeworkforanewapproachtocertificationandincreasemarketaccess;• improvesustainability—economic,socialandenvironmental—ofaqua-businesses;• demonstrategoodstewardshipoftheenvironment;• lowerinsuranceratesandeasecredittermsondemonstrablylowerriskinvestments.

What’s in it for regulators?• Crediblescientificbasisfordecision-makingonnumbers,sizes,intensitiesofoperationsinamarine/aquaticspace;• crediblescientificbasisforaquaculturegovernanceandallinteractionswithcivilsociety;• crediblescientificbasistoincreasebothlocalandexportmarketaccessfor“green”products.

What’s in it for society?• Wiseuseofecosystemservices;• sustainablyproduced,nutritiousseafoodforthosewhoneeditmost;• betterandfairermanagementofresourcesusedtoproduceaquaticfood.

What’s in it for the environment?• Assurethatanassessmentofsustainabilitycapturesthecollectiveimpactsofallaquacultureoperationsinaclearlydefinedarea;• makesurethatchangesattributabletoaquacultureareclearlyrelatedtochangesintheecosystem;• streamlineregulationtobemorecost-effective.

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Wherethereareexistingdata,pilotprojectswiththeprivatesectorcouldbelaunchedtofield-testthisnewmonitoringandevaluationstrategywithintwoyears.Keyelementswouldincludethefollowing:

Ecological Issues

• Siting:Identifyzonesthataregoodforaquaculture(forexample,accesstomarketsandproductioninfrastructure,deepwater,fastcurrents,protectedfromstorms,unpolluted)andthatareawayordownstreamfromimportantecosystemandbiodiversityassets(from,coralreefs,beaches,eelgrassbeds).Thisisroughlythesubjectmatterofspatialplanning.

• CarryingCapacity:Measureexactlywhatishappeningintheecosystemandhowfastcollectiveproductionwithinthezoneisapproachingsomelimit.Thisismostlybasicecologicalresearch.

Institutional Issues

• SettingLimits:Establishwiththelocalcommunityandotherkeystakeholdersthemaincriteriaforimpactassessmentandacceptablelimitsofecosystemchangeinlightofthelocalcultureandeconomy.

• Enforcement:Establisharegulatoryframeworkbasedontheabove,givingauthoritytosomelocalagencytoenforcerules.Thisalsorequiressomekindofaquaculturetradeassociationthatrepresentstheinterestsoftheaquaculturevaluechaintogovernmentandcompetingindustries,andexercisesausefullevelofcontroloveritsmembers.

ReferencesBouman,A.F.,A.H.W.Beusen,C.C.Overbeek,D.P.Bureau,M.Pawlowski,

andP.M.Gilbert.2013.Hindcastsandfutureprojectionsofglobalinlandandcoastalnitrogenandphosphorusloadsduetofinfishaquaculture.Reviews in Fisheries Science21(2):112-156.

Boyd,C.E.,C.Tucker,A.McNevin,K.Bostick,andJ.Clay.2007.Indicatorsofresourceuseefficiencyandenvironmentalperformanceinfishandcrustaceanaquaculture.Reviews in Fisheries Science 15(4):327–360.

Cury,P.M.,I.L.Boyd,S.Bonhommeau,T.Anker-Nilssen,R.J.M.Crawford,R.W.Furness,J.A.Millsetal.2011.Globalseabirdresponsetoforagefishdepletion:One-thirdforthebirds.Science334:1703-1706.

FAO.2003.Agriculture Food and Water.FoodandAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNations,Rome.

———.2012.The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture.FoodandAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNations,Rome.

Ford,J.S.,N.L.Pelletier,F.Ziegler,A.J.Scholz,P.H.Tyedmers,U.Sonesson,S.A.Kruse,andH.Silverman.2012.ProposedlocalecologicalimpactcategoriesandindicatorsforLifeCycleAssessmentofaquaculture.Journal of Industrial Ecology 16(2):254-265.

Hall,S.J.,A.Delaporte,M.J.Phillips,M.Beveridge,andM.O’Keefe.2011.Blue frontiers: Managing the Environmental Costs of Aquaculture.WorldFishCenter,Penang,Malaysia.

Lorenzen,K.,M.C.M.Beveridge,andM.Mangel.2012.Culturedfish:Integrativebiologyandmanagementofdomesticationandinteractionswithwildfish.Biological Reviews 87(3):639-660.

OECD.2010.“Advancingtheaquacultureagenda:Workshopproceedings.”OrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment,OECDPublishing,Paris,France.

Pelletier,N.,andP.Tyedmers.2008.Lifecycleconsiderationsforimprovingsustainabilityassessmentsinseafoodawarenesscampaigns.Environmental Management,DOI10.1007/s00267-008-9148-9.

Phillips,M.J.,M.C.M.Beveridge,andR.M.Clarke.1991.Impactofaquacultureonwaterresources.InAquaculture and Water Quality,editedbyD.R.BruneandJ.R.Tomasso.WorldAquacultureSociety,BatonRouge,LA,USA.

Smith,A.D.M.,C.J.Brown,C.M.Bulman,E.A.Fulton,P.Johnson,I.C.Kaplan,H.Lozano-Montesetal.2011.Impactsoffishinglow-trophiclevelspeciesonmarineecosystems.Science 333:1147-1150.

TEEB.2010.Rethinking Global Biodiversity Strategies: Exploring Structural Changes in Production and Consumption to Reduce Biodiversity Loss.TheEconomicsofEcosystemsandBiodiversityProject(TEEB),NetherlandsEnvironmentalAssessmentAgency,TheHague/Bilthoven.

Contributors2

MichaelTlusty(NewEnglandAquarium),GeorgeChamberlain(GlobalAquacultureAlliance),ChrisMann(PewEnvironmentGroup),JoséVillalón(WorldwideFundforNature),FrankAsche(UniversityofStavanger),DorisSoto(UNFoodandAgricultureOrganization),Jean-FrançoisBaroiller(CentreInternationaldeRechercheAgronomiquepourlaDéveloppement),ClaudeBoyd(AuburnUniversity),JohnHargreaves(WorldAquacultureMagazine),JohnForster(FreelanceConsultant),BarryCosta-Pierce(UniversityofNewEngland),KaiLorenzen(UniversityofFlorida),IanBoyd(UKDepartmentforEnvironment,FoodandRuralAffairs),MaxTroell(BeijerInstituteofEcologicalEconomics),VillyChristensen(UniversityofBritishColumbia),DaveLittle(UniversityofStirling),YngveTorgersen(NorwegianMinistryofFisheriesandCoastalAffairs),MalcolmBeveridge(WorldFishCenter),SimonBush(UniversityofWageningen),PeterMumby(UniversityofQueensland),LesKaufman(BostonUniversity),AntonImmink,(SustainableFisheriesPartnership).

2 Thisopinionwaselaboratedthroughanextendeddialogueamongthecontributorsanddoesnotnecessarilyreflectthepositionsoftheinstituteswithwhichtheyareaffiliated.