Post on 15-Apr-2020
Master`s Thesis
Why so serious?
Using serious gaming as an ecosystem services management tool for
the Wadden Sea
Marvin Mandewirth
University of Akureyri
Faculty of Business and Science
University Centre of the Westfjords
Master of Resource Management: Coastal and Marine Management
Ísafjörður, May 2017
Supervisory Committee
Advisor:
Ghada El Serafy, Dr. Ir.
Reader:
Brad Barr, Ph.D.
Program Director:
Catherine Chambers Ph.D
Marvin Mandewirth
Why so Serious? Using Serious Gaming as an ecosystem services management tool for
the Wadden Sea
45 ECTS thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of a Master of Resource Management
degree in Coastal and Marine Management at the University Centre of the Westfjords,
Suðurgata 12, 400 Ísafjörður, Iceland
Degree accredited by the University of Akureyri, Faculty of Business and Science,
Borgir, 600 Akureyri, Iceland
Copyright © 2017 Marvin Mandewirth
All rights reserved
Printing: Háskólaprent, Reykjavík, 2017
Declaration
I hereby confirm that I am the sole author of this thesis and it is a product of my own
academic research.
__________________________________________
Marvin Mandewirth
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Abstract
The concept of ecosystem services is growing in importance for the management of marine
natural resources and can greatly improve the environmental quality of an area and
consequently the quality of life. Ecosystem services are the benefits that humans obtain from
an ecosystem and within that provide nutrients, materials and energy, regulate the water and air
flow, and can regulate the physical and biotic environment, also while offering cultural
symbolic and intellectual activities such as recreation and science. Management related to
ecosystem services therefore seeks to define and analyse the various service characteristics and
potentials in relation to human activities in coastal zones such as in the Wadden Sea region.
The Wadden Sea is the largest unbroken ecosystem of intertidal sand and mud flats in the world,
resulting in a unique biodiversity and landscape that is at the same time host to a wide range of
human activities such as tourism, shipping and coastal development. In order to better
understand ecosystem services as a potential tool in management of the Wadden Sea, this
research aimed at identifying the current state of ecosystem services in the Wadden Sea area
and the impact of anthropogenic activities on them. First, this thesis complies public available,
social and economic metadata from the Wadden Sea in order to identify trend indicators related
with the ecosystem service framework. Second, this thesis analyses present and proposed
anthropogenic activities in the Wadden Sea and their potential or observed impact on ecosystem
services. Third, the result of the data compilation and ecosystem service impact analysis were
transformed into a serious game, which is a (digital) game interface that can be used for
education and training. Results found that not all sub-indicators used to determine the current
state of ecosystem services have the same significance as others. Consequently, sub-indicators
for ferry tourism are affected continuously while aquaculture employees are generally not
effected by any measures at all. Furthermore, one major issue deriving from development of
the game is that most anthropogenic activities used are positively affecting the cultural
ecosystem service indicators, while indicators for the provisioning and regulating &
maintenance ecosystem services are mainly negatively affected, resulting in an unbalanced
outcome for the game itself. Finally, results from the development of the serious game show
major focus rests on implementing more sustainable measures into the game to achieve a
balance between the indicators and to implement a wider range of management possibilities in
the game. This thesis shows how concepts from ecosystem services can be used to understand
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coastal and marine management issues, and also how these issues related to coastal and marine
management can be visualized through a serious game. In the future, serious games that
integrate ecosystem services of unique areas such as the Wadden Sea can develop into
management tools for decision-makers, as well as educational tools for the general public.
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I dedicate this Master thesis to the five most important people in my life, without which I
couldn’t have finished this research. I dedicate this to my parents Simone Mandewirth and
Ingo Schmidt for supporting me my whole life, to my best friend Florian Giesler without
whom I would not know where I would be today, my girlfriend Solveig Höfer who stood next
to my side throughout all ups and downs, and my best girlfriend Rebecca Frommer who never
stopped believing in me!
Lastly, I want to specially dedicate this thesis to “La Famiglia” who are like brothers and
sisters to me. Such a special bond is very rare to find and I would not know how my student
life would have developed without the support from every single one of them.
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Table of Content
List of Figures .................................................................................................................... vii
List of Tables ......................................................................................................................... x
Acronyms .......................................................................................................................... xiv
Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................. xv
1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 2 1.1 Background .............................................................................................................. 2 1.2 Problem statement, scope, objective & research question ....................................... 6 1.3 Hypothesis .............................................................................................................. 11
1.4 Research outline ..................................................................................................... 11
2 Literature review ........................................................................................................... 14 2.1 Ecosystem services................................................................................................. 14
2.1.1 Provisioning services ................................................................................... 15 2.1.2 Regulation & Maintenance services ............................................................ 16 2.1.3 Cultural services .......................................................................................... 16
2.2 The importance of ecosystem services to mankind................................................ 17 2.3 The valuation of Ecosystem Services .................................................................... 19
2.3.1 1960s – A common problem with diverse answers ..................................... 20
2.3.2 1970s – a steady-state economy .................................................................. 21 2.3.3 1980s – multidisciplinary ESV research...................................................... 21
2.3.4 1990s to present – a transdisciplinary ESV ................................................. 22
2.4 Serious Gaming and related concepts .................................................................... 24
2.5 Applications of serious games ............................................................................... 26 2.6 Serious game and ecosystem services .................................................................... 28
3 Methods .......................................................................................................................... 30 3.1 Methodology application ....................................................................................... 30 3.2 Method overview ................................................................................................... 34 3.3 The test case area – The Wadden Sea .................................................................... 36
4 Results ............................................................................................................................. 40 4.1 Ecosystem service indicators ................................................................................. 40
4.1.1 Provisioning ES indicator ............................................................................ 41 4.1.2 Regulating & Maintenance ES .................................................................... 53
4.1.3 Cultural ES................................................................................................... 65 4.2 Impact of anthropogenic activities ......................................................................... 85
4.2.1 Port expansion ............................................................................................. 86
4.2.2 Navigation: Channel maintenance/dredging................................................ 97 4.2.3 Coastal Protection ........................................................................................ 99 4.2.4 Environmental measures ............................................................................ 104 4.2.5 Governance ................................................................................................ 109 4.2.6 Infrastructure.............................................................................................. 112
4.2.7 Mining ....................................................................................................... 118 4.3 Measure-impact matrix ........................................................................................ 122
4.3.1 Analysis of the measure-impact matrix ..................................................... 125
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4.3.2 Conclusion measure-impact matrix ........................................................... 127
4.4 Serious game as a management tool .................................................................... 127 4.4.1 Visualization .............................................................................................. 131 4.4.2 Gameplay ................................................................................................... 151
4.4.3 In-game newspaper scenarios .................................................................... 156 4.4.4 Remote sensing as a possibility for data evaluation .................................. 158
5 Discussion, management recommendations & Limitations ..................................... 164 5.1 Discussion and management recommendations................................................... 164 5.2 Limitations ........................................................................................................... 171
6 Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 174
7 Game development recommendations ....................................................................... 176
Bibliography ..................................................................................................................... 187
Appendix I: ECOPOTENTIAL ...................................................................................... 205
Appendix II: CICES ecosystem services ........................................................................ 206
Appendix III: Possible indicators for the ESSG ............................................................ 210
Appendix IV: Validity of performance indicators ........................................................ 211
Appendix V: Use of performance validity on selected indicators ................................ 213
Appendix VI: Interrelation of sub-indicators among each other ................................ 229
Appendix VII: Present measures in the Wadden Sea and their impact on the
Environment ........................................................................................... 234
Appendix VIII: Original measure impact matrix ......................................................... 237
Appendix IX: Expert measure impact matrix ............................................................... 238
Appendix X: Visualization options for the main design ............................................... 239
Appendix XI: In-game screenshots of the main design ................................................ 246
Appendix XII: Visualization options of indicators for the ESSG ................................ 247
Appendix XIII: Newspaper articles for facilitating the ESSG ..................................... 261
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List of Figures
Figure 1: Going from the research problem to the research question ........................................ 6
Figure 2: Conceptual framework of EU-wide assessment and its link to ESs (Maes et al.,
2013) (Maes, et al., 2014) ....................................................................................... 18
Figure 3: Methodology flow-chart ........................................................................................... 33
Figure 4: The Wadden Sea. Retrieved from waddensea-secretariat.org (2016) ...................... 37
Figure 5: Mussel culture plots in the Wadden Sea. Source: walterwaddenmonitor.org .......... 42
Figure 6: Wet weight mussel production of the Wadden Sea region from 1965-2007.
Source: (Nehls et al., 2009) ..................................................................................... 48
Figure 7: People working in the fishery and tourism and recreation sector. Fishery grey,
tourism and recreation black. (Sijtsma, Werner, & Broersms, 2008) ..................... 51
Figure 8: Direct employment and global GDP contribution forecast of the tourism
industry. Source: Skift.com ..................................................................................... 66
Figure 9: Passengers transported (x1000) and prognosis of RT. Top left: season 2013/14,
Top right: season 2014/15, Bottom left: season 2015/16. Yellow line actual
transported passengers, upper white line (1) best estimated prognosis, lower
white line (3) lowest estimated prognosis and grey line (2) best estimated
prognosis. Source: Teso 2014, 2015 & 2016 ........................................................ 69
Figure 10: Passenger Car Equivalent (x1000) and RT prognosis. Top left: season
2013/14, Top right: season 2014/15, Bottom left: season 2015/16. Yellow
line actual transported passengers, upper white line (1) best estimated
prognosis, lower white line (3) lowest estimated prognosis, grey line (2) best
estimated prognosis. Source: Tesco 2014, 2015 & 2016) ..................................... 70
Figure 11: Model of the ESSG............................................................................................... 130
Figure 12: In-Game design .................................................................................................... 132
Figure 13: Five step parasol development. From non to very crowded................................. 134
Figure 14: Example of the alternation in the amount of mussel plots ................................... 136
Figure 15: Aquaculture mussel plot locations in the game. Left plot (I) is where the first
plots appear (score -2 and below). Right plot (II) is where the second farm
appears (score +2 and above) .............................................................................. 137
Figure 16: Mainland inland harbour expansion sites. ............................................................ 141
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Figure 17: Location of harbour development, in form of additional piers, on the barrier
islands.................................................................................................................. 142
Figure 18: Locations of harbour extensions towards the natural areas. ................................. 143
Figure 19: Dredging vessels next to the shipping channels ................................................... 144
Figure 20: Location of the sand nourishment vessel in the game .......................................... 144
Figure 21: Location of Wind Park for the renewable energy measure .................................. 145
Figure 22: Left: Location of seagrass beds. Right: foto of seagrass beds from above .......... 146
Figure 23: Roads that are developed into highways .............................................................. 147
Figure 24: Location for the development of tourist accommodations ................................... 147
Figure 25: Left: Location for gas rigs in the game. Right: example of gas rig ...................... 148
Figure 26: Right: Location of river boats that carry sand from extraction. Right: Example
of river boat filled with sand ............................................................................... 148
Figure 27: Screenshot of the interface of the PoFSG on the ESSG. Red circled area:
Interaction Interface of the game. Black circle: ES feedback ............................. 150
Figure 28: Feedback interface of the ESSG. From left to right: Provisioning ES
(aquaculture), Regulating & Maintenance ES (habitats), Culture ES (tourism)
and the resource component (growth). ................................................................ 151
Figure 29: Example of a playing card of the PoFSG ............................................................. 153
Figure 30: Example habitat map of North-Terschelling. Habitat types according to the
classification of the European Council. Derived from Deltares, property of
Rijkswaterstaat .................................................................................................... 161
Figure 31: Example energy label. Red indicates negative impacts and green positive
impacts. Source: efddgroup.eu ............................................................................ 183
Figure 32: Satellite imagery Am eland (Left) source: maps.google.com, Game design
option 1 – one island (right) ................................................................................ 240
Figure 33: From water to mud. Game design option ............................................................. 240
Figure 34: Satellite imagery of Harlingen area as used for design inspiration. Source:
maps.google.com ................................................................................................ 242
Figure 35: Design option II - two islands two cities .............................................................. 242
Figure 36: Game design option II: Two islands, two cities ................................................... 242
Figure 37: Design option IV: two islands & three cities ....................................................... 244
Figure 38: Game design option IV - two islands, four cities ................................................. 245
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Figure 39: In-game screenshots of the ESSG ........................................................................ 246
Figure 40: 5 steps in hotel development. Ranging from simple beach huts to luxury hotels.
............................................................................................................................. 248
Figure 41: Five step tourism development. From no tourism to optimal to overcrowded .... 250
Figure 42: Example of the visualization of different amounts of lights. Source:
http://image.shutterstock.com/ ............................................................................ 251
Figure 43: The amount of ferries can vary to show different states of ferry tourism ............ 252
Figure 44: Different size and shapes of current available ferries within the Wadden Sea. ... 253
Figure 45: Changing the amount of aquaculture plots as visual feedback for the
participant............................................................................................................ 256
Figure 46: Examples of changing habitats. Up: sandy dunes becoming grassland. Low:
Mudflats becoming mainland .............................................................................. 259
x
List of Tables
Table 1: Amount of mussels brought to the Yerseke auction (Aanvoer), the revenue
generated (Opbrengst) and the average price of mussels (Gemiddelde prijs).
Source: Taal et al., 2006........................................................................................ 49
Table 2: Income and costs of the Dutch mussel culture sector (in million euros). Source:
Taal et al., 2006) ................................................................................................... 50
Table 3: Evaluation of the Aquaculture sectore of the Dutch Wadden Sea ............................. 52
Table 4: Evaluation of net weight of production and number of employees of the Dutch
aquaculture sector ................................................................................................. 53
Table 5: Evaluation of the benthic habitat o fthe Dutch Wadden Sea ..................................... 58
Table 6: Evaluation of the salt marsh habitat type of the Dutch Wadden Sea ......................... 60
Table 7: Evaluation of the beaches and dunes habitat of the Dutch Wadden Sea ................... 61
Table 8: Evaluation of the offshore area habitat type of the Dutch Wadden Sea .................... 62
Table 9: Evaluation of the Estuarine habitat type of the Dutch Wadden Sea. ......................... 63
Table 10: Evaluation of the individual habitat types, resulting in the initial state of
habitats in the Wadden Sea. .................................................................................. 64
Table 11: Evaluation of Habitat heterogeneity (quality) and habitat fragmentation in the
Wadden Sea........................................................................................................... 65
Table 12: Conducted sailings by Royal Teso from 2012-2016. Source: Teso 2014, 2015
& 2016................................................................................................................... 68
Table 13: Income generated by Royal Tesco. Source: Tesco 2014, 2015 & 2016 ................. 71
Table 14: Evaluation of the ferry tourism sector of the Dut h Wadden Sea ............................ 74
Table 15: Hotels and pensions: Amount of companies and beds from 2006-2010.
Changes in % derive from the year before, except change in 2006, which
refers to the overall change within the whole time period. Source: (Haas &
Huig, 2011) ........................................................................................................... 75
Table 16: Hotels and pensions: occupation (in %) and amount of overnight stays (x1.000)
from 2006-2010. Changes in % derive from the year before, except change
in 2006, which refers to the overall change within the whole time period.
Source: (Haas & Huig, 2011) ................................................................................ 75
Table 17: Bed and Breakfast: Amount of providers and overnight stays (x1.000) from
2006-2010. Changes in % derive from the year before, except change in
2006, which refers to the overall change within the whole time period.
Source: (Haas & Huig, 2011) ................................................................................ 76
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Table 18: Campgrounds: Amount of providers and plots from 2006-2010. Changes in %
derive from the year before, except change in 2006, which refers to the
overall change within the whole time period. Source: (Haas & Huig, 2011) ....... 76
Table 19: Campgrounds: Amount of tourist plots permanent plots from 2006-2010.
Changes in % derive from the year before, except change in 2006, which
refers to the overall change within the whole time period. Source: (Haas &
Huig, 2011) ........................................................................................................... 77
Table 20: Campgrounds: Occupation of tourist plots (in %) and amount of overnight stays
(x1.000) from 2006-2010. Changes in % derive from the year before, except
change in 2006, which refers to the overall change within the whole time
period. Source: (Haas & Huig, 2011) ................................................................... 78
Table 21: Campgrounds: Occupation of permanent plots (in %) and overnight stays
(x1.000). Changes in % derive from the year before, except change in 2006,
which refers to the overall change within the whole time period. Source:
(Haas & Huig, 2011) ............................................................................................. 78
Table 22: Holiday Homes: Amount of providers and amount of holiday homes present
from 2006-2010. Changes in % derive from the year before, except change
in 2006, which refers to the overall change within the whole time period.
Source: (Haas & Huig, 2011) ................................................................................ 79
Table 23: Holiday Homes: Amount of overnight stays (x1.000) and occupation rate (in
%) from 2006-2010. Changes in % derive from the year before, except
change in 2006, which refers to the overall change within the whole time
period. Source: (Haas & Huig, 2011) ................................................................... 80
Table 24: Group accommodations: Amount of group accommodations present and beds
resent from 2006-2010. Changes in % derive from the year before, except
change in 2006, which refers to the overall change within the whole time
period. Source: (Haas & Huig, 2011) ................................................................... 80
Table 25: Group accommodations: Occupation (in %) and amount of overnight stays
(x1.000) from 2006-2010. Changes in % derive from the year before, except
change in 2006, which refers to the overall change within the whole time
period. Source: (Haas & Huig, 2011) ................................................................... 81
Table 26: Yacht harbours: Amount of passers and permanent berths from 2006-2010.
Changes in % derive from the year before, except change in 2006, which
refers to the overall change within the whole time period. Source: (Haas &
Huig, 2011) ........................................................................................................... 81
Table 27: Yacht Harbours: Occupation of berths (in %) and amount of overnight stays
(x1.000) from 2006-2010. Changes in % derive from the year before, except
change in 2006, which refers to the overall change within the whole time
period. Source: (Haas & Huig, 2011) ................................................................... 82
Table 28: Total overnight stays spent on the Wadden islands (x1.000) from 2006-2010.
Changes in % derive from the year before, except change in 2006, which
xii
refers to the overall change within the whole time period. Source: (Haas &
Huig, 2011) ........................................................................................................... 82
Table 29: Evaluation of overnight stays on the Wadden islands. ............................................ 83
Table 30: Evaluation of the Cultural ES sector ....................................................................... 84
Table 31: Evaluation of ferry tourism and overnight stays of the Dutch Wadden Sea area.
............................................................................................................................... 85
Table 32: Measurement-impact scale ...................................................................................... 86
Table 33: Impact of harbor expansion measures on ES indicators based on literature ........... 94
Table 34: Impact of harbor expansion measures on ES indicators based on expert
knowledge ............................................................................................................. 95
Table 35: Impact of harbor expansion measures on ES indicators based on literature and
expert knowledge .................................................................................................. 97
Table 36: Impact of navigation measures on ES indicators based on literature and expert
knowledge ............................................................................................................. 99
Table 37:Impact of coastal protection measures on ES indicators based on literature and
expert knowledge ................................................................................................ 103
Table 38: Impact of Environmental measures on ES indicators based on literature and
expert knowledge ................................................................................................ 109
Table 39: Impact of coastal protection measures on ES indicators based on literature and
expert knowledge ................................................................................................ 112
Table 40: Impact of Infrastructure measures on ES indicators based on literature and
expert knowledge ................................................................................................ 118
Table 41: Impact of mining measures on ES indicators based on literature and expert
knowledge ........................................................................................................... 122
Table 42: Measure-impact matrix of the ESSG ..................................................................... 124
Table 43: Close up of the impact matrix for the ESSG. ........................................................ 124
Table 44: Visualization steps for tourism indicator ............................................................... 135
Table 45: Visualization steps for the aquaculture indicator................................................... 138
Table 46: Visualization steps for the habitat indicator .......................................................... 140
Table 47: Classification, Indicators and Sub-Indicators used to determine the current state
of the Wadden Sea .............................................................................................. 210
Table 48: Measure impact matrix based on literature review ................................................ 237
xiii
Table 49: Measure impact matrix based in expert knowledge .............................................. 238
xiv
Acronyms
B&B Bed & Breakfast
CBA Cost-Benefit Analysis
CERCLA Comprehensive, Environmental Response, Compensation Liability Act
CICES Common International Classification of Ecosystem Services
CWSS Common Wadden Sea Secretariat
EO Earth Observation
EPA U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
ES Ecosystem Services
ESSG Ecosystem Service Serious Game
ESV Ecosystem Service Valuation
MA Millennium Ecosystem Assessment
NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Agency
NRDA Natural Resource Damage Assessment
PCE Passenger Car Equivalent
PKB Wadden Sea Memorandum
PoFSG Port of the Future Serious Game
PRC Provisioning, Regulating & Maintenance, Cultural Ecosystem Services
RT Royal Teso
SG Serious Game
WP Wagenborg Passagierdienst B. V.
xv
Acknowledgements
I want to thank my two supervisors, Ghada El Serafy and Alex Zimba, for supporting me
throughout my thesis. Without the help that originated from those two I would have not be able
to organise the whole research.
Additionally, I want to thank Cor Shipper, who helped me out with ideas and examples, and
introduced me to the Port of the Future game which resulted in a great working relation.
Also, I want to thank Almar Joling and Rens van de Bergh who supported the whole projects,
help with visualization ideas and possibilities and finally bringing the game on the computer
screen
Finally, I want to thank all other co-workers who made work also fun!
Thank you very much for the support!
This project has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and
innovation programme under grant agreement No 641762.
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1 Introduction
1.1 Background
The concept of ecosystem services (ESs) has been around for just about 50 years, however, it
has just gained popularity since the 1990s (de Groot, Lakemade, Braat, Hein, & Willemen,
2010). ES can be described as the combination of ecosystem goods and services for human or
social benefits. These goods and services support the processes that make life possible as we
know it (Constanza, et al., 1997). With that said, it is easy to recognize that ecosystems are
vital for sustaining life as we know it. To achieve this, ESs provide a variety of functions and
services, which are directly or indirectly exploited by humans. However, ES and the functions
they fulfil are very prone to changes in the environment; be it caused by natural or
anthropogenic events (Constanza, et al., 1997). To mitigate the impact of these unwanted
changes in the environment and/or to prevent overexploitation, it is vital to include the concept
of ES when planning the management of areas and ecosystems. Without the implementation of
appropriate management, it will be difficult to avoid the degradation of ES.
There are several definitions of ESs, the most widely accepted one of which is provided by the
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment [MA], 2005).
According to the MA, ES are defined as the benefits that humans obtain from the ecosystem of
an environment. The MA states that examples of these ES can be classified into four groups:
provisioning, regulating, cultural and supporting services. Some potential benefits humans may
receive from these services include: “provisioning services such as food, water, timber, and
fibre; regulating services that affect climate, floods, disease, waste, and water quality; cultural
services that provide recreational, aesthetic, and spiritual benefits; and supporting services such
as soil formation, photosynthesis, and nutrient cycling (emphasis in the original)” (MA, 2005,
page 9). Beyond the MA`s classification system, a new approach for the classification of ESs
is becoming more and more accepted in the scientific community. This new approach is derived
from the Common International Classification of Ecosystem Services (CICES) and will also
be used in this research. The major difference between the definition put forth by CICES and
MA is that the definition of ESs outlined by CICES excludes the category of supporting
services. CICES has suggested that such simplification of the ES categorized is justified since
the supporting services outlined by the MA are underpinned structures and processes which
lead to the delivery of ESs to be exploited by humans and their exclusion thus limits the
3
occurrence of double counting ES (CICES, 2016). CICES has therefore classified ES into three
classes, named Provisioning, Regulating & maintenance and Cultural (PRC).
It has become increasingly accepted throughout the world that human well-being and
ecosystem health are very closely related to ES (MA, 2005, page 49). Therefore, science has
focused strongly on evaluating and assessing ES in the past decades, and in the process, has
discovered a world full of complex interconnections (Reise, et al., 2010). This complex world
is keeping our planet - as we know it - alive and regardless all efforts in the advancement of
technology, ESs will always be the most vital element in sustaining human life (MA, 2005).
Consequently, ES must be included in the planning and decision-making processes of area
development in order to mitigate for dramatic environmental changes (Folmer, van der Veen,
& van der Heide, 2010).
One region, which provides a variety of ES, is the Wadden Sea. The Wadden Sea is located in
the south-eastern region of the North Sea and stretches from Den Helder (the Netherlands),
across Germany, and up to the Danish coast to Blåvandshuk. The Wadden Sea is the “largest
unbroken system of intertidal sand and mud flats in the world” (CWSS, 2013, page 4). It is no
wonder that this ecosystem is one of the most important intertidal areas in the world, especially
for migrating bird species (WSWH, 2016). The Wadden Sea intertidal ecosystem provides the
necessary nutrients and environmental conditions to support the growth of thousands of
animals and plant species, thus functioning as important feeding grounds for thousands of
migrating birds in particular. Beyond its obvious benefits to wildlife, humans use the Wadden
Sea region to obtain food, materials, monetary income and spiritual/cultural values (CWSS,
2012). The ability of the Wadden Sea (eco-) system to provide such numerous benefits is in
part facilitated by the fact that it is considered to be mostly undisturbed (WSWH, 2016), a
rather unique characteristic its kind (more in chapter 3.3). Managing such a unique (eco-)
system, which spans over three countries, is very challenging. All countries want to reap the
benefits of its ESs, such as flood control, flora & fauna production, water purification, food,
sediment accretion and deposition, recreation and much more (Folmer, van der Veen, & van
der Heide, 2010). However, the surrounding environment will always be affected by exploiting
the resources provided by ES that can be found there. Therefore, it is vital to ensure proper
planning and management in the Wadden Sea region, in order to sustain these ES such that
they may continue to function for future generations to come.
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As previously mentioned, the management of such a huge area is complex and tricky. Also, the
inclusion of ES in the planning of said management seems to be a method that is underutilized
at the moment. It still seems that managers and policy makers are not aware of the concept of
ES in general or are struggling to properly integrate the information into their management
plans (Hansen, et al., 2015). This is a problem as ESs are a concept that surrounds us in our
daily lives, and both promotes and sustains this life. An effective way to teach the concept of
ESs is via serious gaming. Serious Games (SGs) are one method that can be used to transform
and/or communicate complex scientific information into understandable information that is
specifically tailored to suit a target group (Haug, Huitema, & Wenzler, 2011). SGs are a
simulation of real-world events or processes designed for a scientific purpose of solving a
specific problem. While it is still a game, something that is normally played for pleasure and
fun – it can also contain valuable scientific information that is transmitted to the participant in
a playful and easy way. In this way, gaming can stimulate an easy learning process. Within the
realm of communicating science, serious gaming can effectively bring environmental
awareness, the complex dilemmas of ecosystems, and the interpretation of real-world questions
into an educational gaming environment (Shipper, 2017). This method can educate the target
group on environmental science topics while maintaining the fun, playful and enjoyable aspect
of games (Donovan, 2012).
By using serious gaming, a sandbox free environment is created, which means one can explore
and learn about policy and management options, without having to fear severe consequences.
For the purpose of this research, this means that an SG is created that focuses on ES in the
Wadden Sea region. Consequently, participants and/or participants of the SG become aware of
the concept of ES, while exploring strategic measurement/management options and their
impact on the ES.
Another advantage of SGs is that they can be played with several parties involved in the
planning process of an area. This means also parties with contradicting interests can play the
same game with the same goals, but different objectives. If environmentalists play an SG
focusing on port development, he or she would rather go for a sustainable development, while
financial stakeholders are more likely to care for profit than the environment. In this way SGs
offer the added perk of bringing both parties to one table together and letting them explore
what strategies would suit both parties. Combined with a sandbox free environment, SGs can
help to start a dialogue between opposing parties in order to find common ground and/or
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compromises. Since the game will have no negative impacts on the real world, participants of
the game can feel less intimidated by the other party and therefore are likely to find themselves
in a position where they can speak up without fearing any negative consequences (Shipper,
2017).
To achieve this goal this thesis is aimed at gathering, analysing and comprising relevant
information regarding ES in the Wadden Sea region. Data from different sources (i.e. literature
and empirical) has been gathered to analyse the current state of ESs that are available in the
Wadden Sea region. Additionally, the impacts of anthropogenic activities on these ESs have
been investigated. By doing so, a new platform is created that gathers information from various
sources and translates this information into an SG. While it has been investigated that SGs
seem to have positive impacts on the communication of relevant topics, this thesis`s focal point
was to gather and analyse relevant data in order to create this new SG platform for ESs. The
actual testing of the communication issues is for future research and development.
This research is part of the ECOPOTENTIAL project, which is implemented under the Horizon
2020 project. The Horizon 2020 project is founded by the European Union (EU) and promotes
research and innovation projects Europe-wide in order to create a strong research network that
can cope with the global competitiveness Europe is currently facing (European Commission,
2014). The overall goal of the ECOPOTENTIAL project is to use earth observation data
derived from remote sensing techniques and in-situ measurements in order to analyse and
investigate the current state of ecosystems and the services and functions it they provide to
humans. This is done in selected European protected areas, including a wide range of ecosystem
types such as mountains, arid and semi-arid, and marine ecosystems. For more information,
please refer to the ECOPOTENTIAL website (http://ecopotenital-project.eu). This research
aims at closing the gap between science and policy-making while evaluating the current state
of ESs and the impact of current anthropogenic activities on them. The information gained is
transferred into a serious game that focuses on the ESs in the Wadden Sea as a non-monetary
ecosystem service valuation method.
6
1.2 Problem statement, scope, objective & research question
Within this subsequent chapter, the problem statement, which is defining the research scope, is
further elaborated. Together, these elements led to the research objective and finally to the
research question of this study. An outline of the most representative bullet points is
exemplified in Figure 1. A complete overview of all sections is provided under Figure 1.
Figure 1: Going from the research problem to the research question
7
Problem statement
The Wadden Sea area is a highly productive intertidal estuarine ecosystem. It is the largest
unbroken system of intertidal mud and sand flats in the world, and to this day widely
undisturbed (WSWH, 2016). This led to a high number of natural processes, habitats and a
unique biodiversity and landscape in general. Therefore, the Wadden Sea area is associated
with a variety of ESs. Such ESs include, but are not limited to, food and income provision for
local citizens, plant species heterogeneity, migration corridors, as well as, nesting grounds for
bird species, aesthetic and cultural values, and nursery and breeding ground for a variety of
marine organisms (CWSS, 2013). However, these ESs are under pressure due to the
anthropogenic development that can be observed in the Wadden Sea region. Even though the
Wadden Sea area consists of a large proportion of protected areas, human influence is still
shaping the development of the area. Economic and cultural (tourism) development in the
Wadden Sea area have led to a position where more space and resources must be obtained from
the ecosystem, resulting in a degradation of present ESs (i.e. CWSS 2012, WSWH 2016,
CICES, 2016). This is not a wanted scenario for affected people in the region as degradation
in ES in turn means that there will be a degradation of the benefits people can obtain from this
ecosystem, ergo resulting in a decreasing quality of life.
Nevertheless, a degradation of the ecosystem is not something that anybody wants. However,
including ESs into protected area management is a rather difficult task, especially in an area
that comprises three countries. One of the major problems to take the concept of ES in protected
area planning, decision and policy making is that many of the ES are over or under valued.
Some ESs result in direct monetary value outputs, such as tourism or fisheries, others though
are not, such as water flow regulation, sedimentation and erosion, or resting places for birds.
The ES with no direct monetary value attached to them is still very important for the ecosystem
as a whole, as they provide the area with processes that are necessary to produce ES with a
direct monetary output (i.e. nesting grounds for birds attract tourists that spend money in the
area). Nevertheless, it seems that the uptake of the concept into proper management and policy
making is still lacking behind (Hansen, et al., 2015). This is probably due to the extensive
amount of information available which makes it difficult for protected area managers and
policy- & decision makers to include all the information available. Additionally, the
communication between science and policy making is still lacking, resulting in information
being not understood and therefore not being used for proper management of these special
8
areas. On top of that, the over and under valuation of ESs, derived from the monetary values
attached to them, makes decisions on development rather unilateral. To tackle this problem a
new method is used, that can help to comprise large scientific information into better
understandable pieces and maybe one day can be used as a sufficient management tool. The
method/management tool used is serious gaming, which uses gaming to transfer difficult
information in a playful way. Within that, the current state of ES and the impact of development
measures on them can be transmitted in an interactive way, which can result in better
management of the area in the future.
In a nutshell, ESs are under pressure from anthropogenic development, whilst managing this
important area is still unilateral towards some ESs. This results in an over and under evaluation
of specific ESs, leading to unsuitable management of the area and a degradation of many ESs.
To close this gap between science and policy, we need a new method that comprises currently
available information regarding the quality and/or state of ESs and the impact of development
measures on them. A new platform (serious gaming) is needed, where protected area managers,
policy- and decision-makers can explore these issues while discovering alternative
management possibilities for the future.
Research Scope
For the scope of the study at hand, following conditions were decided upon. This study is a
“descriptive” study focusing on the gathering and analysis of knowledge and data available for
ESs interactions. In this case, the concept of SG is used as a platform to combine and evaluate
information. Therefore, this research’s focal point was to gather and analyse all relevant
information and create an SG that can be used as a management tool. This means that within
this research, available data regarding ESs is brought together and analysed. This resulted in
an evaluation of the current status of available ES. Since ESs can be found over a various spatial
and temporal scales, the decision was made to focus on the Dutch part of the Wadden Sea area.
A multitude of ESs has already been identified by previous work of the ECOPOTENTIAL
project, resulting in a big mind map which identified ES in the Wadden Sea (Appendix 1).
Therefore, one ES per CICES classification has been picked from this mind-map. Parts of this
mind map can be found in Appendix I. However, this resulted in the three indicators of
aquaculture (provisioning ES), habitats (regulating & maintenance ES), and tourism (cultural
ES). All indicators are dependent on two sub-indicators that together determine the current
state of the ESs (see chapter 0). To analyse these ESs, specific literature has been used. This
9
literature derived from Deltares, the provinces of Friesland & Groningen, the Common
Wadden Sea Secretariat (CWSS) and from the ferry companies Royal Teso (RT) and
Wagenborg Passagierdiensten B. V. (WP). However, the research is not limited to these as also
other publicly available information is used. Additionally, to identify currently conducted
measures in the Wadden Sea, reports from the Waddenacademie are used (Sas, et al., 2016).
All this information was brought together into a management tool called SG. Nowadays society
lives in a world in which data availability is increasing day by day, resulting in an
unmanageable amount of data. This thesis shows the possibility to comprise these massive
amounts of data into an SG that acts like an analysis tool. Within that, serious gaming is used
as a platform that accumulates, combines and analyses related data. The data which are used in
the SG can originate from various sources and combine different types of data (i.e. literature
or empirical data).
It has been evaluated what data has to go into the SG and which can be excluded, and how the
data is implemented in the game. It was not intended to test the outcome of the game, meaning
the actual communication part of the tool. The focal point of this thesis, therefore, lies in the
analytical part that builds up the backbone of this management tool. The scope of this thesis
focuses on identifying connections of pre-defined ESs present in the Dutch Wadden Sea.
Accumulating and generating a meaningful data base to be used as the underlying, data
backbone for an SG is sought, reflecting on potential synergies and trade-offs arising from
anthropogenic inferences/management measures applied in the Wadden Sea
However, it has to be stressed that it is not intended to verify and test the outcome of the game,
and within that the interaction of participants in the game. The focal point here was to analyse
what data is available, what data can be used and how it can be used. Within that, this thesis is
taking available data from various sources and is ranking them regarding the most important
issues and impacts. Finally, it has to be mentioned that the time scope of this research was
limited to an 8-month period.
Research Objective
The overall aim of this study is to analyse the current state of ES in the Wadden Sea, as well
as the impact current used anthropogenic measures have on them in order to create a suitable
management tool. To do so, a serious game that focuses on ES in the Wadden Sea region is
developed. Within that, the Wadden Sea area is represented as realistic as possible. Existing
10
ES services, as well as, current anthropogenic measures conducted in the Wadden Sea are
implemented in the game. To do so, related literature to assess monitoring data, key
performance indicators and measures are used.
This knowledge then is transferred into an SG that specifically focuses on the Wadden Sea
area. An SG that focuses on ES can help to raise awareness about the concept of ES. This
includes, but is not limited to the interconnectivity and the complexity of an ecosystem, trade-
offs, synergies between ES, and development measures. At some point, it is assumed that this
SG can be used as a management tool for protected area management, as well as policy and
decision-making processes. Within that, a tool is created that can assist also in developing
further applications that help in a non-monetary valuation of ES and therefore assist in the
proper management of ES.
All in all, the aim of this research is to create a tool that incorporates available data and trends
regarding ES in the Dutch Wadden Sea region. The focus is paid on what ESs are currently
available in the Dutch Wadden Sea, and how are these impacted by anthropogenic measures.
This results in a visual simulation of interactions, showing possible positive as well as negative
impacts and their consequences to the overall environment. Within that, different management
strategies can be explored, leading to a tool in which participants can explore the quality of ES
in the Wadden Sea, the impact of development measures on them and possible management
responses. All that can be explored in a safe environment that has no consequences if some
management strategies fail.
Research Question
In order to achieve the above-mentioned research objectives and aims, the following research
question and sub-questions should be answered.
Main question:
How can the concept/framework of serious game be transformed into a version that focuses
on ecosystem services in protected areas (Wadden Sea)?
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Sub questions:
1) What are possible ecosystem service indicators and sub-indicators for the Wadden Sea
region?
2) How is the current state of these ecosystem services?
3) What measures are conducted in the Wadden Sea region?
4) What is the impact of these measures on the ecosystem services in the Wadden region?
1.3 Hypothesis
H1: It is potentially possible to show the interconnection of ecosystem services in protected
areas (Wadden Sea) within the concept of serious gaming. Consequently, serious gaming can
potentially be used as a tool for the management/development of protected areas regarding
ecosystem services
H0: It is NOT possible to use the concept of serious gaming to show/teach/educate the
interconnection of ecosystem services in protected areas (Wadden Sea), and within that serious
gaming cannot be used as a tool for the management/development of protected areas
1.4 Research outline
Continuing from this introduction chapter, the outline of this research can be described as
follows. The 2nd chapter of this research is focused on related literature regarding ESs and
serious gaming. Therefore, it addresses the state of knowledge regarding the topics of ESs as
well as the concept of serious gaming and the use of serious games for academic purposes.
Afterwards, in the 3rd chapter of this study, the methodology can be found. This includes the
different steps that have been undertaken in order to choose specific indicators for the
ecosystem service classifications, suitable measures for the tool and visualization methods.
Following, in the 4th chapter, the results of this thesis can be found. Firstly, this includes the
ecosystem service indicator analysis. Secondly, it describes all the development measures that
are included in this thesis can be found. Within that also the impacts of these measures on the
ecosystem indicators are laid down. This includes impacts derived from the literature as well
as from expert knowledge. Thirdly, this chapter investigates how serious game can be used as
a management tool. This includes the model of the game, the game visualization, gameplay
examples, in-game scenarios and the elaboration on the possibility of introducing remote
sensing as an input method. Afterwards, in the 5th chapter, the discussion, including
12
management recommendations and conclusion can be found. Lastly, in the 6th chapter, the
limitations and further recommendations on the development of the ESSG can be found.
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2 Literature review
Millions and millions of species are living on this planet which we call earth. Many of them
gain energy either directly from the sun, in the case of plants via photosynthesis, or, in the case
of animals and microbes, by feeding on other organisms via predation, parasitism, or
decomposition (MA, Ecosystems and Human Well-being. A framework for Assessment,
2003). Organisms interact with each other in several ways, such as competition, predation or
in facilitating ways, such as pollination. This linkage between the different organisms and their
physical and biological system, which is keeping all organisms in the system alive, is known
as an ecosystem.
‘’An ecosystem is a dynamic complex of plant, animal, and microorganism communities and
the non-living environment, interacting as a functional unit. Humans are an integral part of
it’’ (Millenium Ecosystem Assessment [MA], 2003)
Also, we humans are mammals, and within that animals. Therefore, humans are a part of this
ever-changing ecosystem. Consequently, humans contribute to the changing of the
environment, within that, goods and services it provides
2.1 Ecosystem services
The Wadden Sea ecosystem enables us humans to obtain several benefits from it or better said
from the ES the environment is providing. One definition for these ES, according to the
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2003), is that ESs are “the benefits people obtain from
ecosystems” (MA, Ecosystems and Human Well-being. A framework for Assessment, 2003).
This definition is obtained from these two other commonly references representative
definitions:
“Ecosystem services are the conditions and processes through which natural ecosystems, and
the species that make them up, sustain and fulfil human life. They maintain biodiversity and
the production of ecosystem goods, such as seafood, forage timber, biomass fuels, natural
fibre, and many pharmaceuticals, industrial products, and their precursors (Daily 1997b:3).”
&
15
“Ecosystem goods (such as food) and services (such as waste assimilation) represent the
benefits, human populations derive, directly or indirectly, from ecosystem functions
(Costanza et al. 1997:253).”
The MA is classifying ES within the four groups of provisioning, regulating & maintenance,
and cultural ES. However, a new approach of classifying ES has been developed, which will
also be used in this research. Therefore, guidelines of CICES are used. CICES is working
towards a common classification of ESs and differs slightly from earlier approaches of
classifying ESs. CICES has classified ESs in three classes named PRC. Within that, CICES
excluded the classification of supporting services. The motivation to do so is that supporting
services are the underpinned structures and processes that lead to the rise of ESs that can be
explored by humans (CICES, 2016). The final motivation to exclude supporting services as a
classification is, within the CICES classifications, only the final services which deliver goods
and benefits to mankind are identified. As this model becomes more frequently used and
accepted in the scientific community, the CICES classification will be used in this research.
For a better understanding of the individual ESs, short examples of the categorization are
included in the following chapter.
2.1.1 Provisioning services
Provisioning services are defined by CICES structure as “all [the] material and energetic
outputs from ecosystems; they are tangible things that can be exchanged or traded, as well as
consumed or used directly by people in manufacturing processes. Both biotic and abiotic
outputs are covered” (Hanes-Young & Potschin, 2011). These, include:
- Nutrition: Nutrition derives from terrestrial, freshwater and marine plants and
animals used for commercial or individual purposes, as well as the availability of
portable water from storage facilities and/or water purification plants.
- Material: These derive from biotic materials, such as non-food plants, non-food
animal fibre, ornamental resources, genetic resources or medical resources; and from
abiotic materials (mineral resources).
- Energy: This section only includes renewable energy derived from biofuels, such as
plant or animal based resources, as well as renewable abiotic resources from wind,
hydro, solar, tidal, and thermal.
16
2.1.2 Regulation & Maintenance services
Regulating & maintenance ES includes “all ways in which the ecosystem is controlling or
modifying biotic and abiotic parameters that define the environment of people. These
ecosystem outputs are not directly consumed, but rather affect the performance of individuals,
communities and populations and their activities” (Hanes-Young & Potschin, 2011). These
include:
- Regulating of waste: This is conducted by bioremediation derived from plants and
microorganisms, as well as the dilution and filtration and sequestration of related
substances.
- Flow regulation: This includes air flow regulation by windbreaks, shelter belts and
ventilation; water flow regulation from run-offs and discharges, water storage,
sedimentation and attenuation of wave energy; and mass flow regulation derived from
erosion and avalanche protection.
- Regulating of the physical environment: This includes the atmospheric regulation
of the global, local & regional climate; the water quality regulation derived from
water purification and oxygenation and the cooling of water; and paedogenesis and
soil quality regulations that maintains soil fertility and structure.
- Regulation of biotic environment: This includes the lifecycle maintenance and
habitat protection derived from pollination and seed dispersal; pest and disease
control derived from biological control mechanisms; and gene pool protection for
maintaining nursery populations.
2.1.3 Cultural services
Cultural services include non-material ecosystem outputs that have symbolic, cultural or
intellectual significant benefits obtained from an ecosystem. This is done via spiritual
enrichment, cognitive development, reflection, recreation and aesthetic experience (Hanes-
Young & Potschin, 2011). These, among others, include:
- Symbolic cultural services: Throughout the different religions, many people attach
aesthetic, heritage and spiritual values to parts of an ecosystem.
- Intellectual and experimental services: A specific environment can include
recreational and community activities as well as scientific and educational
information & knowledge.
17
It is important to mention that the cultural services are very closely bound to human values
and behaviour. Within that, the evaluation of cultural values differs very much from person to
person, more than i.e. the provisioning services.
2.2 The importance of ecosystem services to mankind
ES allow us to obtain several benefits from an environment and within that are crucial for the
well-being of a human being. Human well-being is dependent on many factors and therefore,
has resulted in many different formulations and definitions throughout the years. Many people
would agree that a human being needs basic material needs, the experience of freedom, health,
personal security, and good social relations to achieve a good life, or in other words to achieve
‘’well-being’’ (MA, Ecosystems and Human Well-being. A framework for Assessment, 2003).
Combined, these provide the optimal conditions for physical, social, psychological and
spiritual fulfilment. In contrast to well-being stands ‘poverty’. The World Development Report
2000/01 defined poverty as ‘the pronounced deprivation of well-being’. In a study by Narayan
et al. (1999) called ‘’voices of the poor’’, research was conducted in 47 countries to analyse
how poor people express their idea of a good life. The vast majority of the answers fell into the
five categories, necessary material, health, good social relations, personal security and freedom
and choice (Narayan, Patel, Schafft, Rademacher, & Koch-Schulte, 1999). All of these are
outputs from ES that can be derived from humans. Therefore, it can be observed that ES are
very closely linked to the well-being of a human being and should be preserved in order to
guarantee well-being also for future generations to come.
” The dual challenge for society is thus to retain and, indeed, sustain a sufficient level of
ecosystem services in a way that contributes to the enhancement of human well-being and the
reduction of poverty.” (MA, Ecosystems and Human Well-being. A framework for
Assessment, 2003)
As mentioned above, ecosystem services are contributing to human well-being as they provide
benefits that can be obtained by mankind (TEEB, 2010). Therefore, the condition of an
ecosystem is the most important factor when determining the effective capacity that is provided
by these ESs (EEA, 2015). The need of these ESs is dependent on the demand deriving from
society. Therefore, different areas have different needs that must be fulfilled by ESs. When
looking at cities on the one hand, it can be observed that they very much rely on the hinterlands,
as they provide a great variety of ESs ranging from food and water provision up to recreation
18
(EEA, 2015). On the other hand, rural areas provide a wide range of ESs that are important for
the regulation and maintenance of an environment, which is not necessarily having the same
demand as it can be observed in urban areas (EEA, 2015). Therefore, the human well-being of
an area is very much dependent on the ecosystem, its biodiversity including their function and
services. To bring this concept a little bit closer, it is worthwhile to look at the work conducted
by the MAES working group (Maes et al., 2014), which illustrates the links between them
(Figure 2).
Figure 2: Conceptual framework of EU-wide assessment and its link to ESs (Maes et al., 2013)
(Maes, et al., 2014)
Many of these ecosystem services are under pressure as mankind is exploiting these ecosystem
services, while alternating the non-living or physical environment. Therefore, many
ecosystems are managed in such a way that they maximize the provision of one service. Most
of the time this is food of materials obtained from an ecosystem (EEA, 2015). However, by
doing so, trade-offs are generated. This means that while one ecosystem service is encouraged,
others are neglected. This poses a problem in the management of these ecosystem services, as
in reality, ecosystems provide a wide range of ESs that also influences each other (Turkelboom,
et al., 2016). Therefore, it is crucial for management purposes to identify relevant ESs of an
area, to identify possible trade-offs between ESs, and to consider the relationship amongst them
(Kandziora, Burkhard, & Müller, 2012). Literature indicates two criteria to better delineate the
19
concept of ES trade-offs. First of all, trade-offs and synergies between ESs can only occur
when the considered ESs interact with another (Turkelboom, et al., 2016). This is often a result
from ESs that simultaneously respond to the same driving force or due to true interactions
between ESs (Bennett, Peterson, & Gordon, 2009). Secondly, the understanding of ES trade-
offs requires the understanding of potential supply and demand (Geijzendorffer, Martín-López,
& Roche, 2015). This means, that an interaction amongst ESs is only invoked when an ESs is
obtained or used and therefore implies that the ecosystem is in some way
managed/altered/accessed/protected as a result of demand arising from i.e. tourism
development (Turkelboom, et al., 2016). While ecosystems usually provide a multiple
functions and services, the “limits to the actual supply of ESs [depends] on the ability of the
ecosystem to deliver each service to the required level” (Turkelboom, et al., 2016, page 2). This
in turn is dependent on the biophysical drivers (i.e. climate change) executed management
practises, and/or the interaction amongst the ESs themselves. On the other hand, one major
driving force regarding ecosystem management, their use and structure (especially in
landscapes with a high activity of anthropogenic influence) is the demand and desires derived
from stakeholders (Mouchet, et al., 2014). Therefore, trade-offs cannot only impact the affected
ecosystem, but can also lead to potential conflicts among users that bear the burden and others
that benefit of the ES supply (i.e. TEEB, 2010; Kandziora et al., 2013). Therefore, it is vital to
incorporate both aspects in the management of ESs to retain and sustain sufficient levels of
ESs.
2.3 The valuation of Ecosystem Services
Including the value of an ecosystem is a practice that has been developed by mankind for
decades. The valuation of ecosystem services or ecosystem service valuation (ESV) started
mainly in the 1960s when environmentalism became a major concept that people associated
themselves with (Liu, Costanza, Farber, & Troy, 2010). However, this does not mean that this
concept was not implemented in society before that. Nature benefits were already noticed in
ancient civilizations. One example would be Plato`s description in 400BC where he elaborates
on the impacts that deforestation has on soil erosion of a specific area and within that causes
the drying of natural springs (Daily G. C., Nature`s Service: Societal Dependence on Natural
Ecosystems, 1997). Nevertheless, real efforts to put a value on ESs began around the 1960s,
which shall be in focus for the sake of this report. To give a better overview, the time span of
1960 to the present has been divided into four time periods.
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2.3.1 1960s – A common problem with diverse answers
In the 1960s environmentalism began to attract attention from many people around the world.
It was basically the very beginning of early environmentalisms that can be observed in our
modern society (Liu et al., 2010). People became aware that the environment is an important
component in keeping mankind and the planet alive. This resulted, for example, in the
foundation of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the passage of the 1970 Clean
Air Act. This new movement resulted in the public being aware of several environmental
problems, such a pollution or population increase. Within that, economists were rethinking the
role that mother nature plays within the production models, while also incorporating new types
for including their welfare measures (Crocker, 1999).
The first step was done by Economist Kenneth Boulding who first compared the ‘cowboy
model’, in which the environment is seen as a resource without limits, with the ‘spaceship
economy’, where essential limits of the ecosystem are presented (Boulding, 1966). This was
the first time that a production model included the ecosystem service of waste assimilation,
where in contrast, beforehand only provisioning ecosystem services were mainly included in a
production model (Liu, 2010). Another big step in this decade was conducted by the work of
Krutilla which began the analysis of cultural services as it was observed that people value the
aesthetics of an area simply for its existence. Krutilla observed that people obtain various
enjoyment from the existence of natural areas, and therefore, are ‘willing-to-pay’ the
governments to keep these natural areas intact (Krutilla, 1967). Additionally, Krutilla (1967)
analysed the context of a cost-benefit analysis within dams, and therefore assigned high
economic present values to the loss of the present landscape, a service that is derived from
nature. Within that Krutilla (1967) divided use and non-use values and added them up into a
Total Economic Value (i.e. Gomez-Baggethun, de Groot, Lomar & Montes, 2009 or Heal et
al., 2005). But not only the existing value of these services were considered. The 60s also
created the option value, or in other words the value of avoiding commitments that would result
in high costs if they must be reversed (Weisbrod, 1964). One of the major challenges in this
time was to include these concepts in the market. This is mostly because most of the ecosystem
services that are included in these concepts are not actually traded in the markets. Therefore,
new evaluation methods have been proposed, including travel costs (Clawson, 1959),
contingent valuation (Davis, 1963) and hedonic pricing (Ridker & Henning, 1967). However,
also ecologists proposed new methods to value ecosystem services, including the energy
analysis in which the solar energy is used as the only primary energy input to the global system
21
and values are derived from the energy that is put into a specific ESs (Odum, 1967). As can be
observed, the 60s brought the foundation of ESV into mankind’s society.
2.3.2 1970s – a steady-state economy
In the 1970s the concept of ‘limits to growth’ was created (Meadows, Meadows, Randers, &
Behrens, 1972). Within that a ‘steady-state economics’ has been proposed which indicates that
the man-made economy cannot grow exponentially, but will reach a steady-state at some point.
Within that, it has been indicated that the “economy is only a subsystem of the finite global
ecosystem” (Liu et al., 2010, page 59 based on Daly, 1971). Alongside other early efforts, a
discussion arose between economists and ecologists regarding the concept of value. The main
discussion point was that the value and price were calculated by the ‘willingness to pay’ rather
than by the energy that was needed, in order to produce a good or service (Liu et al., 2010).
One method, that was developed at that time, is called the production function approach in
which economists and ecologists were brought closer together. Within this method, the
economic value of an ESs that is directly contributing to the production of a service or good
was estimated and included. This was used for products where ESs were used alongside other
inputs (McConnell & Bockstael, 2006; Barbier, 2007). Within that, the 70s were a major
contributor to the environmental and resource economics. The concept of natural capital was
created by Schumacher (1973), which resulted in many following authors to include
‘ecosystem services’ in their valuations. This incorporation of ESs was mainly pedagogic, as
it should demonstrate “how the disappearance of biodiversity directly affects ecosystem
functions that underpin critical services for human well-being” (Gomes-Baggethun et al., 2009,
page 1213).
2.3.3 1980s – multidisciplinary ESV research
The 80s were a big milestone for the valuation of ecosystem services in policy and decision
making. Two major governmental regulations in the United States of America gave a big boost
in the research regarding the valuation of ecosystem service. These were the Comprehensive,
Environmental Responses, Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA), or otherwise known as
the Superfund, which included the responsibility to compensate for damage done to natural
resources derived from toxic releases (Liu et al., 2010). The assessment of these damages is
based on the Natural Resource Damage Assessment (NRDA) which required compensation
within a “welfare-economics paradigm, measuring damages as lost consumer surplus” (Liu et
22
al., 2010, page 60). These protocols were based on several economic valuation methods (i.e.
Hanemann, 1992). Another major contribution to the rise of research regarding ecosystem
service valuation derived from former U.S. President Reagan, who released the Executive
Order 12911 (1981), in which all new major regulations were subject to a cost-benefit analysis
(CBA) (Smith, 1984).
Despite the new regulations derived from the United States a major accident contributed to the
rise of ESs valuation. In 1989, the oil tanker Exxon Valdez spilled 11 million gallons of crude
oil into Alaska`s Prince William Sound. The result was that the District of Columbia Circuit of
the U.S. Court of Appeals decided that also damages to non-use values derived from oil release
or other hazardous substances should be part of the economic damaged caused (Liu et al.,
2010). Therefore, the Exxon Valdez case was the very first that included a non-use value
estimation based on contingent valuation in the quantitative assessment of damages (Liu et al.,
2010). Within this accident, society became alarmed that damages to the natural system can
greatly affect the economy, as well as, human well-being. Therefore, more focus was paid on
finding methods that include the valuation of non-use values, leading to the rise of many
methods to do so (Carson, et al., 2003).
Despites all efforts conducted, the difference between ecologists and economists were still
prevailing in the 80s when looking at the correlation of energy input, prices and values assigned
(Ropke, 2004). However, society was also able to witness the first collaboration paper by an
ecologist and economist regarding the valuation of (wetland) ecosystems (Farber & Constanza,
1987). In order to find a common ground between ecologists and economists, the term of
‘ecosystem services’ appeared in the early 80s (Ehrlich & Ehrlich, 1981). This lead to an
exponential increase in published papers regarding ecosystem services, including also
disciplines that at first seem to be irrelevant, like computer science, law or demography (Liu et
al., 2010). However, the development of the concept of ESs and the relation to the ‘natural
capital’ it represents lead to a wider understanding how much the environment is contributing
to human well-being. Within that, the physical, human and social capital was seen as valuable
assets for society (Liu et al., 2010).
2.3.4 1990s to present – a transdisciplinary ESV
The rise of the concept of ESs has led to a variety of papers that attempted to value the ESs
provided by an ecosystem. However, a big milestone was achieved by Constanza (1997) in
which he assigned monetary figures to the global natural capital and ESs. These monetary
23
figures had a rather strong impact on science and policy as they showed how much the
environment is contributing to the economy, as well as human well-being (US$ 33 trillion)
(Constanza, et al., 1997). This led to the rise of the ‘Ecosystem Approach’ (adopted by the
UNEP-CEB, 2000) and the Global Biodiversity Assessment (Heywood & Watson, 1995).
Additionally, the Millennium Assessment (MA, 2003) identified the human dependency on the
ecosystem services provided by an ecosystem, as well as, the underlying ecosystem functions
it provides (Gomez-Baggethun et al., 2009). Within the rising focus of assigning monetary
values of ecosystem services, more research has been conducted to find suitable Market Based
Instruments, in order to find economic incentives for environmental conservation (Daily &
Matson, 2008).
One of the methods used was the contingent valuation which aimed at estimating the lost no-
use or existence values of a specific area (Liu et al., 2010). However, the reliability of this
method was questioned by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA),
which in turn then formed a panel consistent out of multiple Noble Prize winners. They
concluded that: “the conventional valuation studies can produce estimates reliable enough to
be the starting point of a judicial process of damage assessment, including lost passive-use
values” (Arrows et al., 1993, page 64).
Besides conventional valuing, another method gained in popularity in the 90s. This was called
the conjoint analysis. Within this method, researchers were able to “identify the marginal value
of changes in the characteristics of environmental resources” (Liu et al., 2010, page 62).
Examples of this conjoint analysis include the methods of meta-analysis, group valuation, and
multiple criteria decision analysis. Within these methods, it was for the first time possible to
determine trade-offs regarding the environmental condition of an area, rather than just looking
at the monetary value some of the ESs represent (Liu et al., 2010). This was especially a big
milestone for valuing ecosystems that are providing several ecosystem goods and services. The
method of meta-analysis was introduced in the late 80s and early 90s (Walsh, Johnson &
McKean 1989, 1992). The method of meta-analysis makes it possible for researchers to
“understand the influence of methodological and study-specific factors on research outcomes
and to synthesize past research” (Liu et al., 2010, page 62). Within that, researchers were
possible to identify changes in an ecosystem (services) and valuate them regarding past studies,
leading to a non-monetary and non-market-based valuation of ESs of a specific area.
24
All these developments in time led to a state in which researchers have a variety of methods
that can value ESs. Or to put it in the words of Bringham, et al., (1995): “The challenge of
improving ecosystem valuation methods present an opportunity for partnership – partnership
between ecologists, economists and other social scientists and policy communities.
Interdisciplinary dialogue is essential to the task of developing improved methods for valuing
ecosystem attributes” (Bringham, et al., 1995, page 90). To this day there is no correct answer
how to value the ecosystem and its services that it is providing. However, the advances in
science show that mankind is on a good way to recognize the environment as an essential part
of our economy and the well-being of our society.
2.4 Serious Gaming and related concepts
One possible management tool that can assist in retaining and sustaining sufficient levels of
the ES is serious gaming. The term serious game (SG) is becoming more and more popular in
nowadays society. A quick Google-search results in about 36.000.000 results (22nd March
2017). It seems like the term is well established, however, there is currently no singleton
definition of the concept (Susi, Johannesson, & Backlund, 2007). When also conducting a
quick Google-search on the topic of SG definition, Google finds around 1.7million hits (22nd
March 2017). Many might argue that a proper definition is irrelevant; however, it actually poses
a big problem. Different groups might use the same term at the same time, but refer to different
things (Susi et al., 2007). As mentioned there are several definitions regarding SGs that are
available. Some of them include:
“SG refers to a type of game that is used for training, advertising, simulation or education”
(Susi et al., 2007)
&
“SGs are computer and video games for non-entertainment purposes” (minkhollow.ca)
&
“SGs are played on a computer with specific rules, that use entertainment to further govern
or cooperate training, education, health, public policy, and strategic communication
objectives” (Zyda, 2005)
25
All definitions vary a little bit from each other, but they have one thing in common. All
definitions describe SGs as a (digital) game used for a purpose other than mere entertainment,
such as education, training and scientific exploration. Therefore, SGs are using digital aids in
order to simulate environments and systems in which the player of the game can explore and
modify specific aspects. This in turn contributes to the enhanced learning process, triggered
by a mix of education, entertainment, curiosity, and fun (Susi et al., 2007).
However, the concept of using additional aids for learning is not a new approach. As this
report is focusing on SGs, it should be noted that there are many overlapping domains
existing such as E-Learning, which refers to the general concept of enhanced learning,
computer-based learning, interactive technology and distance learning (Hodson, Connolly, &
Saunders, 2001). Another similar domain is called Edutainment – education through
entertainment – which refers to any kind of education that also entertains. This is often
associated with video games than incorporate educational aids (Michael & Chen, 2006).
However, edutainment failed its success, mainly because it focused on mathematics and
science for preschool- and young children who described edutainment games as “boring
games and drill-and-kill learning” (Eck, 2006). Additionally, edutainment failed to be
economically profitable. That is when the concept of SGs became re-examined during the late
1990s (Susi et al., 2007). The boom of SGs started when the U.S. Army released a video
game called “America`s Army 2002” (americasarmy.com). In the same year, the Serious
Game Initiative was founded. This initiative was created by the Woodrow Wilson Center for
International Scholars, and within that, the term of “serious game” became widespread
(wilsoncenter.org/publication-series/serious-games). Since then, SGs have been associated
with “games for a purpose other than mere entertainment” (Susi et al., 2007). Therefore, it
could be said that SGs are encompassing the same goals as edutainment; however, the goals
of SGs reaches far beyond the teaching of facts and rote memorizing. Instead “SGs include
all aspects of education, which are teaching, training, and informing, at all ages” (Michael &
Chen, 2006).
Another similar domain of SGs is called Game-Based Learning (GBL), which can be described
as a branch of SGs, which deals with applications that have defined learning outcomes (Susi et
al., 2007). However, several researchers see GBL and SGs as the same (i.e. Corti, 2006).
Nevertheless, these researchers also recognize the potential of improving training activities and
initiatives by virtue, i.e. the engagement, motivation, role playing and repeatability (Corti,
26
2006). Finally, the last similar domain identified within this research is Digital Game-Based
Learning (DGBL), which is very closely related to GBL but incorporates a digital variable.
DGBL can be described as the new trend of E-learning (Kiili, 2005). According to Prensky
(2001, 2003), DGBL is based on two premises. Firstly, he argues, that nowadays generations
are “native speaker” in the language of digital media, which allows easier and subliminal
interaction with digital media enhancing a quicker learning progress. Secondly, Prensky argues
that nowadays generation experiences a completely new form of a computer and video games
played. “This new form of entertainment has shaped their preferences and abilities and offers
an enormous potential for their learning, both as children and as adults” (Prensky, 2001).
All in all, it can be said that there are different terms that together point to what society calls a
SGs. The concept of SG is still defined in many ways; however, many definitions agree upon
some matters, but so far, many still vary regarding different perspectives and interest. What is
agreed upon most is that SGs are used as a gaming technology “for a purpose other than mere
fun” (Susi et al., 2007). These purposes, among others, include education, training and
scientific exploration.
2.5 Applications of serious games
As can be observed, SGs have been used in education and training for quite some time.
However, new and better technological development has led to a faster improvement of these
games, resulting in a wide variety of context for which the games are developed. These games
show high potential when it comes to (creative) problem recognition, (creative) problem
solving, decision making, teamwork, cognitive development, enhancement of short and long-
term memory, and development of social skills (i.e. Eck 2006; Susi et al., 2007; Johnson et al.,
2014). Additionally, SGs use computer graphics, which enables the player of the game to “role-
play” in environments that normally would be difficult to replicate. And especially this attribute
is essential for (environmental) education because environmental managers, policy makers, and
decision makers find themselves often in situations where important decisions on “wicked”
environmental planning and management problems, including climate change, ocean
acidification, biodiversity loss, among others (Medani, Pierce, & Mirchi, 2016). Within that,
SGs have the ability to let players of the game experience a difficult problem while
experiencing different management possibilities to get to that goal. Within that, the player can
observe negative, as well as, positive impacts on a specific problem. Therefore, it seems logical
that the SG market has developed over the recent years.
27
The development of SGs in nowadays society is progressing very fast and has been used in
various contexts. Madani, et al., (2016) provides an extensive list with studies that focus on the
operationalizing of SGs in multiple contexts. Examples of such applications mentioned by
Medani et al., (2016) include healthcare and medicine; military training, computer
programming, foreign language and culture, business management, health promotion,
sustainable resource management, engineering, mathematics, and physics. SGs are used in a
wide variety of context, however, SGs available for environmental education are still lacking
behind. Between the years 1994 to 2013 around 25 SGs with an environmental management
context have been published. However, there have been many SGs that haven not been
published in academic journals or even online. This is mainly because the majority of SGs in
the environmental management sector have been created for own academic purposes, like
teaching tools, and within that they are not necessarily available online (Medani et al., 2016).
Nevertheless, the games that are available online focus greatly on water irrigation, climate
change, conflict resolution, and common pool resource management, among others (i.e.
sustainable delta game (2010); fate the world (2011); aqua republica (2012) and climate change
survivor (2013)). Even though the context in which SGs have been implemented in these
studies varies from this thesis research, some similarities can be seen. One-quarter of all games
analysed by Medani et al., (2016) were focusing on conflict resolution and water management.
However, it seems that the connection between SGs and ecosystems and their services and
functions has not found the way into this new platform. There are games like “Citizen Science”
(2012) or “Catchment Detox” (2008) aim at players to create an environmentally healthy
playing environment, including managing agriculture, forestry, industry, tourism, and
ecosystem activities (Medani et al., 2016).
These developed games help greatly to transfer difficult scientific knowledge in an easier way
to the player. However, most games that are available online mainly focusing on (inland) water
management with the main focus on irrigation or conflict resolutions that open a dialogue
between different parties. Nevertheless, environmental games that focus on actual
environmental processes are rare. This means that actual games based on ESs in a specific area
are rare. Most of the SGs analysed, project a fictive environment with a wide range of options
available that might not be present in real life. Therefore, one major challenge remains in the
development of environmental management serious games, and that is to create a site-specific
gaming environment that resembles a specific environment with specific management
strategies that can lead to better problem analysis and management in the future.
28
2.6 Serious game and ecosystem services
As mentioned, ESs are of high importance to mankind. However, in the last decades, we can
experience dramatic changes in the environment, related to several issues. Understanding ES
is, therefore, vital in order to manage an area appropriately. However, this is easier said than
done, and so problems with forecasting specific events, including measures taken by mankind
and their impact on the environment and the ES it provides, still exist.
One major driver for change regarding ES is the technological development (MA, Ecosystems
and Human Well-being. A framework for Assessment, 2003). Technological development is
happening very fast and when looking at it can be observed that this technological development
heavily altered existing ES. One example would be the high increasing demand for the food
provisioning service. With modern technological development, it becomes more accessible to
exploit more of the existing food resources, such as fish, or even alter the landscape to make
them suitable for food provisioning purposes (Boyd, 2010).
Another factor that will have a severe impact on ecosystems and their services is climate
change. The scientific community is very certain that climate change is happening; and we can
already experience variations in climate patterns around the globe (IPCC, 2014). These changes
will have adverse impacts on the natural system as we know it and within that will have impacts
on the wealth or “well-being” they generate (Boyd, 2010). Therefore, it is possible that climate
change will have a huge impact on altering the amount and the location of wealth produced by
natural systems (Boyd, 2010). However, it cannot be conclusively said that climate change has
only negative impacts on the ecosystem and the services it provides. In some rare cases, climate
change can help to increase the productivity of specific natural systems (Boyd, 2010).
When looking at all the different challenges in managing ESs, it becomes clear that mankind
needs a better way to express the scientific evidence to policy and decision makers. As
mentioned above, the serious game tool is an innovative way that may help to bring policy and
science closer together. By using serious gaming, all challenges and possible measurements
can be explored in a sandbox environment. Therefore, difficult scientific knowledge is made
easily understandable while the interactive playing part of SGs is transmitting the knowledge
and stimulates a fast learning process crucial for proper planning management.
30
3 Methods
It is intended to help the management of areas with great ES values and bring scientific
evidence closer to policy makers and area managers, a new serious game was developed. This
SG focuses on the interconnection and importance of ES for nature and mankind. To do so, the
Wadden Sea area was used as an example area for this SG. This SG aims at visualizing ESs,
their usage for humans and their importance to the ecosystem of the Wadden Sea region as a
whole. It is intended to show the participants of the game what positive effects which ESs have
on nature and mankind, while also visualizing how these ESs are interconnected. Additionally,
the impacts of anthropogenic measures to the ESs are exemplified. In order to create such a
comprehensive SG, the following methods were used. An overview of the conducted steps
within this research can be found in Figure 3 on page 33, while the following paragraphs
explain the individual steps taken in this research.
3.1 Methodology application
The first step of this research was to acquire an Overview of the situation. To do so, literatures
addressing the issue of ecosystems, ecosystem services, serious gaming concepts and serious
gaming applications have been investigated. This led to a good understanding of the Wadden
Sea ecosystem and the ESs it is providing, as well as the current development of serious games
and their application in today’s society.
The second step of this research was to identify Ecosystem Service Indicators. To do so, the
ecosystem service classifications of the Common International Classification of Ecosystem
Services (CICES) have been used (chapter 2.1). The classifications each have one indicator
and two sub-indicators assigned to them, which further determine the initial state of ES in the
Wadden Sea, and within that in the developed serious game. To get an idea what possible
indicators can be taken for each classification, the existing ES mind-map developed by the
ECOPOTENTIAL working group was used (ElSerafy, et al., 2016). This ecosystem service
mind-map can be found in Appendix I. After possible ES have been identified from this min-
map, a performance indicator validation scheme was conducted by the author. Within that,
many of the possible indicators have been rated to identify the most suitable once (see chapter
0). Once these ecosystem service performance indicators were chosen, based on the conducted
indicator validity scheme provided by the author, expert meetings were held to verify the
selected performance indicators. The final step for the ecosystem service indicators was to
31
identify their current state and/or performance over the years. To analyse these performances,
related literature in these fields was gathered and analysed by author (chapter 0). This resulted
in a meta-analysis that identified positive and negative changes over the years in which data
was available. To translate the related literature into suitable values for a serious game, all
positive and negative trends have been rated by the author by assigning a value of +1 for
positive trends and changes and a value of -1 for negative trends and values. Within that, the
current state of the individual indicators was identified (see page 53, page 65 & page 74). The
assigned values not only represent the current state of ES in the Wadden Sea, but are also used
as a first indication for the player of the game to understand in what situation he/she is finding
herself in the game and in what direction future development/management responses should
point.
The third step in this research was to identify suitable Development measures that are currently
conducted in the Wadden Sea area. In order to identify possible measures, the report published
by the Waddenacademie named “Opzet en resultaten van het Waddenhuisberaad” (English: Design
and results of the Wadden Sea House Discussions) by Sas et al., (2016) was used. Within this report, 36
most common anthropogenic activities that are conducted in the Wadden Sea are listed. These
activities have been rated by the author according to their relevance and impacts (Appendix
VII). These measures have been investigated regarding their impacts on the bottom layer,
microscopic marine life, soil, fishes, birds and marine mammals. Very positive impacts have
been rated with +2, positive impacts with +1, neutral with 0, negative impacts with -1, and very
negative impacts with -2. This gave a good indication of relevant development measures
conducted in the Wadden Sea, which also can be used within this Ecosystem Service Serious
Game (ESSG). After analysing the most suitable measures, expert meetings have been
conducted to discuss which measures are practiced intensively in the Wadden Sea and therefore
can be implemented in the ESSG (see chapter 4.2). Finally, the impact of these measures on
the ecosystem service indicators has been investigated. To do so, another meta-analysis was
conducted by the author of this paper. First relevant literature has been analysed to gather a
first impression of the impact of those development measures on the ES. The impact of the
indicators was rated on a scale from -5, for very negative impacts, up to +5, for very positive
impacts (see chapter 4.3). Afterwards two expert meetings with Mr Albert Oost (senior
counsellor/researcher, expert on ecosystem services in the Wadden Sea) and Mr Arjen Boon
(senior researcher in marine system ecology) were conducted to see how experts regarding
ecosystem services would rate the impacts of the selected measures on the ES in the Wadden
32
Sea region (Appendix IX). Both, literature and expert knowledge have been combined by the
author of this paper in order to evaluate hoe the selected anthropogenic activities are impacting
the ES indicators of the ESSG.
The final step of this research was to Visualize and within that creating a serious game that
focuses on ESs in the Wadden Sea region. This is a very crucial part of this thesis as this is
aiming at improving the communication between science and policy. Without proper
visualization, the player of the game will not understand the impact of the development
measures on the ES indicators and thus, the sense of the game would be lost. The first step was
to create a real gaming environment. To do so, satellite imagery has been used (see chapter
4.4.1, page 131). These satellite images were translated, by the author, into four possible
designs for the ESSG (Appendix X). On top of that, the indicator visualization was built. Every
indicator was visualized individually. The decision on how to visualize them was a
collaboration of the author and two experts at Deltares, Mr. Almar Joling and Mr. Rens van de
Bergh, who both work on serious game development (see chapter 4.4.1, page 133, 135 & 138).
This means while the ideas and concepts for visualization originate from the author, the final
visualization of those measures were created by the two internal experts as this was out of the
possibilities of the author. Finally, all measures that were included in the ESSG have been
visualized individually. All visualization ideas again originate by the author while Mr Joling
and Mr de Bergh programmed the visualizations. The goal was to make them as real as possible
so that the player of the game realizes not only the impact of the measures on the indicators but
also on the landscape (see chapter 4.4.1, page 140).
34
3.2 Method overview
Data collection
The data for the individual sub-indicators are collected in different ways. Most of the data is
collected from public open data sources, as well as the data provided by Deltares. The data is
collected mostly via internet research. Most commonly used sources used to gather important
data include the CWSS, the municipalities of Friesland and Groningen, and the ferry companies
RT and WP. However, also other online public available studies that contributed to this study
were used.
Remote sensing
One of the major sources for data gathering derives from remote sensing. Remote sensing is
defined by NOAA as the science of obtaining information about objects or areas from distance
(NOAA, 2015). This can be done in several ways. However, the most common ones are via
aircraft or satellite.
Remote sensing will be used to create a gaming environment that replicates the Wadden Sea
area. By using satellite imagery, a one to one replication of the area can be generated, including
existing towns, roads, etc. Within that, a realistic gaming environment can be created that is
based on satellite imagery.
Additionally, it has been looked into how remote sensing can be used as a data input method
for the ESSG. Therefore, the concept has been analysed and recent developments in the field
have been investigated. Due to time limitations, this concept has not made it into the demo
version of the ESSG, however, great potential for using remote sensing for future research
regarding indicator data source have been found (chapter 4.4.4).
Literature
In addition to the remote sensing data, also literature will be used to gather available data sets.
Reports and statistics provided from several sources (i.e. CWSS). The literature is mainly used
to explore the current state of the ES of the Wadden Sea, as well as the development measures
conducted in the Wadden Sea, including their impacts on the ES. To gather information
regarding the provisioning ES mainly the report Visserij in Cijfers 2006’ (English Fishery in
numbers 2006) by Taal et al., (2006) and Nehls et al., (2009) have been used. To gather
knowledge about the regulating & maintenance ES several of the thematic quality status reports
published by the CWSS are used (Esselink et al., 2009; Garthe, Schwemmer, Petersen, &
35
Laursen, 2009; Schuchardt & Scholle, 2009; Wiersma, Oost, Berg, Vos, Marges, & Vries,
2009; Wolff et al., 2010). Finally, to elaborate on the cultural ES in the Wadden Sea the annual
reports published by RT are used (Teso 2014, 2015, 2016), as well as provided flyers from WP
(Nellus, 2016).
In order to be able to analyse the most impacting anthropogenic measures and their impact on
the ES in the Wadden Sea, mainly the report by Sas et al., (2016), named “Opzet en resultaten
van het Waddenhuisberaad” (Design and results of the Wadden Sea House Discussions) was
used. However, to gather knowledge regarding the individual measures several online
publications have been used.
Expert knowledge
During the research phase of this report, several expert meetings were conducted in order to
gather inside information. All experts are long-term employees at Deltares with great
experience and knowledge. Main expert knowledge regarding ES of the Wadden Sea, SGs
developed by Deltares , visualization possibilities and relevant data revisions were obtained
from Ghada El Serafy (Specialist, Ecopotential project manager), Albert Oost (senior
counsellor/researcher, expert on ecosystem services in the Wadden Sea), Cor Shipper (senior
counsellor/researcher, marine biologist, expert sustainability of Port of the Future Serious
Game), Almar Joling (counsellor, advisor, expert is serious game programming), Rens van den
Bergh (project-engineer, expert in serious game programing), and Alex Zimba (PhD student).
The data was collected during oral meetings and discussion rounds during the process.
Indicators
Indicators are one of the key elements of the developed ESSG. Indicators are used to determine
the current state of each individual ES classification of the study area. Therefore, appropriate
indicators are chosen specifically for each ES classification. These indicators show the
participant in what initial and/or current state the individual ES classifications are.
Additionally, these indicators will be affected throughout the game when the participant
changes something in the gaming environment (see chapter 0). All indicators are based on
extensive literature and expert knowledge.
Measures
The main process of the game is that the participant implements measures, which in turn have
impacts on the ES indicators. Therefore, current discussed measures conducted in the Wadden
36
Sea are chosen (chapter 4.2). Within the game, the participant can select these anthropogenic
measures and can obtain knowledge regarding the impact of the three ES classifications. All
measures are based on extensive literature and expert knowledge.
Meta-analysis
In order to evaluate the current state of the ES indicators used, as well as the impact of the
anthropogenic development measures on them, a meta-analysis has been conducted. A meta-
analysis is a procedure in which data from multiple sources are combined. This has been
conducted for the indicators by analysing related literature and evaluating positive and negative
developments. For the development measures, also related literature has been used but was
combined with expert knowledge in order to evaluate the impacts the measures have on the
used indicators.
3.3 The test case area – The Wadden Sea
As mentioned in previous chapters, this research is aiming at developing an SG that replicates
the Wadden Sea area, its ES and the influence anthropogenic measures have on the
environment. To do so, the study area, the Wadden Sea region, must be understood first. The
Wadden Sea is an intertidal estuarine system, which is located in the south-eastern part of the
North Sea. The Wadden Sea area stretches from Den Helder, the Netherlands along the Dutch
Islands, via Germany up to the Danish coast of Blåvandshuk (Figure 4). The Wadden Sea
stretches over an area of 1.143.403 ha, which results in the “largest unbroken system of
intertidal sand and mud flats in the world” (Common Wadden Sea Secretariat [CWSS], 2013).
Thus, the Wadden Sea is one of the most unique wetlands around the globe. The Wadden Sea
is a rather unique system, since it is still, to this day, widely undisturbed, which results in a
high number of natural processes, natural habitats, and a unique biodiversity (i.e. IUCN, 2010;
Wadden Sea World Heritage [WSWH] 2016; UNESCO, 2017). The diversity of the nature
found in the Wadden Sea stretches from the saltwater environment and the transition zones
between land and sea. Since most natural processes in the area are still largely undisturbed, the
area is highly dynamic, and processes such as the formation and erosion of dunes and sand
banks can still be observed (Reise, et al., 2010). Besides the unique wildlife of plants and
animals, also mankind can call the Wadden Sea its home. Many people live and work in the
Wadden Sea area and use its long coastline for recreation and vacations (Philippart, van Dijk,
& Enemark, 2014). Within that, the Wadden Sea supplies humans in the area with a variety of
beneficial ESs.
37
Figure 4: The Wadden Sea. Retrieved from waddensea-secretariat.org (2016)
It seems logical that managing such a huge area is difficult. Three countries are involved in
managing this immense area, while it is also regulated by the European Commission. To steer
the development of the Wadden Sea area, all three countries developed a trilateral agreement
in which the future development strategies for the Wadden Sea area are elaborated (CWSS,
2010).
In order to preserve the existing ecosystem with all its beneficial services to mankind, the
society has to find ways to connect science closer to policy makers and protected area managers
in general. Only with a clear understanding of the processes, the services and the (uncertain)
changes of the environment, it can be guaranteed that this unique system will function as well
in the future as it does today. However, this interaction amongst ES and the impacts of
anthropogenic measures to the ES of the Wadden Sea area are vaguely discussed. It is often
very difficult for policy makers and protected area managers to combine all of the existing
knowledge about the interaction of anthropogenic measures on all habitats, especially since
these reports are mostly hundreds and hundreds of pages long. To tackle this problem, most
policy makers and protected area managers receive summary reports in which the main results
are highlighted. However, also there are many important aspects are missing, while maybe
useful information is overlooked.
Serious Gaming is one way to tackle this problem. Within SGs, participants of the game learn
about these important relations in a safe, fictive environment. So rather than just learning from
38
scientific reports, the data from these reports is packed into the SG. Not only will policy makers
and protected area managers understand (rather than learn) about present ES and their
interaction and the impacts of anthropogenic measures on them, but also about the how habitats
and humans can be affected by these changes. If people understand how they are influencing
the environment, proper management strategies can be developed in order to preserve this
unique environment for future generations. Within that, the ES, which makes the life for
animals and mankind possible, can be taken into account while planning for the Wadden Sea
area.
40
4 Results
4.1 Ecosystem service indicators
In order to evaluate the ES of the Wadden Sea region, indicators are used. The Indicators are
one of the major elements within this SG. The indicators give feedback to the participant how
the ES are affected by the anthropogenic measures implemented. Therefore, the indicators are
used to identify the current status of the individual ecosystem classifications. Within this SG,
the ecosystem classifications of the CICES are used (see chapter 2.1).
To determine the current state of an area (within this research the Wadden Sea area) indicators
for each classification are used. These indicators are chosen in several expert meetings at
Deltares and are based on previous work of Deltares. A comprehensive text regarding all
possible indicators for each individual ecosystem service classification can be found in
Appendix II. The main criteria for the indicators used are their informational value and
availability. For each classification, one indicator is used to evaluate the current state of the
Wadden Sea area. Each individual indicator consists out of two sub-indicators to evaluate the
current state of the chosen indicators. In other words, the classes PRC will reflect the current
state of the Wadden Sea, which is determined by three indicators which consist out of two sub-
indicators.
As mentioned before, the indicators for each classification are chosen on the basis of previous
work conducted by a Wadden Sea working group at Deltares. The outcome of this working
group was a very comprehensive mind map, which identifies all present ESs in the Wadden
Sea area. After several suitable indicators for the SG have been identified, expert meetings,
with experts in the field of ESs in the Wadden Sea area, narrowed the indicators down
(Appendix III). Afterwards, the identified most suitable indicators where cross-referenced with
a performance indicator validity scheme, which has been already used in the previous SGs of
Deltares (Appendix IV). These indicators were used to get a better overview of possible
indicators for the ESSG (Appendix V). Additionally, the interconnection of those indicators
among each other was evaluated (Appendix VI). Finally, a last meeting with the client
(Deltares) and experts in the field of SG programming was held in order to choose the most
suitable indicators for this SG. This resulted in the three indicators aquaculture for the
provisioning ES, habitats for the regulating & maintenance ES and tourism for the cultural ES.
41
The following chapters zoom into each individual classification indicator, their current state,
including their valuation for the purpose of this research and the ESSG.
4.1.1 Provisioning ES indicator
The CICES basic structure of provisioning ESs includes nutrition (i.e. food), materials (i.e. raw
materials) and energy (i.e. renewable energies), which are obtained from an ecosystem (Hanes-
Young & Potschin, 2011). Most of the possible indicators can be found in Appendix III. After
several expert meetings combined with literature reviews, the main indicator for the
provisioning ecosystem service classification was chosen: Aquaculture. The indicator
Aquaculture is sub-divided into the sub-indicators of ‘number of employees’ and ‘net weight
of production’.
The Netherlands have a long tradition of using aquaculture as one of their major food and
income sources. It dates back as far as the medieval times, in which monasteries were keeping
the common crap (Cypernus carpio) in ponds. However, mariculture dates back to the 1870`s
in the Netherlands. At these times, as it is today, two shellfish are the most commonly used in
the Dutch shellfish culture, named ‘blue mussel’ (Mytilus edulis) and the ‘flat Oyster’ (Ostrea
edulis) (FAO, 2016). In earlier times these shellfish were available via open access, meaning
that every citizen, farmer or fisher could collect as much shellfish at a place as they wanted.
Due to immense conflicts between fishermen, this open access system was changed to a system
in which mussel and oyster fishers could rent exclusive rights for a specific plot in the
Southwest delta region of the Netherlands (Ginkel, 1991). From 1952 this system was also
introduced to the Wadden Sea, resulting in a large development of a second region where blue
mussels are cultured. The system is still being used today.
Nowadays there are two main regions in the Netherlands in which shellfish culture are
conducted, namely the Oosterschelde and the Wadden Sea. However, of the total area of
5.600ha used for the cultivation of shellfish nearly 65% (~3.500h) of plots can be found in the
Wadden Sea (Figure 5) (Smaal, 2002; FAO, 2016). This makes the Wadden Sea to the main
economic contributors of the Dutch shellfish industry. Most of these valuable mussel
cultivation plots can be found in the western part of the Wadden Sea since this part is almost
entirely used for mussel cultivation.
42
Figure 5: Mussel culture plots in the Wadden Sea. Source: walterwaddenmonitor.org
Within the Wadden Sea, three different types of mussel bed types that can be found: natural
mussel beds in intertidal beds, natural mussel beds in sub-tidal regions and mussels that occur
on the culture plots in the sub-tidal beds (Dame & Prins, 1998). In contrast to other shellfish
cultures around the world, the Dutch use almost only on-bottom shellfish culture (FAO, 2016;
Hagos, 2007). Only about seven farms, of the 82, are using rope culture instead of on-bottom
cultivation (Meer, 2006). Therefore, on-bottom shellfish cultivation accounts for ~91% of the
whole shellfish cultivation practice. On-bottom aquaculture systems use an integrated system
of wild fisheries and aquaculture (Hagos, 2007). Therefore, the mussels, especially in the
Wadden Sea, grow in the wild without any anthropogenic interference regarding the provision
of fodder, space, water or pharmaceuticals (Hagos, 2007).
The mussel beds used for shellfish cultivation in the Wadden Sea are entirely dominated by the
blue mussel, while the flat oyster and the pacific cupped oyster (Crassostrea gigas) can be
found in the delta parts, located in the south-western parts of the Netherlands (Dankers &
Zuidema, 1995). Nevertheless, the blue mussel stays the most economic valuable aquaculture
species in the Netherlands. In the year 2005-2006, the total production of blue mussel was
about 58.000 tonnes, of which only 700 tonnes were cultivated via rope culture (Meer, 2006).
This resulted in a total farm-gate value generated of about € 55, 5 million. In comparison, the
flat oyster culture produced 76 tonnes and a value of € 382.000, while the pacific copper oyster
43
culture produced 3.347 tonnes and a value of € 3.3million (FAO, 2016). Even if this accounts
only for a minor contribution to the Dutch economy as a whole, the culture, processing and
trade of shellfish are significant contributors to the employment and economic activity of the
Netherlands (FAO, 2016). Therefore, aquaculture and especially shellfish cultivation are
recognized as a viable future alternative or supplementary income generating activity for many
farmers and fishermen. This is especially true for the fishermen, as they struggle with economic
difficulties because of catch limitations due to fishing quotas as well as rising operational costs
mainly due to higher fuel prices (FAO, 2016). Therefore, the number of people, which use
mussel cultivation as their main source of income can be expected to increase over the
following decades. At present, around 275 persons are directly dependent on mussel cultivation
as their source of income, not including the mussel processing and trading sector (FAO, 2016).
All harvested mussels are sold in one special mussel auction, which is located in Yerseke. The
economic value of the harvested mussels is, among others, depending on the percentage of
meat within the mussel, the average size of the mussel and the amount of debris load. Therefore,
the value generated by the mussel depends on various ecological factors. Shellfish as a whole
are sensitive to changes in the ecosystem. Fluctuations in water temperature, salinity bottom
features and especially food supply (phytoplankton) can lead to the mortality of the mussels
(Mainwaring, Tillin, & Tyler-Walters, 2014). Various studies have shown that especially the
supply of phytoplankton in the water has high impacts on the mussel growth. In addition, not
all phytoplankton is beneficial for the growth of mussels, as blooms of large colonies of cells
can be harmful to the mussel culture (Prins, Dame, & Dame, 1998). Therefore, human activities
as extensive eutrophication from various sources can have negative effects on the primary
production as well as mussel growth.
Therefore, it seems clear that the natural environment plays an important role in the Dutch
shellfish industry. However, all wild fisheries and aquaculture practices are associated with
negative impacts on the environment. The magnitude to which extend the natural environment
is impacted by the mussel culture is minimized in the Netherlands. Around 91% of the mussel
cultivation in the Wadden Sea uses on-bottom culture. This means that anthropogenic
disturbance is reduced to a minimum, so that there is no use of an anthropogenic provision of
space, water, fodder or pharmaceuticals. Nevertheless, on-bottom mussel culture has impacts
on the natural environment. The main impact arises from seed collection (FAO, 2016). Most
of the mussel farms, and especially the ones located in the Wadden Sea, are dependent on
44
dredged mussel seeds from shallow coastal waters (FAO, 2016). Many environmental
organizations are concerned that this dredging of mussel seeds can have a large negative impact
on the survival of shellfish eating bird species. To tackle this problem, the Ministry of
Agriculture, Nature and Food Safety releases yearly seed catching quotas to balance the amount
used for aquaculture to the amount vital to sustain natural mussel beds and food provisioning
grounds for local and migrating shellfish eating bird species (FAO, 2016). The mussel seed
catching quota depends on the natural spat fall as well as the amount of seeds found during
surveys of collecting grounds (FAO, 2016). Additionally, large parts of the Wadden Sea are
closed for the collection of mussel seeds. Within that, the provision of enough mussel seeds for
sustaining natural mussel beds as well as food provisioning for birds should be guaranteed.
However, the lack of mussel seeds was (and still is) one of the major problems within the
mussel culture in the Netherlands. As a supplementary, some of the mussel farmers import
mussel seeds from Ireland. This in turn, leads to new environmental concerns as invasive
species and/or organisms can threaten the mussel culture. One example would be the Bonamia
ostreae parasite which is able to destroy a complete oyster crop (FAO, 2016). Therefore,
innovations in mussel seed development are the most important issue in the medium term.
Several ideas are tested, including the offshore mussel cultivation on abandoned oil rigs and
windmills.
In order to effectively deal with these environmental effects, regulations and policies are made
to prevent over-exploitation and other conflicts of interest amongst different parties.
Aquaculture in the Netherlands is under the responsibility of the fisheries Directorate, which
in turn is part of the Ministry of Agriculture, Nature and Food Safety. Additionally, the main
representative body for Dutch fisher folk, fish and shellfish farmers, fish processors,
wholesalers and retailers is the ‘Fish Product Board’. This board is supporting and stimulating
the Dutch fish sector by making regulations and policies within the limits and standards set by
the national government as well as the European Commission (FAO, 2016). Its chairman is
appointed by the Dutch crown.
The framework of regulations regarding fishing and aquaculture is set under the ‘Fisheries Act’
(1963, as amended) (Visserijwer). However, this Fisheries Act does not specifically regulate the
aquaculture sector, but it allows the Minister to further regulate the farming, processing and/or
trade in fish for purposes of preventing or eradicating fish diseases (FAO, 2016). A more
specific regulation for the Dutch Aquaculture sector can be found under the ‘Regulating on
45
Aquaculture’ (1994, as amended) (Regeling Aquicultuur) which was issued under the Fisheries Act
and contains specific requirements on the farming, processing and trade of aquaculture animals
and products (FAO, 2016). Furthermore, the ‘Decree on the indication of animals that may be
kept for production purposes’ (1998) (Besluit aanwijzing voor productie te houden dieren), which was
issued under the ‘Animal Health and Welfare Act’ (1992) (Gezondheids- en welzijnswet voor Dieren),
lists all fish and shellfish species that may be kept for production purposes in the Netherlands
(FAO, 2016). Additionally, because shellfish culture in the Netherlands is done in a highly
sustainable manner, new legislation for Aquaculture is not the main priority at present.
Legislation rather focuses on the resource allocation between fisheries and nature conservation
as well as the quality control of shellfish (FAO, 2016). Finally, the Fish Product Board
published a ‘Policy Note on Aquaculture’ (Beleidsnota Visweek) which contains the boards view
on the future of Dutch fisheries and aquaculture.
All in all, it can be recognized that the Dutch aquaculture sector, and especially the mussel
culture sector, are highly dependent on the Wadden Sea region. Nearly 65% of the Dutch
aquaculture as a whole is conducted within the Wadden Sea, making it a vital economic and
social aspect. The shellfish culture sector is providing jobs, and within that monetary terms,
and food for many people. Around 280 people in the Netherlands depend directly on the
shellfish culture for their income, not including the processing and trading of shellfish. Of all
the shellfish harvested, nearly 30% are consumed by Dutch citizens while 70% are exported to
Belgium and France, showing again the high importance of shellfish culture for income and
food provision (FAO, 2016).
As mentioned above, the Dutch shellfish sector is pretty stable over the last decades. However,
it is expected to increase in the following years due to higher operational costs for fishermen
combined with strict catching quotas due to depleting fish stocks. To identify the growth or
decline of individual aquaculture farms, one performance indicator is proposed to be the
number of employees in the shellfish culture sector, rather than the amount of shellfish culture
operators since this gives no indication of the growth or decline of individual farms as well as
the actual size of the Dutch shellfish culture sector in the Wadden Sea. Since good statistics
regarding part-time employees does not exist at the moment only full-time employees should
be taken into account. However, an increase or decline in full-time employees of the shellfish
culture sector gives an idea about how the industry and especially individual farms are
46
developing. Within that, trends, as well as the importance of shellfish culture for the future, can
be recognized and taken into account.
Another performance indicator for the aquaculture sector, and therefore the provisioning
ecosystem service classification, is the net weight of the production. Within that, the amount
of harvested mussel can be identified. Comparing this with historic data can show trends for
the future expected mussel production in the Wadden Sea. Additionally, mussel growth is
dependent on several environmental factors, most importantly the amount of plankton in the
water. Therefore, stable or increasing net weight of produced mussels can give an indication of
good water quality and vice versa. Also, the net weight production is the main indication of the
amount of money a farmer and is team can earn from the mussel culture, as market prices
highly depend on the average size and the percentage of meat within the mussels.
Together, both performance indicators give offer valuable information for the development of
the aquaculture/shellfish culture within the Wadden Sea. Within that, food and monetary
security can be identified as well as possible negative environmental conditions.
Aquaculture sector variables
As mentioned in the previous chapter, many people are dependent on the mussel aquaculture
sector in the (Dutch) Wadden Sea. The dependency derives from the income generated, but
also on the provision of food. To see how the sector is doing, related literature was analysed in
order to gain an overview of the sector. Two main documents have helped to gather this related
data and information. The first report used was ‘Visserij in Cijfers 2006’ (English Fishery in
numbers 2006) by Taal et al., (2006). The second report was one thematic report (number 3.3)
of the Quality status reports in 2009 (Nehls et al.,2009). Also other reports were used, but the
main information was gathered from these two reports. In order to determine the current state
of the Wadden Sea mussel aquaculture sector, special attention was paid to recognizable trends
regarding income, production, seed availability and recruitment, existing innovative measures,
and coverage of the sector. All in all, a decent overview of the sector is achieved by analysing
this literature, which results in an educative decision on a score for the current state of the
mussel sector of the (Dutch) Wadden Sea area.
The Wadden Sea is home to rich stocks of marketable sized shellfish. It is no wonder that the
shellfish sector is so well developed since shellfish can be found here in high abundance.
Focusing on the Dutch part of the Wadden Sea, mussel fishery is strictly regulated. The only
47
plots were mussel aquaculture can take place are located in the subtidal beds outside of the
areas that have been permanently closed for mussel aquaculture. The reason why these areas
are closed is due to the dependence on mussel seeds/larvae to actually conduct aquaculture. In
the Netherlands, mussel fishery is mainly carried out in order to catch these mussel seeds
(Nehls, et al., 2009). However, the Dutch mussel fleet is experiencing a shortage of mussel
seedlings in the last tears, which is a major problem since the overall production of mussels is
dependent on the seedlings. Consequently, the supply of mussel seeds in the Wadden Sea alone
is not sufficient for the long run. This problem gets strengthened by current European
legislations that have been adopted by the Dutch government. Especially the ‘Bird and Habitat
guidelines (Vogels- en Habitatrichtlijn) are a major threat to the Dutch mussel sector since they
regulate the area where mussel seeds may be obtained from (Taal, Bartelings, Klok,
Oostenbrugge, & Vos, 2006). Nevertheless, the mussel growing sector of the Netherlands is
aiming at producing 100 million kilos of mussels. In turn, that means that 65 million kilo of
seeds would need to be caught in order to achieve this goal, but these numbers are far from
met. Looking at available data from 2003-2005 we can see a steady decline of mussel seeds
fished in the Dutch Wadden Sea. In 2003 the total mussel seed catch was 42 million kilos,
which means that the target was still missed by 35%. That was the closest the Dutch mussel
fleet actually came to achieving the goal of 65 million kilos of mussel seeds. In the following
year, 2004, the mussel seed catch rate decreased by 21%, resulting in a total catch of just 33
million kilos mussel seeds. Consequently, the target has been missed by about 49%. In 2005,
the overall mussel seed catch decreased further by 55% in the previous year, resulting in a total
catch of just 19 million kilos of mussel seeds. The needed 65million kilos of mussel seeds have
been missed by about 70% (Taal et al., 2006). It becomes evident, why the mussel sector has
to change its strategy or it will be very difficult to stay on this decreasing path.
This mussel seed recruitment is one of the most crucial limiting factors when it comes to the
production of mussels in the (Dutch) Wadden Sea area. Consequently, there is a lot done to
tackle this problem. First of all, mussel seeds are imported from the United Kingdom and
Ireland in order to supplement for the insufficient mussel seed catches (Taal et al., 2006). This
is raising concerns of environmentalists which are concerned about the possible introduction
of alien species, and within that, possible negative impacts on the ecosystem. On the other
hand, environmentalists blame farmers that they have already taken too much mussel seeds
from the Wadden Sea environment. This is because mussel-eating birds are negatively affected
by the removal of the mussel seeds as they cannot find enough food sources to sustain life (Taal
48
et al., 2006). This was triggered by a mass mortality event of mussel –eating birds in the early
nineties (Nehls et al., 2009) Therefore, innovative solutions are needed. New systems, like
‘smart farms’, are tested. These are floating mussel structures that have a 2-3m deep mussel
collector-net attached to them, which collects larvae out of the water column instead of
collecting them from the ground as it is done so far (Nehls et al., 2009). In this sense, more
innovative solutions are needed to keep the sector alive.
Nevertheless, the mussel seed recruitment is impacting the sector. To analyse it accordingly,
the focus lies first on the overall mussel production of the Wadden Sea and is then narrowed
down to the Dutch part of the Wadden Sea. The average mussel landing in the whole Wadden
Sea area from 1994-2007 was, on average, 56.000t (Nehls et al., 2009). As can be seen in
Figure 6, the Netherlands are the main mussel growing nations of the Wadden Sea countries
(Netherlands, Germany & Denmark). On average around 70% of all mussels caught originate
from the Netherlands. Consequently, the whole industry is suffering from a constant decrease
over the last decade. While mussel catches peaked in the mid-eighties they further decreased
with some peaks in the nineties. In the early nineties, the intertidal stocks collapsed, leading
not only to severe economic but also environmental losses, as it was the trigger for the mass
mortality event of mussel-eating birds (Nehls et al., 2009). After a constant recovery in the
early millennium, the mussel production in the Wadden Sea area again decreased (Figure 6)
Figure 6: Wet weight mussel production of the Wadden Sea region from 1965-2007. Source:
(Nehls et al., 2009)
These severe impacts of the overall mussel sector also affected the Dutch mussel sector, as it
can already be seen in Figure 6. The average annual amount of mussel landings in the
Netherlands in the period of 1994-2007 was about 35.166 tonnes of gross weight, which is
49
including shell weight also. The amount of landings in the individual years differs, especially
during the collapse in the late eighties and the 2000s. As mentioned in the chapter before, all
mussels that are caught in the Dutch Wadden Sea are sold at one auction in Yerseke. The crash
in the early 2000s resulted in drastic reductions in the amount of mussels brought to the Yerseke
auction from the Dutch Wadden Sea decreased steadily. It seemed like the mussel sector
recovered in the year 20002/03 as a small increase can be recognized. However, afterward, the
amount of mussels decreased to 26 million kilos by 2005/06, which can, in turn, be correlated
again to the deficit in mussel seeds (Table 1).
Table 1: Amount of mussels brought to the Yerseke auction (Aanvoer), the revenue generated
(Opbrengst) and the average price of mussels (Gemiddelde prijs). Source: Taal et al., 2006
The decrease in mussel landings also had severe negative impacts on the income generated.
The annual average income of 1999-2006, generated at the auction in Yerseke, was €35 million.
The peak was reached in the season 2003/04 however, since then also a steady decline can be
recognized. Especially in recent years, the income decreased steadily due to the amount landed.
Consequently, the revenue for the season 2005/06 decreased to just €30 million, which is
€4million less than the average annual income. Looking at the combined landings from the
Netherlands, the amount of mussels landed in the season 2005/06 decreased by 15% compared
to the year before, resulting in a total auction sales decrease of 7% (to €55.5 million) compared
to the year before.
Despite the decrease in available mussels, the scarcity of this product was not reflected in its
market value, as might be expected. When the mussel stock collapsed in the early 2000s, mussel
prices skyrocketed to a value as high as €225 per 100kg of Wadden Sea mussels. This
50
development makes sense though. When a resource is limited also its value increases. Since
then mussel prices went down again when the sector recovered a bit. The record low, after the
collapse, was achieved in the season 2004/05 where 100kg of mussels were sold for just €110.
In recent years, like 2005/06, prices go slightly up again. This is probably a result from less
caught mussels.
So we can see that the mussel sector in the Wadden Sea is suffering. Fewer mussel seeds, less
mussel production and less income are all present threats to mussel farmers in the Wadden Sea.
When looking at the income of the whole mussel sector, it can be recognized that the total
income has not changed that much over the year. Despites all downward trends regarding the
production and the availability of seeds, the income of the Dutch mussel sector seem to be
stable since the beginning of 2000. Even an increase from €25mln to €28mln can be recognized
in the time period of 2004 and 2005 (Table 2). There is still a drop in the net results can be
seen. The net results have dropped since the season 2000/01, leading to a decrease of 21% from
season 2004/05 and 2005/06. Additionally, an increase in technical costs can be recognized
(Table 2). Based on estimations the companies were generally profitable and could easily meet
the repayments (Taal et al., 2006).
Table 2: Income and costs of the Dutch mussel culture sector (in million euros). Source: Taal
et al., 2006)
Finally, the coverage of the sector, which includes also the amount of people working on
mussel farms, should be investigated. However, data availability is very limited on this subject.
The only available source for an indication of the sector coverage derives from the report
prepared by Taal et al., 2006 named “Visserij in Cijfers 2006”. Their main conclusion was that
the sector coverage has been pretty stable since 2005. Before, many companies experienced a
steady decline. By the stand of 2005 around 50 companies are operating in the Dutch mussel
sector with a combined shipping fleet of 64 vessels. These ships are in bad condition though,
which reflects on the mussel sector. Especially the renewal of the fleet is at low ebb. Around
96/97 97/98 98/99 99/00 00/01 01/02 02/03 03/04 04/05 05/06
Total Income 49 54 47 54 73 72 68 68 61 57
Subtracted technical costs 22 25 24 25 26 25 23 24 25 28
Costs 27 29 23 29 47 47 45 44 36 29
- salery/social costs 8 8 8 9 9 9 9 9 8 8
- net result 20 21 15 20 39 38 35 35 28 21
Total revenue 22 25 24 25 26 25 23 24 25 28
51
42% of the vessels used are older than 20 years, which is 12% more than it was in 2002 (stand
2002: 30% of ships older than 20 years). Additionally, just one-sixth of all vessels are younger
than 10 years (Taal et al., 2006).
Data for employees is the hardest to find. The only indication for this sector derives from the
same report of Taal et al., 2006. According to their data, about 194 people were employed in
the sector in 2005. This is 12% lower than in 2001 (Taal et al., 2006). The steady decline in
employees in the mussel aquaculture sector of the (Dutch) Wadden Sea area can also be linked
to the developing tourism sector of the area. As can be seen in Figure 7, a shift from the fishery
sector in general towards tourism can be recognized. The growing tourism industry is by far
more profitable and is attracting more and more people, especially the younger generations,
which is another major threat to the mussel aquaculture sector of the (Dutch) Wadden Sea.
Figure 7: People working in the fishery and tourism and recreation sector. Fishery grey,
tourism and recreation black. (Sijtsma, Werner, & Broersms, 2008)
Conclusion provisioning indicator variables
In conclusion, it can be said that the aquaculture sector of the Dutch Wadden Sea shows a
decreasing trend. Both indicator variables, the aquaculture production and the amount people
working on the aquaculture farms, are showing declining trends. Innovative solutions are tested
in order to tackle the problems of the sector.
52
All positive and negative changes of the Wadden Sea aquaculture sector have been categorized
and rated (Table 3). The rating was conducted very simplified as negative changes have been
rated with -1 and positive changes with +1. Neutral or no changes have been rated with 0.
Therefore, no weight factor was taken into account. For the alpha version of the game, this
shall be enough since it serves as an experimental phase to see if everything is working together
as wanted.
Table 3: Evaluation of the Aquaculture sectore of the Dutch Wadden Sea
Aquaculture
Net weight of production Number of employees
Positive Negative Positive Negative
Innovative mussel seed collecting experiments
Decline in mussel production
Amount of operating companies stable
Shift from fishery to tourism
Mussel value stable and/or adjusted to scarcity
Decline in seedlings available
Decline in employees
Constant decrease in production since 80s
Old ships that need improvement
Score -2 -1
In general, it can be said that the mussel aquaculture sector of the Netherlands is struggling.
Decreasing mussel seed availability has resulted in a steady decline in the production of the
mussel aquaculture farms in the Dutch Wadden Sea area. Also, the income and the coverage
of the sector have been impacted negatively due to these circumstances. However, many
possible measures are tested in order to tackle these problems in the near future. Therefore, the
overall productivity variable of has been rated with -2 as the negative impacts dominate the
sector (Table 4).
Also the amount of people working on the farms is showing a decreasing trend. Since the
tourism sector in the Wadden area increased, a shift in the industry can be recognized. Fewer
people are employed in fishery and aquaculture while more are getting employed in the tourism
sector. Therefore, the aquaculture sector of the Dutch Wadden Sea is facing these downward
53
trends. Available data are very scarce, so in general, the number of employee’s variable has
been rated with -1, since a steady decline can be observed over the years while there is no
indication of a change in the near future (Table 4).
Both sub-indicators, for the alpha version of the ESSG, are weighted equally. This means that
both sub-indicators are weighted 50%. To determine the current state, both sub-indicators are
added up and then divided by two. This results in a total score or current state value of -0,5 for
the Provisioning ES (Table 4).
Table 4: Evaluation of net weight of production and number of employees of the Dutch
aquaculture sector
Provisioning ES
Net weight of production Number of employees
Score -2 -1
Current state of habitats in the Wadden Sea
-1,5
4.1.2 Regulating & Maintenance ES
The second ES classification based on CICES basic structure are regulating & maintenance
ES. These include, among others, regulation of waste (i.e. air purification), flow regulation (i.e.
regulation of water flows), regulation of the physical environment (i.e. water quality regulation)
and Regulation of the biotic environment (i.e. lifecycle maintenance & habitat protection)
(Hanes-Young & Potschin, 2011). Most of the possible indicators can be found in Appendix
III. After several expert meetings combined with literature reviews, the main indicator for the
regulating & maintenance ecosystem service classification was chosen: Animal habitats. The
indicator of animal habitats has been sub-divided into the sub-indicators of ‘habitat
heterogeneity’ and ‘habitat fragmentation’.
Habitat heterogeneity is a cornerstone concept of ecology, as it is highlighted by the existing
scientific literature on this topic (e.g. Simpson, 1949; MacArthur & Wilson, 1967; Lack, 1969).
Habitat heterogeneity is a concept describing that the species richness of animals is directly
related to the species richness of plants in a certain habitat (Cramer & Willing, 2004). The basic
idea behind this concept is that a more complex habitat provides a wider range of niches and
more diverse ways of exploiting the natural resources and thus increases species diversity
(Bazzaz, 1975).
54
The importance of habitat heterogeneity in relation to the species diversity of a specific area
becomes clear after analysing the study conducted by Tews et al., (2004), in which Tews and
his team analysed 85 papers that link habitat heterogeneity to species diversity. Important for
this study is to mention that out of these 85 studies around 33% focused on bird species
diversity in relation to habitat heterogeneity. This becomes an important factor in this research
as bird habitat, or more specific bird feeding grounds, will be analysed. This is because the
Wadden Sea and its intertidal mud-flats provide an enormous mass of food for birds of the
region as well as for migrating birds. Additionally, Tews et al., (2004) looked specifically for
avian fauna at the effect of habitat heterogeneity linked to anthropogenic disturbances and
habitat fragmentation, which is also one of the key elements of these sub-indicators.
The main conclusion of the study conducted by Tews et al., (2004) is that 85% of all papers
analysed found a positive correlation between the habitat heterogeneity and the species
diversity. This is especially true for all the papers focusing on avian fauna, as all papers except
for 2 found a positive relation between habitat heterogeneity and species diversity (e.g. Wiens
& Rotenberry, 1981; Thiollay, 1990; Poulsen, 2002). Of these two papers, only one found no
correlation while the other showed no significant relationship. Therefore, it can be said that,
especially via the avian fauna studies, the vegetation physiognomy has a positive effect on the
species diversity. It was shown that especially in central European environments, which
traditionally have been heavily used as cultural landscapes, an increase in habitat heterogeneity
in combination with less habitat fragmentation likely increased the species diversity as more
additional habitat was added to the area (Tews, et al., 2004)
Additionally, the study of Tews et al., (2004) showed that the negative effects of habitat
heterogeneity linked to species diversity mostly occurred at places that suffered from habitat
fragmentation. Within habitat fragmentation, the habitat is broken down into smaller fragments
which are not as well connected resulting in smaller, disconnected fragments. This habitat
fragmentation leads to a disruption of the biological processes within a habitat, such as
dispersal and resource acquisition, and therefore decreases the species diversity.
However, the scientific community is rather undecided when it comes to measuring habitat
heterogeneity. Currently, there is no common agreement of a universal method that should be
used to measure habitat heterogeneity (Tews, et al., 2004). This resulted in several individual
studies that are barely comparable with each other. Nonetheless, one element that stuck out
from all studies is that the spatial scale is highly important when looking at habitat
55
heterogeneity. Different species act on different spatial scales. Therefore, it is highly important
to identify the optimal spatial scale for a specific species. To put it in the words of Huston
(1994): “A lawn of green is a green salad for a sheep and a complex universe for an insect”.
To help with this dilemma, the keystone structure concept can be used. The keystone structure
concept is a useful tool, in order to determine the optimal spatial scale for measuring the habitat
heterogeneity and habitat fragmentation. The main factor determining the optimal spatial scale
is the operational scale of the studied species. This operational scale is mostly dependent on
the species home ranges, their dispersal abilities and other habitat spatial processes (Tews, et
al., 2004). For the Wadden region, that means that the most important spatial process regarding
bird communities are the intertidal mud-flats which are used as feeding grounds for native and
migrating species.
Identifying this spatial scale is highly important, as otherwise the measurement of habitat
heterogeneity could be falsified. Each species is dependent on a specific spatial aspect of
vegetation within the habitat. This specific spatial vegetation can be detected on a certain
spatial scale (Tews, et al., 2004). For example, when looking at bird communities a small
spatial scale with a high value of habitat heterogeneity measured in a certain area will not
automatically indicate a good quality or presence of specific spatial vegetation for a bigger
scale. This, in turn, then can lead to false information, as birds, especially in the Wadden region,
use a large area as feeding grounds.
It became clear that the spatial scale is crucial in measuring the habitat heterogeneity and
habitat fragmentation. In order to identify the optimal spatial scale, the concept of keystone
structures can be used. A ‘keystone structure’ is defined as a distinct spatial structure that is
providing resources, shelter or ‘goods and services’, which are crucial for other species (Tews,
et al., 2004). The most crucial keystone structures of the Wadden region of native and migrating
birds are the large intertidal mud-flats, which provide most of the food intake of birds present
(e.g. Tentij, et al., 2009; Reise et al., 2010; Wolff, Bakker, Laursen & Reise, 2010).
Additionally, looking from a biodiversity management point of view, the concept of keystone
structures means that the conservation of such a keystone structure will maintain a high level
of species diversity, while a disruption or removal of it can cause a breakdown in species
diversity.
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In addition to the intertidal mud-flats, many other important habitats can be found in the
Wadden Sea. These include, among others benthic habitats, salt marshes, beaches and dunes,
etc. All of these habitats are existing in symbiosis with each other, and consequently, it is very
difficult to determine which habitat type is the most important one. Looking for (migrating)
birds, the feeding grounds present in the intertidal mudflats and the benthic habitats are of
major importance. Additionally, the wetlands provide shelter and nesting grounds for other
animals. All in all, it can be said that all habitats together form the unique habitat we call the
Wadden Sea.
Habitat variables
In order to determine the current state of habitat heterogeneity & fragmentation, for the purpose
of this ESSG, several habitat types and their modification over the past years have been
analysed. This was done by closely analysing several of the Quality Status Reports (QSR),
which have been published by the CWSS. All QSR reports can be found at
http://www.waddensea-secretariat.org/monitoring-tmap/tmap-results-qsr. Due to time
restrictions and simplification for the alpha version of the ESSG, the following habitat types,
and their positive or negative changes over the years, have been taken into account: 1) Benthic
habitats, 2) Salt marshes, 3) Beaches and dunes, 4) Offshore areas, 5) Estuaries. The
development of these habitat types over the years results in an educated estimation of the
current state of habitat heterogeneity and fragmentation.
In order to identify the current or initial state of the individual habitat types, all major positive
and negative changes and trends have been valued. This has been done by rating positive
changes and trends with a value of +1 and negative changes and trends with -1. If no significant
changes could be analysed, then it was rated with 0. All individual habitat types are analysed
individually, leading to a overall evaluation of the initial state of the quality of the habitats in
the Wadden Sea region.
Benthic habitats
Benthic habitats make up a very big part of the Wadden Sea region. The Wadden Sea is flooded
twice a day, which results in a lot of water movement. This, in turn, leads to very fine sediments
which make up this unique benthic habitat. However, changes in this benthic habitat and its
geomorphology are very slow and dependent on the main driver: sea level rise (Wiersma, et
al., 2009). Due to these long-term changes, no significant difference in the general
57
geomorphology could be recognized in the period in between 2004-2009 (Wiersma et al.,
2009). Nevertheless, the real threat to the geomorphology of the Wadden area derives from sea
level rise. The geomorphology of the Wadden area is dependent on the balance between
sediment supply and sea level changes (Wolff, Bakker, Laursen, & Reise , 2010). The overall
area of the tidal flats has decreased dramatically since the first recordings in the 1500s. This,
in combination with the uncertain sediment supply rates, makes the predicted sea level rise of
one meter by the end of the century a highly threatening scenario for the Wadden region
(Wiersma et al., 2009).
One benthic habitat, that is very prone to these changes, is the seagrass bed habitat that can be
found within the Wadden region. These seagrass bed habitats are very sensitive habitats in the
intertidal zone of the Wadden Sea and most of them show very low plant diversity. Research
conducted in the period of 2004 - 2009 showed a slight increase in the area, as well as the
coverage, of seagrass bed habitats (Wiersma et al., 2009). This might be a result of lower
eutrophication levels, improved light conditions, a decrease in storminess, or a combination of
all of these factors (Wolff et al., 2010).
The seagrass, as well as green algal, habitats are an important food source for the zoobenthos
organisms found in the Wadden Sea. Therefore, a positive trend of these zoobenthic organisms
could be recognized in the study period in between 2004 – 2009. For most of the Wadden Sea
area, a stable or moderate increase in zoobenthic organisms could be recognized, while in some
areas even strong increases were identified. Additionally, none of the selected research areas
showed a decline in zoobenthic organisms (Wiersma et al., 2009).
Another important benthic habitat, which should be taken into account, is the sub-tidal habitat
present in the Wadden Sea region. They account for roughly 50% of the tidal area and serves
as an important food source for migrating birds and native marine mammals. Over the past
decades, sub-tidal organisms like the Oyster edulis and the tubeworm Sabellaria spinulosa
have vanished. In combination with on-going anthropogenic disturbances, such as repeated
bottom trawling, prevent the re-colonization of these organisms. Nevertheless, the
disappearance of these two organisms did not have a major impact on the overall quality of the
sub-tidal habitats. The sub-tidal habitats of the Wadden Sea still show a high biodiversity while
some studies even indicate that the biomass is higher than the one found in the mid intertidal
areas (Wiersma et al., 2009).
58
Overall, it can be said that the benthic habitat in the Wadden Sea area is more or less stable
while showing some improvements over the last years. However, the system is far from being
in a very good state. Threats, like sea level rise, are still dominant and more rehabilitation has
to be done to fight these threats.
All in all, it seems like the quality of the benthic habitats are in a slightly decreasing state Table
5. While slight positive trends in the development of zoobenthos and seagrass bed habitats can
be recognized, the overall loss of habitats and species is overwhelming. Additionally threats
from anthropogenic development are embossing this habitat type in the Dutch Wadden Sea.
Table 5: Evaluation of the benthic habitat o fthe Dutch Wadden Sea
Regulating & Maintenance ES Animal Habitat
Habitat types Habitat Heterogeneity (Quality)
Habitat Fragmentation
Positive Negative Positive Negative
Benthic Habitats
No significant change
Threat of SLR Increased Seagrass habitats
Overall loss of habitats (area)
Positive trend in zoobenthos
Extinction of two benthic species
Anthropogenic disturbances
Score -1 -1
Salt marshes
Salt marshes serve as a very important habitat. Animals use it for shelter and use it as an
important food source. The quality of this habitat, therefore, is very important to the overall
quality of the ecosystem. Fortunately, the area covered by salt marshes in the Wadden Sea is
improving. An increase of nearly 1.600 ha (roughly 5% of the area covered) could be
recognised in the study period in between 2004 – 2009 (Esselink, et al., 2009). This results in
a total area covered by salt marshes of 40.620 ha.
Additionally, the slight increase of the natural morphology, in combination with management
efforts conducted, resulted in flourishing vegetation in some areas. Furthermore, the process of
ageing of the vegetation, i.e. the extension of late-succession salt-marsh communities, was
recognized to have slowed down or even be stopped (Esselink, et al., 2009). This, however,
could also only be recognized in areas that showed an improved morphology (Esselink, et al.,
2009). A conclusion for the overall vegetation of the salt marshes could not be given. This is
mainly due to lacking long-term data sets. However, not only positive developments can be
recognized in the salt marsh area. A ‘decrease in pioneer zones and an extension of late
59
successional and climax stages in many salt marshes across the Wadden Sea’ were recognized
between 2004 and 2009 (Esselink, et al., 2009).
In general, efforts are made in all three countries to improve the quality and quantity of salt
marshes. Two different approaches are used to do so. One approach is focusing on vegetation
development, in regards to the geomorphological conditions in combination with minimum
anthropogenic interference (Esselink, et al., 2009). The second one is focusing on the
preservation and enhancement of vegetation diversity. An area of around 800 ha of salt marshes
has been restored so far. Additionally, the re-embankment of summer polders may contribute
to the quality of the salt marsh area.
In general, it can be said that the habitat heterogeneity of the salt marsh habitat in the Wadden
Sea is developing very positively (Table 6). Increased vegetation and slowed ageing of the
vegetation have led to a better quality of the salt marshes. When looking at fragmentation, no
significant trends and changes can be recognized. There are positive and negative changes
visible; however, both positive and negative trends and changes are balancing each other.
Overall though, the positive changes and trends dominate in the salt marsh habitats of the Dutch
Wadden Sea.
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Table 6: Evaluation of the salt marsh habitat type of the Dutch Wadden Sea
Regulating & Maintenance ES Animal Habitat
Habitat types Habitat Heterogeneity (Quality)
Habitat Fragmentation
Positive Negative Positive Negative
Salt Marshes
Increased vegetation Increase of 1.600ha
Decrease in Pioneer species
Ageing slowed/stopped
Management efforts conducted
Extension of late successional climax stages
Score +2 0
Beaches and dunes
The beach and dune system of the Wadden Sea has shown no significant progress since 2004.
No development in the dynamics of the dune system, the atmospheric deposition and reduction
of groundwater extraction could be analysed in the study period in between 2004 – 2009 (Wolff
et al., 2010). Some progress of the beach and dune system of the Wadden Sea is described in
the QSR of 2004. These progresses, in combination with available changes, are mentioned in
the new QSR of 2009. First of all, an increase in the natural dynamics of the system could be
recognized. Beaches and beach plains, as well as primary dunes and primary dune valleys all
show a positive increase in their overall dynamics (Lammerts, Petersen, & Hochkirsch, 2009).
The system is far away from achieving a complete dependence on the geomorphological
processes of the area.
Secondly, it could be recognized that some of the beach and dune vegetation increased in
presence. Therefore, the overall vegetation succession of the beach and dune system is
improving. This could be due to the decreased amounts of atmospheric deposition till 2004.
This was achieved, despite human interactions like ground water extraction. Anthropogenic
developments are still pressuring the vegetation of the beach and dune system of the Wadden
Sea (Lammerts, Petersen, & Hochkirsch, 2009). Finally, the quality assessment of 2004
indicated that the conditions for migrating, as well as breeding, birds have improved. This
conclusion was drawn after the analysis of the effects of changing habitats on food webs
(Lammerts, Petersen, & Hochkirsch, 2009).
In general, it can be said that on the one hand quality of the beaches and dunes habitats in the
Dutch Wadden Sea is increasing (Table 7). This is mainly due to the increased vegetation
success which resulted in an improved condition for birds and other organisms. On the other
61
hand, there have been no significant changes in atmospheric deposition and ground water
extraction which is still putting pressure on the habitat type. When looking at the habitat
fragmentation it can be recognized that the overall natural dynamics have increased but no
anthropogenic development to increase these processes has been conducted. But other
anthropogenic disturbances are still pressuring the habitat type, resulting in a slightly negative
initial state of the beach and dune habitat when comparing it to 2004 levels.
Table 7: Evaluation of the beaches and dunes habitat of the Dutch Wadden Sea
Regulating & Maintenance ES Animal Habitat
Habitat types Habitat Heterogeneity (Quality)
Habitat Fragmentation
Beaches & Dunes
No significant process (since 2004)
No change in atmospheric deposition (since 2004)
Overall increase in natural dynamics
No development in dune dynamics (since 2004)
Overall vegetation success
No development in ground-water extraction (since 2004)
Anthropogenic disturbances
Conditions for birds improved
Score +0 -1
Offshore areas
The offshore areas of the Wadden Sea are defined as ‘the near-shore zone between the barrier
islands and the line 3-nautical-miles off the baseline. In the tidal inlets, this baseline is an
artificial line connecting the outer tips of the islands’ (Garthe, Schwemmer, Petersen, &
Laursen, 2009). The offshore area of the Wadden Sea showed no major geomorphological
changes in the period in between 2004 – 2009. Exceptions to that are coastal protection
activities, like sand nourishment, conducted in the Wadden region.
The offshore areas are especially important for migrating, as well as native, bird species. The
offshore area provides important stocks of bivalves (i.e. Spisula subtruncata along the Dutch
coast). However, there is a knowledge gap regarding the current bivalves stock of the offshore
area, and within that, no further assessment can take place (Garthe et al., 2009).
In general, it can be said that no dramatic changes in the offshore area could be detected (Table
8). This includes positive and negative changes compared to 2004 levels. Nevertheless, the
analysed literature states that the system seems to be stable.
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Table 8: Evaluation of the offshore area habitat type of the Dutch Wadden Sea
Regulating & Maintenance ES Animal Habitat
Habitat types Habitat Heterogeneity (Quality)
Habitat Fragmentation
Positive Negative Positive Negative
Offshore Areas System stable, no significant changes
Score 0 0
Estuaries
Estuaries are an important part of the Wadden Sea ecosystem. Four major rivers (Varde A in
Denmark, Eider, Elbe, Weser and Ems in Germany) flow into the Wadden Sea. The estuaries
are of great importance to the Wadden Sea due to two major reasons. First of all, they have a
high input of nutrients, sediment and toxic nutrients while providing a nursery and feeding area
for organisms. Secondly, the estuaries provide a specific habitat with high fluctuations in
factors like salinity, tidal range and/or turbidity (Schuchardt & Scholle, 2009).
The estuaries have the worst ecological condition of the whole Wadden Sea (Schuchardt &
Scholle, 2009). Efforts in recent years have resulted in some improvements of the ecological
conditions. Examples are factors such as nutrient loads and several other contaminants have
dropped. However, much more has to be done to improve the water quality of the estuaries.
Several anthropogenic measures impose pressure on the estuarine system. Such measures
include activities such as channel maintenance and dredging, which have significantly
contributed to changes in the morphology and hydrography, flora and fauna, among others, of
the estuarine system (Schuchardt & Scholle, 2009). Furthermore, projects, like port expansions
or the construction of new power plants, have an indirect impact on the estuarine system. These
projects are conducted almost only outside the protected area but still affect the area direct, by
i.e. heat transfer.
One major anthropogenic measure impacting the estuarine system is the maintenance of the
shipping channels within the estuarine system. The amount of dredged materials, as well as the
further deepening of the channels, puts a high pressure on the system. Management efforts are
implemented in order to reduce possible contamination and general stresses to the system (in
regards to the quantity dredged). Additionally, plans for appropriate dumping site management
are on the way (Schuchardt & Scholle, 2009). Finally, some effort is done to increase the state
of the estuarine system. Projects, like building fish passages and restoring brackish marshes,
63
are creating the opportunity for developing additional habitats in the system (Wolff et al.,
2010).
In general, it can be said that both habitat heterogeneity and fragmentation are in a slightly
negative sate compared to 2004 levels (Table 9). While nutrient and contaminate levels have
dropped since 2004, it can still be said that the estuarine habitat system is in the “worst
ecological condition” of all habitats in the Dutch Wadden Sea (Schuchardt & Scholle, 2009).
Table 9: Evaluation of the Estuarine habitat type of the Dutch Wadden Sea.
Regulating & Maintenance ES Animal Habitat
Habitat types Habitat Heterogeneity (Quality)
Habitat Fragmentation
Estuaries
Nutrient & contaminant level dropped
Worst ecological condition
Projects like fish passages & restoration
Anthropogenic disturbances
Despites the positive increase its still in the worst condition
Score -1 0
Conclusion Regulating and Maintenance indicator variables
In conclusion, it can be said that the habitats and their quality, as well as fragmentation, are in
a bad state. This comes from decades of overexploiting resources and habitats. However, many
management efforts are conducted to increase the resources that can be found within the
Wadden Sea.
All positive and negative changes in the Wadden Sea environment have been categorized and
rated (Table 10). However, the rating was conducted very simplified as negative changes have
been rated with -1 and positive changes with +1. Neutral or no changes have been rated with
0. Therefore, no weight factor was taken into account. However, for the alpha version of the
game, this shall be enough since it serves as an experimental phase to see if everything is
working together as wanted.
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Table 10: Evaluation of the individual habitat types, resulting in the initial state of habitats in
the Wadden Sea.
Regulating & Maintenance ES Animal Habitat
Habitat types Habitat Heterogeneity (Quality)
Habitat Fragmentation
Positive Negative Positive Negative
Benthic Habitats
No significant change Threat of SLR Increased Seagrass habitats
Overall loss of habitats (area)
Positive trend in zoobenthos
Extinction of two benthic species
Anthropogenic disturbances
Score -1 -1
Salt Marshes
Increased vegetation Increase of 1.600ha
Decrease in Pioneer species
Ageing slowed/stopped
Management efforts conducted
Extension of late successional climax stages
Score +2 0
Beaches & Dunes
No significant process (since 2004)
No change in atmospheric deposition (since 2004)
Overall increase in natural dynamics
No development in dune dynamics (since 2004)
Overall vegetation success
No development in ground-water extraction (since 2004)
Anthropogenic disturbances
Conditions for birds improved
Score 0 -1
Offshore Areas
System stable, no significant changes
Score 0 0
Estuaries
Nutrient & contaminant level dropped
Worst ecological condition
Projects like fish passages & restoration
Anthropogenic disturbances
Despites the positive increase its still in the worst condition
Score -1 0
Total Score 0 -2
Nevertheless, it could be recognized that the habitat quality has increased over the past years.
Many management efforts have been conducted to preserve and restore the unique environment
that can be found in the Wadden region. On the other hand, though, anthropogenic measures
are still pressuring the present ecosystem, which in turn affects the habitat fragmentation of the
area. All combined factors result in an overall score for habitat heterogeneity in +2 and habitat
fragmentation in -3 (Table 11).
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Both sub-indicators, for the alpha version of the ESSG, are weighted equally. This means that
both sub-indicators are weighted 50%. To determine the current state, both sub-indicators are
added up and then divided by two. This results in a total score or current state value of -0,5 for
the Regulating & Maintenance ES.
Table 11: Evaluation of Habitat heterogeneity (quality) and habitat fragmentation in the
Wadden Sea
Regulating & Maintenance ES
Habitat heterogeneity (quality)
Habitat fragmentation
Score +0 -2
Current state of habitats in the Wadden Sea
-1
4.1.3 Cultural ES
The last ecosystem service classification, defined by CICES, is cultural ES. CICES includes,
among others, symbolic services (i.e. spiritual) and intellectual and experimental (i.e.
recreation and community activities). Most of the possible indicators can be found in Appendix
III. After several expert meetings combined with literature reviews, the main indicator for the
cultural ecosystem service classification was chosen: Tourism. The indicator of tourism has
been sub-divided into the sub-indicators of ‘ferry tourism’ and ‘overnight stays’.
The concept of tourism has changed over the last few decades. Nowadays, people can freely
travel to (most) countries in the world and visit new places, which was unthinkable a couple of
decades ago. And people love it. Yearly, millions of people are going on adventures and travel
to new places all around the world. This is becoming much easier due to a movement called
globalization. More open borders make it easier for everybody to travel to destinations they
admire the most. It is not surprising that this movement has created a whole new industry over
the last decades, called the tourism industry; and it is booming. The tourism industry
experienced continued growth and deepening diversification over the last decades and within
that became, among other, to one of the fastest growing industries of our time (UNWTO, 2016).
The tourism industry is growing so quickly that the business volume of it equals (or even
surpluses) the ones of the oil production, food production or automobile industry (UNWTO,
2016). Globalization has led to a global spread of tourism industry and there are just a very few
places in the world that do not benefit from it. The tourism industry has become one of the
major participants for international commerce and is a key industry for developing countries
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as it offers a good source of income and employment. However, the tourism industry is not
only a key industry for developing countries, but for every country involved in it. The
contributions done through the tourism industry are enormous. The World Travel & Tourism
Council (WTTC) estimated that the global contribution of the tourism industry is about $ 2.4
trillion in 2014, which accounts for 3.1% of the global GDP. Additionally, the Oxford
Economics global industry model predicts that the tourism industry will experience an increase
of 3.9% per year. This is making it the second greatest growing industry behind retail (Figure
8). On top of that, Figure 8 shows that the tourism industry is accountable for more jobs than
the chemistry and automotive manufacturing combined across every region throughout the
world.
Figure 8: Direct employment and global GDP contribution forecast of the tourism industry.
Source: Skift.com
The tourism industry is also an important one in the Wadden Sea region. The first tourism in
the Wadden region dates back to the late 18th century when the first ‘bathing hotel’ was built
on the German Island of Nordeney (Zirulia, 2013). Mass tourism really developed in the
Wadden Sea after World War II, when many people got attracted by the spacious beaches of
the Wadden Sea. Especially in the fiftieth and sixties, tourism grew rapidly due to the
characteristics of the Wadden Sea and its islands (Sijtsma, Werner, & Broersms, 2008).
Nowadays, the Wadden Sea continues to be a major national and international travel
destination. The Wadden Sea region attracts millions of tourists, the numbers, however, vary
between literature. Since 1996, the Toerdata Noord monitoring system of the Stenden
University monitors the supply and demand of the tourism industry in the northern part of the
Wadden Sea (Huig & Haas, 2010a).
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Tourism nowadays is an important source of income and job provision on the one hand, but on
the other hand also an important source of human health and well-being. Human health and
well-being originated from trying to make the public disease free and within that healthy (Pyke,
Hartwell, Blake, & Hemmingway, 2016). This changed over the years as humans became
specialists in fighting diseases. Today the World Health Organization (WHO) proposed that
“Health is not the mere absence of diseases, but a state of well-being”, which means that a
person needs more than just a good health to feel well. The well-being of a person can be
affected by various factors, like stress, social connections, personal activities, living standards,
and the environment among others (Pyke, Hartwell, Blake, & Hemmingway, 2016). Many of
these factors can positively be influenced by travelling to destinations that fulfil someone
mentally. By travelling to admire destinations, the body and the mind of a person can rejuvenate
and within that can help to achieve a better well-being for someone.
Tourism sector variables
As can be observed, the tourism in the Wadden region seems to be booming. Many people visit
this unique place to enjoy the landscape, the animal kingdom and just to enjoy themselves and
free their minds. Especially the Wadden islands are a major tourist destination. Most people
who have spent their vacation in the Wadden region are visiting the Wadden islands. In general,
around 87% of the tourist that come to the Wadden region spent their time on the Wadden
islands (Sijtsma, Broersma, Daams, Hoekstra, & Werner, 2015). But what does that mean for
the two sub-indicators ‘ferry tourism’ and ‘overnight stays’? In order to investigate this issue
relevant data from ferry corporations, municipal overnight stays data and related general issues
have been evaluated.
Ferry tourism in the Wadden Sea
First, let`s look at the ferry data available to evaluate the current/initial state of the ferry tourism
sector in the Dutch Wadden Sea area. There are three major ferry companies operating in the
Dutch Wadden area. Their main objective is to transport passengers from the mainland to the
islands. These companies are Royal Teso (operating the ferries to Texel), Waddenborg-
Passagierdiensten B.V. (operating the ferries to Ameland and Schiermonnikoog) and Rederij-
Doeksen (operating the ferries to Vlieland and Terschelling). Unfortunately, annual reports are
only available from Royal Teso (RT), while only Waddenorg-Passagierdiensten B.V. (WP)
responded to data requests. Only general information without any recognizable trends in the
amount of people transported was included in this general information of WP. Therefore, the
68
annual delivered by RT are used to elaborate current trends in the industry, while the
information given by WP is used to indicate current problems in the sector.
As mentioned previously, RT is operating the ferries to the holiday destination island of Texel.
Over the last couple of years, an increasing trend regarding the conducted sailings can be
recognized. While the company operated 13.569 sailings in the season of 2012/13, this
increased to 13.677 conducted sailings by the season 2015/16 (Table 12). Consequently, RT
had a slight increase of + 0.8% over a four-year time span. Looking at the development in the
individual years, it can be observed that RT conducted more sailings from year to year, except
for the season of 2013/14 where a slight decrease in conducted sailings can be recognized. In
general, it can be said that RT is increasing the amount of sailings to Texel with every following
year.
Table 12: Conducted sailings by Royal Teso from 2012-2016. Source: Teso 2014, 2015 & 2016
2012/13 2013/14 2014/15 2015/16
Conducted sailings
13.569 (Overall +0.8%)
13.393 (- 1.3%)
13.472 (+0.59%)
13.677 (+ 1.52%)
This increase also represents the current trend of passengers transported to Texel. Figure 9
further shows the development in passengers transported over the years. When looking at the
season of 2013/14 only a very slight increase of passengers can be observed. The amount of
passengers, therefore, grew by +0.56% from 3.580.000 to 3.600.000 passengers transported
(Teso, 2015). Within that, RT did not even achieve their lowest estimated prognosis for the
following years. Since then, RT increased the amount of passengers transported constantly. In
the following season of 2014/15 the amount of passengers transported increased by +3.39% to
3.722.00 (Teso, 2015). Within that, RT was able to achieve their best-estimated prognosis for
this season. A year later, RT was even able to exceed their best-estimated prognosis for
passengers transported. This led to an increase in passengers transported from the mainland to
the island of Texel of +5.37% to a total of 3.922.000 (Teso, 2016). Thus, RT was able to achieve
a total growth (from season 2013/14 to 2015/16) of +9.55%. Therefore, it can be said that the
ferry tourism is increasing over the last couple of years.
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Figure 9: Passengers transported (x1000) and prognosis of RT. Top left: season 2013/14,
Top right: season 2014/15, Bottom left: season 2015/16. Yellow line actual transported
passengers, upper white line (1) best estimated prognosis, lower white line (3) lowest
estimated prognosis and grey line (2) best estimated prognosis. Source: Teso 2014, 2015 &
2016
Many people that make vacations in the Wadden Sea area are arriving there by car. This is
mainly due to the present infrastructure and comfort of the people since most tourists in the
region originate from the Netherlands itself, Germany, Belgium, and France, all countries
within in a comfortable driving distance. Some people actually take their car to Texel while
others use available long-term parking spots on the mainland. Therefore, there are not as many
cars transported as passengers in general, most likely due to increased costs. Data on this
passenger car equivalent (PCE) of RT is also available. Therefore, it can be observed that the
PCE shows also an increasing trend, as it has been with the actual number of passengers
transported (Figure 10). In the season 2013/14, RT transported 1.423.000 PCE. This is a slight
increase of +2.75% compared to the year before (Teso, 2014). Within that, RT managed to just
exceed their lowest estimated prognosis for this season. In the following season of 2014/15 RT
actually managed to increase its PCE, almost reaching their highest estimated prognosis for
PCE. Therefore, the PCE increased by +5.65% to a total amount of 1.503.422 PCE (Teso,
2015). This was the first time in the company`s history to exceed one and a half million PCE.
In the season of 2015/16 the PCE did not increase as much as in the years before, however, RT
managed to exceed their highest estimated prognosis for PCE of this year. Therefore, the PCE
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increased by (just) +2.84% to a total of 1.546.060 PCE (Teso, 2016). It can be observed that
RT has a steady increase in PCE, which correlated with the actual amount of passengers
transported. When comparing the season 20124/14 with the season 2015/16 a total increase in
PCE of +11.36% can be recognized. Therefore, it can be said that even if the growth rate is
slowing down, still some growth can be recognized.
Figure 10: Passenger Car Equivalent (x1000) and RT prognosis. Top left: season 2013/14,
Top right: season 2014/15, Bottom left: season 2015/16. Yellow line actual transported
passengers, upper white line (1) best estimated prognosis, lower white line (3) lowest
estimated prognosis, grey line (2) best estimated prognosis. Source: Tesco 2014, 2015 &
2016)
As can be observed, RT showed increasing trends for conducted sailings, passengers
transported and PCE. On the one hand, this indicates a growing tourism sector on the Wadden
Islands, on the other hand, it does not indicate directly if RT is also increasing their profit
margin. First, let`s investigate the income generated by tickets sold before elaborating the total
turnover. When comparing the different seasons a steady increase in the income generated from
tickets sold can be recognized. The individual increase of income generated by tickets sold can
be seen in Table 13 while here just the overall trend has been investigated. When comparing
available data from the season 2012/13 to 2015/16 a total increase of +17.35% from €18.552
to €21.770. This reflects that the trend of passengers and PCE transported to Texel very well.
71
The increasing trends of passengers, as well as PCE, transported and the increased income
generated just by tickets sold are also reflected in the net turnover statement by RT (Table 13).
RT made a total net turnover of €21.336.000 in the season 2012/13. This net turnover increased
by +16.59% by the season 2015/16 to a total of €24.875.000. Also, looking at the individual
years, only increasing trends in the total net turnover can be observed (Table 13)
By now, a positive trend in income generated by tickets, as well the total net turnover can be
recognized. These results are also reflected in the income statement of RT after expenses and
taxes. In general, it can be said that RT increased their profits over the last years. When
comparing the income after expenses and taxes from season 2012/13 and 2015/16 a total
increase of +22.43% can be observed (Table 13). Within that, RT increased their pure profit
from €2.167.000 to €2.653.000. The only season RT made less profit than the previous years
was in season 2014/15 where a decrease of -18.14% in income after expanses and tax could be
recognized. However, this was mainly due to new acquisitions (i.e. shipping vessels).
Nevertheless, looking at the development of income generated over the past years a positive
trend can be observed.
Table 13: Income generated by Royal Tesco. Source: Tesco 2014, 2015 & 2016
2012/13 2013/2014 2014/2015 2015/2016
Income from ticket sales
€18.552 (Overall + 17.35%)
€19.201 (+ 3.5%)
€20.437 (+6.44%)
€21.770 (+6.52%)
Net turnover €21.336.000 (Overall, +16.59%)
€22.050.000 (+3.35%)
€23.437.000 (+6.29%)
€24.875.000 (+6.14%)
Income after tax and expenses
€2.167.000 (Overall +22.43%)
€2.651.000 (+ 22.34%)
€2.170.000 (-18.14%)
€2.653.000 (+ 22.26%)
As becomes evident, the data provided by RT generally shows a positive trend for now and the
future. An increase in passengers, in Passenger-Car-Equivalent (PCE) and in income can be
recognized when looking at the provided data. However, the industry is also prone to some
threats that arise from the dynamics of the Wadden Sea.
However, so much ferry traffic has also negative impacts on the environment, while natural
processes also put stress on the ferry operating companies. As mentioned in previous chapters,
the Wadden Sea is a relatively undisturbed system with many on-going processes. One major
natural process, that is troubling the ferry industry, is the sedimentation, which is an active
process in the Wadden Sea region. Since the Wadden Sea experiences diurnal tides, also plenty
72
of sediments are transported in this area. Additionally, the tides are very strong in the Wadden
region, resulting in an almost complete retrieve of the water. Consequently, just in deeper
channels water remains during the low tide period. This is a tricky business for the ferry
operators in the region. Ferries in the Wadden area are highly dependent on the channels that
are lancing throughout the Wadden Sea. These channels make it possible to use ferries
connections to the islands in the first place. Without these channels, ferry transportation would
not be possible at low tide, while the risk of grounding would even be very high at high tide.
Therefore, the channels have to be dredged regularly in order to be able to use ferry
transportation. However, many natural processes occurring in the Wadden region are putting
stress on the channels, which often results in delays of the ferries, and within that are harming
the ferry companies of the Wadden area. The individual reasons for the delays are described in
the following paragraphs.
One reason why dredging has to be conducted throughout the year is because of the silting up
process. The natural dynamics of the Wadden Sea naturally fill the channels with sediments
when the water is retrieving to the sea. Additionally, the sand nourishment processes on the
islands are contributing to a higher level of silting up in the channels, as more sediments are
transported into the system (Nellus, 2016).
Another problem with the silting-up of the channels derives from the way the channels flow
through the Wadden Sea. All channels in the Wadden Sea are characterized by meandering
through it. This means that there are very limited sections in which the channel actually flows
straight. Due to this watercourse, the water flows faster in the outer bends and slower at the
inner bends of the channel. Consequently, the inner bend is prone to sedimentation while the
outer bend is prone to erosion. Within that, the channel curves are widened, resulting in a longer
fairway in general. Looking at provided data from WP indicates that the fairway is already 10%
longer than it has been in 1993 (Nellus, 2016).
Additionally, these sedimentation and erosion processes result in the ferries being unable to
sail with full power, even in the straight sections of the channel. This is mainly because the
vessel cannot exceed to full power since the speed of the vessel has to be throttled in order to
be able to make the bends of the channel without difficulties (Nellus, 2016). These natural
processes of sedimentation of the Wadden Sea system are threatening the ferry operating
sector. With increasing sedimentations in the ferry channels, the operating companies are
threatened by not being able to sail all day around and/or not being able to sail with the bigger
73
ferries. The only way to deal with this threat nowadays is by dredging the channels to keep
them at a steady depth.
Taking the ferry channel to Ameland as an example, it can be recognized that dredging efforts
conducted are not enough. According to the municipality of Ameland, the present ferry
channels are insufficiently dredged, resulting in the channels not having the desired width and
depth. Consequently, the ferries cannot replace enough water in order to sail at full speed. This
problem gets even bigger at low tide, where water in the channel is scarce. Therefore, the
channels are getting tighter at low tide making navigational operations very difficult. This gets
stressed when a ferry is encountering another ferry, leading often too dangerous navigational
operations. This is occurring despite the fact that dredging operations are at a maximum effort.
Dredging operations increased over the past years. While dredging operations were only
conducted sometimes a month till 2005, these dredging operations since then have to be
conducted 365 days a year. This is increasing the costs for the municipalities, as well as the
ferry operators. Additionally, the dredged sludge is economically not interesting and therefore
is no source of income to balance the increasing costs (Nellus, 2016).
All in all, a positive trend for ferry operating companies in the Wadden Sea can be recognized
(Table 14). Ferry companies like RT show positive trends in passengers transported, as well as
PCE, to the Wadden islands. This is reflected in their annual income statement as also there a
positive trend can be recognized. However, natural processes, especially sedimentation, are
putting stress on the ferry companies. Therefore, it can be said that, in general, ferry operating
companies have a positive trend towards the future, while having to find solutions to the
problems arising from natural processes.
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Table 14: Evaluation of the ferry tourism sector of the Dut h Wadden Sea
Cultural ES
Ferry tourism
Positive trend Negative trends
Increase in conducted sailings
Dredging efforts not enough
Increase in passengers transported
Increase in sedimentation problems
Increase in passenger car equivalent
Increase in overall profit
Score +2
Overnight stays
As can be observed above, the ferry industry in the Dutch Wadden Sea area is growing.
Therefore, more people than the years before have been visiting the Wadden islands for their
vacations. In the following section, it shall be elaborated if this increase in tourism is also
reflecting the current holiday trend on the Wadden islands. To do so, data was gathered from
Ameland, Terschelling, Vlieland, and Schiermonnikoog regarding accommodation types
present on the islands, their development and the change in overnight stays during the period
of 2006-2010. All necessary data originates from the report ‘Toerisme in Cijfers’ (Tourism in
numbers) by Haas & Huig (2011). The four islands researched upon all belong to the
municipality of Friesland. Therefore, all necessary data was combined and is referred to as the
‘Wadden islands’. The island of Texel was excluded from the research as data availability was
scarce. Since data are available for four out of the five Wadden islands, it is assumed that Texel
shows the same developing trends as the rest. There are several different accommodation types
when planning a trip to the Wadden islands. The six major tourism accommodation types,
which are also investigated in this research, are: hotels & pensions, bed & breakfast,
campgrounds, holiday homes, group accommodations and yacht harbours.
First, let’s look at present hotels and pension located on the Dutch Wadden islands. As can be
seen in Table 15, the amount of hotel and pensions has not changed in the time period of 2006
to 2010. The same can be observed when looking at the amount of beds the hotel and pension
providers offer. A small decrease in 2007, probably due to the closing of one hotel or pension
75
led to a reduction in beds available for tourists. However, that recovered in the following year,
resulting in an overall increase in available beds of +0.35%.
Table 15: Hotels and pensions: Amount of companies and beds from 2006-2010. Changes in
% derive from the year before, except change in 2006, which refers to the overall change within
the whole time period. Source: (Haas & Huig, 2011)
Amount of hotels/pensions Amount of beds
Year 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
Wadden islands
58 57 58 58 58 3.751 3.674 3.764 3.764 3.764
Change (in %)
0 -1,72 +1,75 0 0 +0,35 -2,05 +2,45 0 0
It can be observed that the Wadden islands had no significant increase in hotel and pension
providers or beds available. Looking at the occupation of these hotel and pension and the
amount of overnight stays conducted in them a totally different trend can be recognized (Table
16). Over the years, the present hotel and pension providers experienced a decreasing trend in
occupation rates, which in turn also led to a decreasing trend in total overnight stays conducted.
Therefore, the occupation rate decreased from 45.7% in 2006 to just 34.9% in 2010.
Consequently, the occupation rate of hotel pensions decreased in total by 10.8%. This
decreasing trend in the occupation rate is also reflected in the amount of nights spent in them.
While in 2006 around 626.000 overnight stays were conducted, it only has been 480.000 by
2010. A steady decrease over the years led to a total decrease of -23.3% of overnight stays
conducted in hotel and pensions on the Wadden Island.
Table 16: Hotels and pensions: occupation (in %) and amount of overnight stays (x1.000) from
2006-2010. Changes in % derive from the year before, except change in 2006, which refers to
the overall change within the whole time period. Source: (Haas & Huig, 2011)
Occupation (in %) Amount overnight stays (x1.000)
Year 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
Wadden islands
45.7 40.7 39.5 36.3 34.9 626 545 540 498 480
Change (in %)
-10.8 -5 -1,2 -3,2 -1,4 -23,3 -12,94 -0,92 -7,78 -3,61
Another accommodation type on the Wadden islands is bed & breakfast (B&B). Over the
couple of years the B&B sector also experienced a decreasing trend. To begin with, the amount
of B&B providers has declined steadily over the years. In the year 2006, a total of 27 B&B
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providers could be found on the Dutch Wadden Islands. By the year 2010, this amount
decreased by -14.81% to just 23 providers. The decrease in providers had no impact on nights
spent in B&B`s. Contrariwise, the B&B sector experienced an increase in nights spent in them,
with a peak of 16.000 nights spent in B&B in 2008. By 2010, this number declined again to
14.000 nights spent in B&B, which is still +7.69% more than compared to 2006 levels (Table
17). This change might not be marginally different, but anyways indicates a growing trend for
the B&B sector of the Dutch Wadden Sea islands.
Table 17: Bed and Breakfast: Amount of providers and overnight stays (x1.000) from 2006-
2010. Changes in % derive from the year before, except change in 2006, which refers to the
overall change within the whole time period. Source: (Haas & Huig, 2011)
Amount of Bed and Breakfast provider
Amount of overnight stays (x 1.000)
Year 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
Wadden islands
27 26 24 23 23 13 13 16 14 14
Change (in %)
-14,81
-3,70 -7,69 -4,17 0 +7,69 0 +23,08 -12,5 0
The third type of accommodation, which can be found on the Dutch Wadden islands, are
campgrounds. Campgrounds are a very popular way of spending the vacations as they are
cheaper than other forms of accommodation, while some people feel closer connected to the
surrounding nature. However, the amount of campgrounds has not changed significantly over
the years. Just one campground vanished, which might also explain the decreased amount of
plots available (Table 18).
Table 18: Campgrounds: Amount of providers and plots from 2006-2010. Changes in % derive
from the year before, except change in 2006, which refers to the overall change within the
whole time period. Source: (Haas & Huig, 2011)
Amount of Campgrounds Amount of plots
Year 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
Wadden islands
58 58 58 57 57 6.971 7.011 6.930 6.769 6.806
Change (in %)
-1,72 0 0 -1,72 0 -2,37 +0,57 -1,16 -2,32 +0,55
There are two different types of camping plots available at the campground providers in the
Wadden Islands. The first type is describing common tourist camping plots, where people in
general stay for a night or a week. The other types of campground present are permanent
77
camping plots. These spots are normally rented to permanent campers. Both campground plot
types experiences a decreasing trend in the period of 2006-2010 (Table 19). While the
difference in tourist plots is minimal (-0.7%), the change in available permanent plots is greater.
By 2010, around -4.42% of the permanent plots that have been available in 2006 were
demolished. Therefore, just 2.982 of the 3.120 plots remain available for permanent campers.
Table 19: Campgrounds: Amount of tourist plots permanent plots from 2006-2010. Changes
in % derive from the year before, except change in 2006, which refers to the overall change
within the whole time period. Source: (Haas & Huig, 2011)
Amount of tourist plots Amount of permanent plots
Year 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
Wadden islands
3.851 3.862 3.823 3.824 3.824 3.120 3.149 3.107 2.945 2.982
Change (in %)
-0,70 +0,29 -1,01 +0,03 0 -4,42 +0,93 -1,33 -5,21 +1,26
The reduction in available plots might be related to their occupation rate. When looking at the
occupation rate of tourist campground plots, it can be observed that in every year a small
decline is present (Table 20). Therefore, the occupation rate decreased from 18.8% in 2006 to
just 13.1% in 2010. Consequently, the occupation rate of tourist campground plots decreased
by -5.7%. This decreasing trend is also reflected in the actual overnight stays conducted on
tourist plots. In 2006, around 607.000 overnight stays were conducted on those tourist plots.
By the year 2010, just 422.000 overnight stays have been conducted on them. Consequently,
the sector lost 30% of total overnight stays in this 4 year time period.
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Table 20: Campgrounds: Occupation of tourist plots (in %) and amount of overnight stays
(x1.000) from 2006-2010. Changes in % derive from the year before, except change in 2006,
which refers to the overall change within the whole time period. Source: (Haas & Huig, 2011)
Occupation of tourist plots (in %) Amount overnight stays on tourist plots (x1.000)
Year 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
Wadden islands
18.8% 16.3% 15.6% 13.3% 13.1% 607 528 502 427 422
Change (in %)
-5,7 -2,5 -0,7 -2,3 -0,1 -30 -13 -5 -15 -1
The permanent campground plots have not experienced this drastic decrease. However, a small
decreasing trend can still be recognized when looking at the available data. The occupation of
these permanent plots had a very small decrease of -0.3% from the year 2006 to 2010. However,
the occupation rate is still over 95%, meaning that almost all of the permanent campground
plots on the Wadden islands are rented out. There is still a declining trend in overnight stays
visible for these permanent camping plots. In 2006, around 598.000 overnight stays were
conducted on these permanent camping plots. By 2010, this number decreased by -4.85% to
569.000 nights spent (Table 21). Despites the year 2007, all following years experienced this
decreasing trend.
In general, it can be said that the camping sector in the Wadden islands is experiencing a
decreasing trend. This is for the actual available camping plots, their occupation rate and actual
nights spent on these campgrounds.
Table 21: Campgrounds: Occupation of permanent plots (in %) and overnight stays (x1.000).
Changes in % derive from the year before, except change in 2006, which refers to the overall
change within the whole time period. Source: (Haas & Huig, 2011)
Occupation of permanent plots (in %) Amount overnight stays on permanent plots (x1.000)
Year 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
Wadden islands
95.8% 95.6% 90.0% 95.4% 95.5% 598 602 559 562 569
Change (in %)
-0,3 -0,2 -5,6 +5,4 +0,1 -4,85 +0,67 -7,14 +0,54 +1,25
The fourth tourist accommodation type present on the Dutch Wadden islands are holiday-
homes. On the one hand, during the overall time period analysed, no marginal changes in
providers can be recognized. One provider joint in during the years 2008/09 but then vanished
79
again. Therefore, the number of holiday-homes constantly stayed at 71. On the other hand, the
amount of available holiday-homes has increased over the years. In 2006, 3.144 holiday-homes
were available to tourist. This amount increased by +16.89% to a total of 3.640 holiday-homes
available for tourist. Normally, the section of holiday-homes is sub-divided into rental housing
and secondary homes. Secondary homes do not exist on the analysed Dutch Wadden islands
and therefore the term holiday-homes just refer to available renting houses on the Dutch
Wadden Islands (Table 22).
Table 22: Holiday Homes: Amount of providers and amount of holiday homes present from
2006-2010. Changes in % derive from the year before, except change in 2006, which refers to
the overall change within the whole time period. Source: (Haas & Huig, 2011)
Amount of providers Amount of holiday homes
Year 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
Wadden islands
71 71 72 72 71 3.114 3.128 3.622 3.641 3.640
Change (in %)
0 0 +1,41 0 -1,39 +16,89 +0,45 +15,79 +0,52 -0,03
While the amount of available holiday-homes on the Dutch Wadden islands increased, the total
occupation of them decreased slightly. An overall decrease of -0.7% in occupation can be
recognized when looking at data from 2006 and 2010. Nights spent in holiday-homes increased
over the years. In 2006, about 2.071.000 overnight stays have been recorded in holiday homes.
Over the years, this amount steadily increased, resulting in a total growth of 14.44% in 2010.
Consequently, around 2.370.000 overnight stays have been recorded in 2010 (Table 23). This
means, that more holiday-homes are built resulting in more people spending the nights there.
However, due to the development of more holiday-homes, the overall occupation rate
decreased.
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Table 23: Holiday Homes: Amount of overnight stays (x1.000) and occupation rate (in %) from
2006-2010. Changes in % derive from the year before, except change in 2006, which refers to
the overall change within the whole time period. Source: (Haas & Huig, 2011)
Overnight stays holiday homes (x1.000)
Occupation rate (in %)
Year 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
Wadden islands
2.071
2.122
2.331
2.393
2.370
36.4%0
37.0%
35.5%
36.0%
35.7%
Change (in %)
14,44
+2,46
+9,85
+2,66
-0,96 -0,7 +0,6 -1,5 +0,5 +1,7
The fifth tourist accommodation type on the Dutch Wadden islands is ‘group
accommodations’. Group accommodations, in general, host large groups of ten and more
people. Group tourism is present in two ways on the Dutch Wadden islands. Actual groups,
like school trip groups, are coming to the area while others just sleep in a big dormitory room
to cut some costs. However, the amount of group accommodations providers on the Dutch
Wadden islands has not changed at all since 2007. Therefore, the number of providers is stable
with 91 group accommodations providers present. The group accommodation providers
present have not increased their businesses by a lot as can be deducted from the amount of beds
present. The total amount of beds present, increased by 3.90% to 6.720 beds available in 2010
(Table 24).
Table 24: Group accommodations: Amount of group accommodations present and beds resent
from 2006-2010. Changes in % derive from the year before, except change in 2006, which
refers to the overall change within the whole time period. Source: (Haas & Huig, 2011)
Amount of group accommodations Amount of beds
Year 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
Wadden islands
92 91 91 91 91 6.468 6.378 6.265 6.255 6.720
Change (in %)
-1,09 -1,09 0 0 0 +3,90 -1,39 -1,77 -0,16 +7,43
In general, it can be said that the group accommodations business sector experienced no
significant changes. Also the occupation rate of present group accommodations has increased
by 0.1%, which is everything else than significant. However, a small decrease in overnight
stays can be recognized. While in 2006 544.000 nights have been spent in group
accommodations in 2006, this number decreased by -2.39% to 531.000 nights spent in group
accommodations in 2010 (Table 25).
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Table 25: Group accommodations: Occupation (in %) and amount of overnight stays (x1.000)
from 2006-2010. Changes in % derive from the year before, except change in 2006, which
refers to the overall change within the whole time period. Source: (Haas & Huig, 2011)
Occupation group accommodations (in %)
Amount overnight stays (x1.000)
Year 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
Wadden islands
23.1% 23.4% 24.3% 23.8% 23.2% 544 545 528 543 531
Change (in %)
0,1 0,3 0,9 -0,5 -0,6 -2,39 0,18 -3,12 2,84 -2,21
The last possible tourist accommodation on the Dutch Wadden islands are yacht harbours. The
Wadden Sea area in general is a major attraction for sailors from all over the world. Therefore,
many sailors use the opportunity to land on an island berth and spent the night there. There are
two distinctive types of berthing stations. The first one is passers berths which are used for
short-term visitors. The other type is permanent berths where people, mostly from the
surrounding area, place their boats for a longer time. It is, so to say, their home port. The
amount of these berths has not significantly changed over the years. While passers berths
increased by 5 slots (+0.56%), permanent berths decreased by 10 slots (-3.70%). Consequently,
no significant change can be observed (Table 26).
Table 26: Yacht harbours: Amount of passers and permanent berths from 2006-2010. Changes
in % derive from the year before, except change in 2006, which refers to the overall change
within the whole time period. Source: (Haas & Huig, 2011)
Amount of passers berths Amount of permanent berths
Year 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
Wadden islands
887 887 892 892 892 270 270 260 260 260
Change (in %)
+0,56 0 +0,56 0 0 -3,70% 0 -3,70% 0 0
When looking at the occupation of these berthing places, no significant change over the years
can be recognized as well. An overall decrease of -0.1% from 87.2% to 87.1% could be
observed. However, this small decrease in the occupation of these berths led also to a small
decrease in the amounts of nights spent in yacht harbours. Therefore, the amount of nights
spent in yacht harbours decreased from 12.000 to 11.000 by 2010 (Table 27).
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Table 27: Yacht Harbours: Occupation of berths (in %) and amount of overnight stays (x1.000)
from 2006-2010. Changes in % derive from the year before, except change in 2006, which
refers to the overall change within the whole time period. Source: (Haas & Huig, 2011)
Occupation (in %) Amount of overnight stays (x1.000)
Year 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
Wadden islands
87.2% 87.3% 88.3% 88.5% 87.1% 12 12 11 11 11
Change (in %)
-0,1 0,1 1,0 0,2 -1,4 -8,33 0 -8,33 0 0
It can be said that the tourism sector of the Wadden Sea islands is pretty stable. In total,
4.397.000 nights have been spent on the Dutch Wadden islands in 2010. This has been a slight
decrease compared to the nights spend on the Wadden islands in 2006. However, looking at
the individual years, small fluctuations, positive and negative once, can be observed (Table
28). However, no significant difference can be recognized.
Table 28: Total overnight stays spent on the Wadden islands (x1.000) from 2006-2010.
Changes in % derive from the year before, except change in 2006, which refers to the overall
change within the whole time period. Source: (Haas & Huig, 2011)
All in all, no significant increase in accommodation providers could been recognized. It seems
that the overall sector is pretty stable and development only occurs very slow without major
consequences. However, all accommodation providers show slight decreases in the occupation
(in %) and the total amount of nights spend in these accommodations. Variation in these
numbers are possible but indicate a slowly decreasing trend. Therefore, the overall evaluation
of the overnight stays sector is slightly negative (Table 29)
Accomodation type 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
Hotel & Pensions 626.000 545.000 540.000 498.000 480.000
Bed & Breakfast 13.000 13.000 16.000 14.000 14.000
Campgrounds
- Tourist plots 607.000 528.000 502.000 427.000 422.000
- Permanent plots 598.000 602.000 559.000 562.000 569.000
Holiday homes
-Rental housing 2.071.000 2.122.000 2.331.000 2.393.000 2.370.000
Group accommodation 544.000 545.000 528.000 543.000 531.000
Yacht harbours 12.000 12.000 11.000 11.000 11.000
Total 4.471.000 4.367.000 4.487.000 4.450.009 4.397.000
Change (in %) -1,66 -2,33 2,75 -0,82 -1,19
Amount of overnight stays (x1.000)
83
Table 29: Evaluation of overnight stays on the Wadden islands.
Cultural ES
Overnight stays
Positive trend Negative trends
No significant change, but
Slight decrease in overall nights spent in all accommodation types
Score -1
Conclusion Cultural ES indicator variables
In conclusion, it can be said that the tourism sector of the Dutch Wadden islands is in a pretty
stable state. Ferry tourism showed an increasing trend over the years, while the number of
overnight stays conducted on the Wadden islands shows a very stable, but slightly decreasing
trend.
All positive and negative trends for the Wadden Sea tourism sector have been categorized and
rated. However, the rating was conducted very simplified as negative changes have been rated
with -1 and positive changes with +1. Neutral or no changes have been rated with 0. Therefore,
no weight factor was taken into account. However, for the alpha version of the game, this shall
be enough since it serves as an experimental phase to see if everything is working together as
wanted (Table 30).
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Table 30: Evaluation of the Cultural ES sector
Cultural ES
Ferry tourism Overnight stays
Positive trend Negative trends Positive trend Negative trends
Increase in conducted sailings
Dredging efforts not enough
No significant change, but
Increase in passengers transported
Increase in sedimentation problems
Slight decrease in overall nights spent in all accommodation types
Increase in passenger car equivalent
Increase in overall profit
Score +2 -1
Nevertheless, a positive trend for ferry operators in the Dutch Wadden Sea could be recognized.
The amount of people transported to the Wadden islands increased, as did the PCE and the
profit generated by it. However, the industry is struggling with some major threats. Especially
sedimentation makes ferry operations more difficult, while dredging operations are increasing
the costs. Overall, the ferry tourism sector is rated with +2 as the positive factors dominate
(Table 31).
Increasing amount of ferry activities in the Dutch Wadden Sea does not represent the trends
for overnight stays conducted on the islands. Most of the accommodation types show slightly
decreasing trends when it comes to the occupation rates of the establishments and overall nights
spent in them. However, the changes are not significant, with just minor overall decreases.
Nevertheless, a slight negative trend is visible and within that, the overnight stays variable of
the ESSG has been rated with -1 (Table 31).
Both sub-indicators, for the alpha version of the ESSG, are weighted equally. This means that
both sub-indicators are weighted 50%. To determine the current state, both sub-indicators are
added up and then divided by two. That results in a total score or current state value of +0.5 for
the Cultural ES.
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Table 31: Evaluation of ferry tourism and overnight stays of the Dutch Wadden Sea area.
Cultural ES
Ferry tourism Overnight stays
Score +2 -1
Current state of habitats in the Wadden Sea
+0,5
4.2 Impact of anthropogenic activities
The measures are another key element within the developed ESSG, as it is the main interaction
point for the participant of the game. Participant of the game can implement these measures in
order to develop the Wadden region as they think would be the most suitable. All measures
chosen for this ESSG are anthropogenic activities, which are currently relevant processes
occurring in the Wadden Sea. Most of the measures are taken from the report written by Sas et
al., (2016) called “Opzet en resultaten van het Waddenhuisberaad” (Design and results of the
Wadden Sea House Discussions), published by the Waddenacademie. This report comprises
about 36 anthropogenic activities currently conducted within the Wadden Sea territory.
However, 36 measures are very difficult to incorporate in an alpha version of a new serious
game. In order to simplify this process for the first development step of the game, only selected
measures were incoeporated into the ESSG. To do so, the table retrieved from Sas et al., (2016)
first was translated into English and then colour coded in order to see possible positive and/or
negative impacts on the bottom, microscopic marine life, soil, fish, birds, marine and landscape
(Appendix VII). This resulted in an overview of measures conducted in the Wadden Sea with
positive and negative impacts on the environment. These measures are only an extract of all
possible measures of the report by Sas et al., (2016), since most of them were either unusable
for the game and/or already used as indicators (such as the mussel fishery).
Additionally, it has been investigated which measures of other SGs show relevance to the
Wadden Sea environment. Especially measures from the PoFSG showed relevance to this study
as some of them current measures used in the Wadden Sea region (Liagkouras, 2016). This
resulted in a total of twelve measures being investigated for the ESSG.
In order to simplify this process, the chosen measures have been divided into categories. This
makes it easier for the participant to identify the most suitable measure for their needs within
the game. The categories, in which the measures are divided, are: Port expansion, Navigation,
Coastal protection, Environmental measures, Governance, Infrastructure and Mining. An
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extensive literature review has been conducted in order to evaluate the impacts of these
measures on the environment and the ESs they support.
All impacts of the individual measures on every sub-indicator have been rated on a scale from
-5 to +5, whereby -5 is associated with very strong negative impacts and +5 with very strong
positive impacts (Table 32). To evaluate the impacts of the measures on the sub-indicators,
extensive literature review was conducted. This resulted in a first evaluation of the impacts
(Appendix VIII). The following step was to conduct expert meetings, in which the tables have
been discussed. This resulted in an updated table according to the experts (Appendix IX).
Finally, the tables have been analysed and merged in order to create a table that suits both
sources. These tables are visualized in the individual chapters while the full measure-impact
matrix can be found in Table 42 and Table 43 on page Table 42. For better understanding the
whole evaluation process is elaborate in detail for the port expansion measures.
Table 32: Measurement-impact scale
Score Effect Score Effect
0 No effect
+1 Very small positive effect -1 Very small negative effect
+2 Small positive effect -2 Small negative effect
+3 Moderate positive effect -3 Moderate negative effect
+4 Strong positive effect -4 Strong negative effect
+5 Very strong positive effect -5 Very strong negative effect
4.2.1 Port expansion
The ports within the Wadden Sea are of great importance. They provide a connection from the
mainland of the Wadden to its barrier islands thereby making island tourism feasible in the first
place. Additionally, the ports of the area are used not only by ferries, but also by many private
boat owners which use this place to get ashore and/or as a possible accommodation for the
night (WSWH, 2016). Therefore, the harbours of the Wadden Sea area have a great economic
impact on the area, as they are used as gateways. Additionally, these harbours facilitate the
Wadden island tourism, benefiting not only the economy of the area but also the cultural value
of the region (WSWH, 2016). On top of that, many of the harbours also host the regional fishing
fleets, making it highly important also for the local fisher/farmers. Environmentally speaking,
harbours around the world have (to some degree) negative impacts on the environment.
Discharges and emissions during cargo handling, noise from cargo operations and shipping
87
operations (ship wash, a collision between boats and animals, noise from vessels, marine
accidents, anchoring and mooring) are just some examples of impacts from harbours on the
environment (UKMPA, 2016).
However, trade-offs and synergies dominate our life’s. Decisions have to be made and in many
situations, there cannot be only positive outcomes. Therefore, we have to focus on the trade-
offs (i.e. a bigger harbour brings more money, but the environment will suffer from it). The
gamer of the ESSG is confronted with exactly these trade-off decisions and will have to agree
on one measure or the other. The measures implemented can result in different trade-offs and
should, therefore, be taken seriously into account. Different trade-offs already originate within
this first measure, called port expansion, as the participant can choose between different
expansion options. Each option has a slightly different impact on the three indicators
(aquaculture, habitats and tourism). The different impacts for each individual port expansions
are described in the following chapters.
Port development impacts in general
Before discussing the individual port expansion measures in detail, a general explanation of
the positive and negative impacts of port expansions in the Wadden Sea must be given. At first
glance, just a general port expansion should be implemented into the game. However, after
expert meetings with the serious game designers at Deltares, it was decided to sub-divide the
port measures in order to add also a space component into the game.
As mentioned above the harbours of the Wadden region are of great importance, economically
and socially. The five inhabited islands of the Wadden Sea, namely Texel, Terschelling,
Ameland, Vlieland and Schiermonnikoog, can mainly be reached by ferry. Some small airports
exist in the area, however, no official site is advertising these airports and finding flights is
rather complicated. Also, the only reachable Wadden Island by train is situated in Germany,
called Sylt. Therefore, harbours in the Dutch Wadden Sea are the major gateways to device to
commute between the islands and the mainland.
All harbours in the world have a capacity limit. It is just logical that bigger harbours can handle
more cargo and passengers than smaller harbours. Looking at the Dutch part of the Wadden
Sea, in particular, it can be recognized that the harbours are relatively small in size and capacity.
Taking the biggest Dutch Wadden sea harbour, Harlingen, as an example, it can be seen that
the industrial harbour holds 1.500m of quay for un-/loading, the recreational part has a capacity
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of about 600.000 passengers per year, the brown fleet consists out of ca. 70 sailing ships for
recreational purposes and the fishery harbour is home to the Urk fishing fleet – which is one of
the most important in the Netherlands (Harlingen, 2014). Despite its small harbour sizes, all
harbours within the Wadden Sea serve the important purposes of transporting passengers,
housing fishing fleets and offering recreational opportunities. Nonetheless, harbour expansions
can be used in order to increase the overall capacity of a harbour.
Increasing the overall capacity of a harbour is achieved by adding more relevant infrastructure
to the existing harbour. This can be done, for example, by developing berthing stations, adding
marina space, or developing the surrounding infrastructure. Most of the time harbours are
expanded with the intention to host bigger and/or more ships in order to increase the harbour
capacity. Nevertheless, expanding a harbour has several positive impacts on the environment,
the economy and the social aspects of a region. Within this chapter, the focus is on the three
indicators (aquaculture, habitats and tourism).
The first thing that comes to mind when talking about expanding a harbour is the possibility
for that harbour to host more and bigger boats. Currently, ferries in all sizes, from rib-boats to
car ferries) are hosted within the Wadden Sea harbours. However, depending on the port
hosting bigger boats might be a problem, as some of them lack in space. By implementing
harbour expansion as a measure, additional space would be made available to allow the
accommodation of larger vessels. Another approach of port expansion would be the deepening
of the marina, in order to host these bigger boats. A harbour expansion aims to positively
increase the amount and/or size of vessels that can be hosted at a given time. When looking at
the Wadden Sea harbours (i.e. Harlingen or Holwerd) it can be recognized that the majority of
the harbours are used as ferry connection points and recreational sailing starting points. Even
though, industrial cargo ships and the fishery fleets play an important role in the Wadden Sea
as well. They are not included in this assessment since the focus here is on tourism and within
that on the ferries in the area. Nevertheless, a harbour expansion results in several positive
impacts to the region. As mentioned above, a harbour expansion relates to bigger and/or more
boats being able to land. This, in turn, represents the possibility to increase the capacity of
passengers, which the harbour can handle. Increasing the number of passengers has an impact
on the local economy. Passengers (or tourist) like to spend money. Therefore, not only an
increase in ferry passengers can be expected from expanding the port, but also other
recreational activities can greatly benefit from it. Many of the passamngers who use the ferry
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to commute to the Wadden islands usually arrive earlier in the harbour city, since they don’t
want to miss their ferry. This in turn means that most passengers will have time to have a look
around the city, contributing to local businesses like restaurants, gift shops or similar. Despite
the possible increase in the local economy, a harbour expansion mainly aims at being able to
transport more passengers across the Wadden Sea to the barrier islands. This means that with
a higher passenger capacity in a harbour also more tourists are attracted to book ferries.
Consequently, a gain in passenger numbers can be expected, resulting in higher revenues for
the ferry companies.
Around 87% of the people coming to the Wadden region are conducting their vacations on the
Wadden islands (Sijtsma, Broersma, Daams, Hoekstra, & Werner, 2015). The Common
Wadden Sea Secretariat states that the Wadden islands host up to 50million overnight stays
and 30-40million day trippers every year (CWSS, 2013). Therefore, with a harbour expansion,
these numbers can be expected to increase over time. Day trips will increase as the capacity of
the harbour is enlarged, while simultaneously an incline in day-trippers leads to a higher
probability that some of them spend the night. Therefore, it can be concluded, a harbour
expansion will positively affect the amount of ferry tourism, the amount of overnight stays as
well as the local economy in general.
Secondly, harbour expansions also have several impacts on the aquaculture sector of the region.
It is not so much the harbour per se, since fishermen use their own boats and designated
berthing stations that exist since decades. Therefore, bigger mussel boats are rather unrealistic;
however, other impacts between the measure and the indicator can be recognized. First of all,
the cultivated blue mussels are all filter feeders and therefore are mainly feeding only on
phytoplankton present in the water column (Zagata, Young, Sountis , & Kuehl, 2016). Despites
the blue mussel’s ability to withstand wide ranges of temperature and salinity, one of its most
limiting factors regarding its growth rate is the availability of phytoplankton (i.e. Page &
Ricard, 1990; Clausen & Riisgaer, 1996; Prins, Dame & Dame, 1998). Therefore, the
availability of phytoplankton is of high importance to the farmers as their income is dependent
on the size of the mussel (FAO, 2016). As mentioned before, the mussel growth is limited if
phytoplankton is unavailable. One reason for a (temporary) hold in phytoplankton can result
from harbour expansion. The construction of the harbour results in (temporary) disturbance of
the water in form of turbidity. When turbidity is very high, the sunlight cannot penetrate
throughout the water column, which can limit the primary production of phytoplankton and
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within that limit the growth rate of the blue mussels (Mercaldo-Allen & Goldberg, 2011).
Additionally, when turbidity is high and/or algal concentrations are high, blue mussels partly
close their valves and reduce their openings (Clausen & Riisgard, 1996). This, in turn, leads to
a decreased food intake, ultimately slowing down the growth rate of the mussel (Clausen &
Riisgard, 1996). Another way harbour expansion is impacting the aquaculture sector is an
increasing risk of accidents. Higher vessel traffic is automatically increasing the chance of
some kind of pollution, due to accidents, ship washings or un-/regulated release of substances
into the water. Especially in the Wadden Sea, where channel depth and the navigational radius
is limited the chances of unwanted incidents is much higher. Therefore, increase in harbour
development practices enlarges the chances of unwanted pollution, which in turn can have
negative impacts on the blue mussel cultivation (Mercaldo-Allen & Goldberg, 2011).
Thirdly, a harbour expansion is also impacting the environment (habitats) in several ways. First
of all the habitat is disturbed mainly during the construction phase of the port expansion. During
construction work, a surplus of water is needed which is often not properly discharged. In this
way, harmful substances, i.e., by surface water released to the basin, can enter the water body
of the Wadden Sea, which leads to contamination of the environment (Sjödin, & Fridell, 2007).
This also can have negative impacts on the municipal water treatment facilities, but this will
not be further elaborated, as it exceeds the scope of this thesis. Additionally, noise pollution
during the construction work can have negative impacts on the environment. Loud machinery,
vehicles or just the un-/loading of materials can result in elevated noise levels (Sjödin, &
Fridell, 2007). Especially for birds, which are one of the keystone species in the Wadden Sea,
the increasing noise pollution poses a risk, as birds heavily rely on singing to communicate
with each other (Bauxbaum, 2016).
Another negative impact to the environment (habitats) by harbour expansions is done by
(temporary) dredging activities. Dredging activities result in increased turbidity of the
surrounding waters, which can result in decreasing mussel growth rates and within that
decreasing food availability for migrating and native bird species (Sjödin, & Fridell, 2007).
Additionally, these dredging activities can result in elevated dispersion of pollutants, which in
turn can have harmful impacts on the environment (habitats). It is worthwhile to mention that
during and after the construction of the harbour an increase in atmospheric pollutants can be
observed (Sjödin, & Fridell, 2007). However, this should not be further elaborated to pay the
scope of this thesis justice. After finishing the construction of a harbour expansion the risk of
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additional water contamination is still elevated. Due to the enlargement, more industrial
(cargo), recreational (sailing boats) and social (ferries) activities can be expected. Therefore,
the additional risk of pollution from roads, cars, port vehicles and humans as well as possible
additional contamination from oil and other harmful substances can further enter the water
body, which can pose a risk to the environment and its habitats (Sjödin, & Fridell, 2007).
Furthermore, the environment is not only exposed to elevated stress during construction works,
but also afterwards. This is because more and bigger boats create also additional physical
disturbance, as well as noise pollution, can be the result (Sijtsma, Broersma, Daams, Hoekstra,
& Werner, 2015). Finally, one of the main impacts of a harbour expansion on the environment
(habitats) is that more space is needed for the development, giving rise to a conflict/trade-off.
One the one hand the harbour should be developed in order to achieve more economic and
social value, but on the other hand, other values, like environmental habitats, have to be
negatively impacted. One aim of the game is to confront the player with this conflict of interest
arising from expanding harbours. In this way, it is intended to make the player more aware of
potential consequences resulting from this type of measure
Inland harbour expansion: mainland
Within the inland harbour expansion on the mainland, the harbour facilities are expanded
towards the hinterland, in order to increase the harbour capacity. To do so, the harbour facilities
are expanded into an area which previously was occupied by other urban infrastructure, such
as buildings and roads, and/or present agricultural areas which are mainly present in the
hinterlands of the Wadden mainland. Therefore, these present urban infrastructures and/or
agricultural farmlands have to be demolished, while present residents and businesses have to
be relocated (Hricko, 2012). Consequently, not so much damage is done to existing habitats as
man-made areas are converted.
Some impacts on the environment can, however, still be recognized. When a harbour is
extended to the hinterland it will gain in size. Most of the time when a harbour is expanded to
the hinterland also the opening of the harbour will be widened. In this sense, even if the harbour
is expanded towards the hinterland, it still impacts the habitats surrounding the opening of the
harbour as it gets widened (Oost, 2017).
The negative impact on the inhabitants and businesses of these people can be mitigated if
suitable relocation plans have been developed. A port expansion towards the hinterland still
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results in a cultural (and economic) benefit as the capacity of the harbour facilities is increased.
Therefore, more possibilities to handle a greater amount of tourists and ships are present.
Finally, a large number of ships present in combination with construction works can have a
negative impact on the quality of the blue mussels farmed by aquaculture farmers in the
Wadden Sea. Higher amounts of ships increase the pollution risk of the area while construction
works can result in (temporarily) higher turbidity levels. However, most mussel farms in the
Wadden Sea are located too far away from existing harbours for them to experience a high
impact of this measure (Oost, 2017).
Inland harbour expansion: barrier islands
Enforcing an inland expansion of a harbour on the barrier islands entails the enlargement of the
harbour into the hinterland. In contrast to inland expansion on the mainland, further inland
expansion on the barrier islands would affect natural habitats, such as dune land, instead. This
leads to much greater negative impact on the natural habitats. Nonetheless, it can be assumed
that some urban infrastructures, in the form of roads and pathways, have to be demolished in
order to expand the harbour facilities (Hricko, 2012). However, also natural areas are most
likely be affected by this measurement. The Wadden islands are dominated by sand, beaches
and dunes, which in some part would have to be converted into harbour facilities (Shoeman,
2015).
Additionally, the aquaculture farms can be affected negatively by a higher amount of ships
present in general, but also from possible pollution during the construction phase (Mercaldo-
Allen & Goldberg, 2011). However, the impacts on the mussel farms are expected to be rather
low, since most aquaculture farms in the Wadden Sea are located too far away from existing
harbours in order to be negatively affected (Oost, 2017).
Tourism in the Wadden region is mainly conducted on the Wadden islands. Since the harbours
on the mainland have already a higher capacity than the ones on the islands, developing the
harbour here results in a higher outcome regarding more tourism. Moreover, many of the
harbours on the Wadden Islands are used for recreational sailing. Therefore, tourism can be
expected to grow when the harbour is expanded at the islands.
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Inland expansion: Wetlands/intertidal mud-flats
The harbour facilities are expanded on the Wadden mainland in order to achieve a higher
harbour capacity regarding ferries, cargo ships and recreational sailing boats. To do so, the
harbour facilities are expanded into surrounding nature areas, or more precisely into the present
wetlands and intertidal mud flats.
To expand the harbour into the surrounding wetlands and intertidal mud-flats leads to an overall
very negative impact on the habitats present in the area (Hricko, 2012). Habitats must be
destroyed in order to build bigger facilities. This small destruction of habitats may not be of
greater importance regarding the whole Wadden Sea region. It has, however, strong negative
impacts on the local habitats (Oost, 2017). Nevertheless, such extension will result in high
positive benefits for recreation and tourism. The possibility to use bigger and more boats will
attract more tourists to the region.
Again aquaculture is temporarily impacted by the construction process as well as indirectly
after the expansion project is finished. Though, as mentioned before, aquaculture farms in the
Wadden Sea are located too far away from existing harbours in order to be dramatically
affected (Oost, 2017).
Evaluation of the impacts based on literature
All gathered information that derived from literature was used to create a measure-impact
matrix for the ESSG (Table 33). As can be observed, the different types of harbour expansions
have different impacts on the ES indicators. The general impact of the measures is pretty similar
but variations in the final impact score exist. In general, it can be said that harbour expansions
have rather minimal negative impact on aquaculture. Expanding into the nature areas on the
mainland seems to have the biggest negative impact on the aquaculture sector, though.
Additionally, it can be recognized that a harbour expansion always has negative impacts on the
surrounding environment, whereby expanding in nature areas has the most negative impacts
since it replaces nature areas rather than existing urban infrastructure. Finally, all three
measures have positive impacts on the tourism sector, which makes sense since these measures
are undertaken to increase the capacity of the harbour and within that aims on attracting more
tourists. Since the harbours on the mainland are already more developed than the ones on the
barrier islands, literature indicates that expanding the harbour on the islands will benefit the
tourism sector more than the other alternatives.
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Table 33: Impact of harbor expansion measures on ES indicators based on literature
Harbour expansion
Inland
expansion:
mainland
Inland
expansion:
barrier islands
Inland
expansion:
nature areas
Aquaculture
Net weight of production -1 -1 -2
Nb. of employees -0 0 -1
Total impact -0.5 -0.5 -1.5
Habitats
Habitat heterogeneity -3 -2 -4
Habitat fragmentation -1 -1 -3
Total impact -2 -1.5 -3.5
Tourism
Overnight stays 2 4 2
Ferry tourism 5 5 5
Total impact 3.5 4.5 3.5
Evaluation of the impacts based on expert knowledge
After the measure-impact matrix based on literature was developed, the table was discussed
with two experts working at Deltares on ecosystem services in the Wadden Sea. The first expert
was Albert Oost (senior counsellor/researcher, expert on ecosystem services in the Wadden
Sea) who looked over the table and adjusted the numbers to a value that he proposed is more
suitable (Table 34). The second expert, Arjen Boon (senior researcher in marine system
ecology) did not fill out the table with his own values, but rather discussed the relation between
impacts of the measures, the impacts in reality and how to adjust these values so that they fulfil
the purpose of visualizing players of the game the impacts these measures have on the
ecosystem services available (which is discussed in the following sub-chapter).
Nevertheless, the impacts of the measures on the ES indicators vary between literature and
expert knowledge. The biggest difference can be recognized when looking at the impacts of a
harbour expansion on the habitats in the surrounding area. While literatures indicated sever
negative impacts by these measures, experts indicated that there is no impact on the habitats
whatsoever (Table 34). The reasoning behind this evaluation was that a harbour expansion will
have negative impacts on a very small scale, or more explicitly only where nature areas are
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directly replaced by harbour infrastructure. However, habitats will not be affected looking at a
bigger scale, like the whole Dutch Wadden Sea area.
Table 34: Impact of harbor expansion measures on ES indicators based on expert knowledge
Harbour expansion
Inland
expansion:
mainland
Inland
expansion:
barrier islands
Inland
expansion:
nature areas
Aquaculture
Net weight of production -1 -1 -2
Nb. of employees 0 0 -1
Total impact -0.5 -0.5 -1.5
Habitats
Habitat heterogeneity 0 0 0
Habitat fragmentation 0 0 0
Total impact 0 0 0
Tourism
Overnight stays 2 4 2
Ferry tourism 3 3 3
Total impact 2.5 3.5 2.5
When looking at the impacts on tourism it can be observed that literature and expert knowledge
are quite similar. Both indicate that a harbour development will positively impact the tourism
sector of the area. The only difference is that according to literature the impacts are rather
strongly positive while expert knowledge indicated that the impacts are rather moderate. Lastly,
literature and experts indicated the exact same impacts of a harbour expansion process on the
aquaculture sector in the Dutch Wadden Sea. Also the experts indicated that there will be very
small negative impacts on the Aquaculture sector of the Dutch Wadden Sea.
Evaluation of impacts based on literature and expert knowledge
The final step was to create a matrix that satisfies literature and expert knowledge. Additionally,
expert Arjen Boon indicated that it has to be taken into consideration that the game output
should show. The main discussion point was that the expert rated the impacts on the habitats
with 0, which in turn has no impact on the game. It was argued that on a big scale, harbour
expansions do not have a server impact, on small scale, however, several negative impacts can
96
be recognized. It has been agreed that environmental areas will be affected in one way or
another by expanding the port, let it be just a highly negative impact on a small scale.
Nevertheless, impacts are present and therefore have to be included into the ESSG, in order to
communicate these impacts to the participants. If a harbour expansion in the game is rated with
no impacts, the player of the game might take home the wrong message, which would be
counterproductive. In order to tackle this problem, the negative impacts of port expansion
measures have been lowered (compared to literature), resulting in small negative impacts
(Table 35 on page 97).
Additionally, the impact values of tourism have been modified after the expert meetings. On
the one hand, literature indicated that the impacts of harbour expansion measures have
moderate to strong positive effects on the tourism sector. On the other hand, the expert
indicated that the impacts are rated to positively. It cannot be denied that harbour expansion
projects will have positive impacts on the tourism sector. It was argued though, that including
to positive values for the tourism sector would result in an unbalanced perception of the player.
In other words that means, that if a harbour expansion has only small negative impacts on the
habitats but very strong positive impacts on the tourism sector, all negative impacts seem to be
balanced by the strong positive effects, which might not be the case. To tackle this problem,
the impacts of a harbour expansion measure on the tourism sector have been rated with small
to moderate positive in order to not over-evaluate one indicator (Table 35 on page 97).
Finally, literature and expert had the same opinion regarding the impacts of harbour expansion
measures on the aquaculture sector in the Dutch Wadden Sea. Both indicated that most
aquaculture farms are located further away from existing harbours, resulting only in a small
negative impact from possible increased turbidity during the construction process.
Nevertheless, expanding the harbour will result in an increase in ferry operations, leading to a
greater risk of possible accidents and/or contamination of the surrounding waters, which in turn
negatively impact the quality of the mussels. Therefore, the impacts of harbour expansion
measures on the aquaculture sector in the Wadden Sea have been rated with very small to small
negative impacts (Table 35).
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Table 35: Impact of harbour expansion measures on ES indicators based on literature and
expert knowledge
Harbour expansion
Inland
expansion:
mainland
Inland
expansion:
barrier islands
Inland
expansion:
nature areas
Aquaculture
Net weight of production -1 -1 -2
Nb. of employees 0 0 -1
Total impact -0.5 -0.5 -1.5
Habitats
Habitat heterogeneity -1 -2 -3
Habitat fragmentation -1 -1 -1
Total impact -1 -1.5 -2
Tourism
Overnight stays 1 3 1
Ferry tourism 3 3 3
Total impact 2 3 2
4.2.2 Navigation: Channel maintenance/dredging
Channel maintenance/dredging are very important measures in the Wadden Sea. As the tides
are very strong, making the water almost disappear completely, only man-made channels can
be used for shipping activities. Due to the physical processes present in the Wadden Sea, the
deeper channels are highly vulnerable to sedimentation (Wang, et al., 2012). If channels are
not regularly maintained, they will silt-up inevitably. This, in turn, will lead to bigger vessels
to be unable to navigate through these channels as the risk of grounding is too high. Therefore,
channel maintenance is one of the key measures to allow also future ferries and other vessels
to navigate safely through the Wadden Sea, even at low tide. It is consequently a necessary
measure to allow Wadden tourism in the area. Additionally, by deepening and maintaining the
channels, also bigger ferries can be used to transport a higher amount of tourist.
Channel maintenance/dredging has less detrimental impacts on the benthic habitat as had the
original construction of these channels. The actual impact on the present habitats is more
related to the physical process than of any chemical kind. However, many of the
bioaccumulating, persistent and toxic chemicals are bound to sediment particles and will over
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time be washed away from the dumping site (Angonesi, Bemvenuti, & Gandra, 2006).
Additionally, present benthic habitats that have built up since the last maintenance are being
destroyed and within that some of the organisms living in them (Greene, 2002).
Zooming in on the negative impacts of channel maintenance imposes on the aquaculture sector.
The main effect dredging has on aquaculture plots is an increase in turbidity, smudging mussel
beds. Together with an increased level of pollution released from the sludge/sand dredged from
the channels, the quality of the cultivated mussels is likely to decrease (Angonesi, Bemvenuti,
& Gandra, 2006). However, these impacts are rather small and no other impacts of channel
maintenance/dredging are mentioned in related literature.
Again the participant is confronted with a choice: Is it worthy to have minor impacts on the
environment and aquaculture sector in order to allow bigger ships to safely navigate now and
in the future?
Evaluation of impacts based on literature and expert knowledge
As mentioned beforehand, the following measures do not elaborate on the differences between
literature and expert knowledge, but rather summarize the outcome of this process. The specific
differences between literature and expert knowledge can be observed in Appendix VIII
(literature impact matrix) and Appendix IX (expert impact matrix). Nevertheless, it can be
observed that the navigational measures have several impacts on the ES indicators used.
The aquaculture sector in the Dutch Wadden Sea is the least affected one by implementing
channel maintenance/dredging measures in the area. Small negative impacts can result from an
increased turbidity during the dredging process. This can result in a decreased quality of the
mussels, especially since the mussel plots are located not that far from present fairways.
Nevertheless, increased turbidity is only temporary and will disappear once the dredging
process is finished. Therefore, the impacts on aquaculture deriving from navigational measures
are evaluated to have very small negative effects. The most negative impacts of dredging have
been analysed to occur in the habitat sector. This is because a layer of the substrate is removed,
resulting in the loss of available benthic organisms. Additional, by dredging a corridor is
created which can act as a buffer-zone for marine organisms, resulting in more fragmentation
of the area. Therefore, the impacts of channel maintenance/dredging on the habitats have been
evaluated to have small negative impacts. Finally, navigational measures have positive impacts
on the tourism sector, especially ferry tourism. Due to channel maintenance ferries are able to
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sail constantly and are not bound to tides. Consequently, the impacts of navigational measures
on the tourism sector are evaluated to have small positive impacts (Table 36)
Table 36: Impact of navigation measures on ES indicators based on literature and expert
knowledge
Navigation
Channel
maiintenance/dredging
Aquaculture
Net weight of production -1
Nb. of employees 0
Total impact -0.5
Habitats
Habitat heterogeneity -3
Habitat fragmentation -1
Total impact -2
Tourism
Overnight stays 1
Ferry tourism 3
Total impact 2
4.2.3 Coastal Protection
The Dutch have a long history when it comes to living against and with the water. For centuries
the Dutch find themselves in a position where they are threatened by water from three sites:
the river, the rain and the sea (Deltacommissie, 2008). However, for the purpose of this report
focus will be on the threat of the sea, including suitable adaptation strategies. There are two
different approaches used in the Netherlands in order to make the hinterland safer. The first
one is the use of hard structures, such as dikes. Dikes have kept the Netherlands safe for most
of the time, with exceptions during strong storm surges. However, these natural disasters, and
especially the flood of 1953, resulted in a national effort to strengthen the coastline with hard
structures and better management (Deltawerken, 2004). The ‘Delta Works’ were born. Since
this event, the Dutch have raised and maintained their national flooding safety standards by
keeping the dikes and storm surge barriers intact. These hard structures can be found
everywhere in the Netherlands, including also the Wadden mainland and barrier islands (CPSL,
2001). The second common method for coastal protection measures in the Netherlands is called
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soft solutions. Soft solutions differ from hard structures in such a way that they interact with
the natural processes of the area (Heerema, 2013). Examples of common soft solutions are sand
nourishment, which will be the focal of coastal protection measures in this alpha version of this
ESSG. To stay in the scope defined scope for this research, the decision to just include soft
solutions for the barrier islands was made.
Sand nourishment on the barrier islands
The Wadden Islands are very prone to flooding, mainly along the rough northern part of the
islands, which are facing the North Sea. High wave actions combined with strong winds and
tides result in a constant threat to the inhabitants of the islands. However, the national
government of the Netherlands is doing everything to ensure the safety of the inhabitants of
the people. This is firstly done via dikes as the main protection from floods and storms. The
second major adaptation strategy against flooding is to use natural resources and natural
processes, the so-called soft solutions. The main soft solution used on the barrier islands is sand
nourishment (CPSL, 2001). In simple terms, sand nourishment is the process of dumping or
pumping sand from elsewhere onto an eroding shoreline to widen an existing beach or even
create a new one (Asbpa, 2007). On the Wadden islands, coastal erosion is one of the major
problems. This is mainly due to the physical processes present in this region. Due to the strong
tides in the region, the water of the Wadden Sea is flowing in and out between the islands. This
creates strong water currents in between the islands, causing high sediment transport along the
edges of the islands. The reason for this erosion is that the sediment import into the Wadden
Sea is larger than the export (Shoeman, 2015). The result is an unbalanced system and the
islands are eroding. Additional pressure is put on the system due to sea level rise, sand and gas
mining, and additional space needed for living, work and recreation (Shoeman, 2015). Sand
nourishment is one major solution in order to tackle the problems of erosion and keeping the
inhabitants, as well as tourists, safe from flooding. However, it is worth to note that beach
nourishment does not stop the process of sand erosion, but it gives the erosion forces (wind and
waves) additional work and thus provides the people with more time and a greater safety buffer
(Heerema, 2013).
It becomes clear that sand nourishment is a key process for the Wadden islands to guarantee
the safety of its inhabitants. Within this chapter the impacts of this measure on the different
indicators are elaborated. First of all, the focus lies on the impacts of sand nourishment on the
habitat. The habitat can be affected at generally two locations during a sand nourishment
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process. The first area that is affected is the mining site, as the sand for the nourishment has to
be derived from somewhere. Therefore, this dredging process has a major impacts benthic
environment as sand is directly extracted from there. Dredging results in the complete removal
of the sediments of the sea floor. Parts of the habitat are extracted and so there are the potential
impacts on species that directly rely on the physical habitat that the sediment provides (Greene,
2002). Not only the benthic organisms living at mining sites, but also the overall quality of the
area, can be reduced. The second area, the target beach, is differently affected. While many
organisms die during the dredging and transportation process, studies have shown that
organisms living at the target beach are likely to recover along with the nourished beach due
to vertical migration (Greene, 2002). However, studies have shown that the in-faunal biomass
and taxa richness decreases, but recovers between two to seven months (Greene, 2002).
Another important habitat type in the Wadden Sea, which is directly affected by sand
nourishment, is the bird habitat. The Wadden region is home to several native bird species and
at the same time is providing food and shelter for millions of migrating birds. Birds have been
heavily impacted in the past due to coastal development and as a consequence have lost many
habitat areas. Beach nourishment can provide/ bird species with additional habitats as they are
being restored during the process (Greene, 2002). Therefore, beach nourishment may provide
additional habitats for birds for feeding and nesting grounds. Nevertheless, if not managed well
beach nourishment poses the threat of bird eggs, hatchlings and adult birds to be crushed by
the deposited sand (Greene, 2002). In this light it can be said that the risk for birds is relatively
low when managed probably and therefore the restoration and/or extension of the habitat is
more valuable.
Sand nourishment processes do not only have impacts on the present habitats, but also on the
aquaculture sector present in the Wadden Sea. Sand nourishment processes affect aquaculture
mostly during the dredging process, since dredging for beach nourishment can occur closely to
aquaculture plots. As discussed earlier, the size of the blue mussels is mainly dependent on the
food availability in the water column. During the dredging activities of the beach nourishment
process, it is possible, that ‘the resultant mine pit can cause an increase in the depth of the water
and [thereby] reduce the amount of solar energy that reaches the seabed, which has the potential
to cause a decrease in primary productivity’ (Greene, 2002). Additionally, in all dredging
operations, suspended sediment levels become elevated, which will lead to an increase of
suspended organic material. This, in turn, results in less available planktonic food sources
(Greene, 2002). Such an increased amount of suspended organic material can be the limiting
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factor affecting the survival of existing organisms and most importantly the recolonizing of
larvae at mining sites (Greene, 2002). In summary, dredging for nourishment purposes can: 1)
pose difficulties for filter-feeders to locate and capture food due to the increased amount of
non-nutritive particles; 2) reduce the micro-algal production for the duration of the mining
process; 3) change the water chemistry; and 4) decrease light penetration which in turn can
have an impact on the phytoplankton availability and thus impact the growth of the blue
mussels (Greene, 2002). Sand nourishment can also have positive impacts on the habitats
present in the region. In general, beach nourishment in the Wadden Sea is conducted on the
edges of the Wadden Island, which suffer from erosion. This erosion can have harmful impacts
on the ecosystem as potential habitats for birds, benthic organisms, plants and other organisms
can be lost. Therefore, important feeding and nesting areas can be threatened by erosion. By
implementing sand nourishment strategies, these lost habitats can be restored again (Asbpa,
2007).
Finally, the tourism indicator is directly impacted by the sand nourishment measure, as well.
Especially in the Wadden Sea, where tourism is one of the major incomes for inhabitants, sand
nourishment processes can have several impacts on the tourism industry there. But first go back
a little bit. Sand nourishment is conducted for three major reasons. Firstly, to tackle the problem
of erosion,. Secondly, to increase the beach area and thirdly, to make humans safe from
flooding and storm surges. All these three elements are crucial when looking at the impacts of
tourism in a specific region, as they are closely interlinked. Tourists come to the Wadden region
for three main purposes, the wildlife (mostly birds), the landscape and the beach (i.e. Sijtsma
et al., 2015). When the beach is eroding too fast, rare species of beach breeding birds can be
negatively impacted which in turn can have an impact on tourists who come to the Wadden
Sea specifically to go bird watching (Sijtsma, Broersma, Daams, Hoekstra, & Werner, 2015).
Furthermore, an eroding beach has a direct impact on the capacity for recreation as they become
more narrow and unstable over time and therefore is jeopardizing the recreational capacity of
an area (Asbpa, 2007). Within that, the beach can become unsuitable for tourism over time. By
applying beach nourishment along the shores of the eroding beach, areas can be restored and
within that become again suitable for tourism in general (Asbpa, 2007). Therefore, beach
nourishment, especially for such a highly impacted area like the Wadden Sea, is crucial in order
to guarantee recreational activities in the future.
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Evaluation of impacts based on literature and expert knowledge
As mentioned beforehand, the following measures do not elaborate on the differences between
literature and expert knowledge, but rather summarize the outcome of this process. The specific
differences between literature and expert knowledge can be observed in Appendix VIII
(literature impact matrix) and Appendix IX (expert impact matrix). Nevertheless, it can be
observed that the coastal protection measures have several impacts on the ES indicators used.
Coastal protection measures, or in this case additional nourishment on the barrier islands, have
several impacts on the ES indicators used. First of all, sand has to be dredged from other
location in order to be situated at the wished nourishment site. Within the dredging and the
depositing processes the turbidity of the water will increase leading to decreased quality in
mussels. This occurs only temporarily over short time spends so the impacts of these sand
nourishment measures on the aquaculture sector are evaluated to have very small effects.
Secondly, it has been evaluated that the impacts on the habitats are good and bad at the same
time. On the one hand the dredging and depositing processes can result in the destruction of
available habitats, while on the other hand new created beaches can serve as additional feeding
grounds for birds. Thirdly, the impacts on the tourism sector have been evaluated to have very
small positive effects, since new created beaches can also be used for recreational purposes
(Table 37)
Table 37:Impact of coastal protection measures on ES indicators based on literature and
expert knowledge
Coastal Protection
Additional
nourishment: barrier
islands
Aquaculture
Net weight of production -1
Nb. of employees 0
Total impact -0.5
Habitats
Habitat heterogeneity 0
Habitat fragmentation 0
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Total impact 0
Tourism
Overnight stays 1
Ferry tourism 1
Total impact 1
4.2.4 Environmental measures
Environmental measures are normally conducted in order to compensate for lost environments.
The aim of environmental measures is always to enhance the quality of an ecosystem. The
environment is suffering due to several anthropogenic activities. Environmental measures in
comparison are aiming to compensate the environment for other life choices that harmed the
environment in the past. Environmental measures are considered sustainable and address one
or more of the following: managing ecosystem health/services, biodiversity conservation,
climate change mitigation and adaptation, food and water security, human health issues,
maintaining cultural and heritage values and urban development (AGDEE, 2016). Within this
alpha version, two environmental measures are included. These are: 1) Renewable energy and
2) Habitat creation.
Renewable energy
Currently, the available sources of renewable energies are very limited in the Wadden Sea.
Only three kinds of renewable energies are implemented for big scale use (not including private
solar panels). The three measures are summarized into one measure, due to time restrictions.
The first renewable energy present is called Blue Energy. Blue Energy uses the difference in
salinization between two liquids (usually fresh and salt water) to generate electricity. This
method is still in the developing face. However, one power plant already exists, producing
around 500kW – 1 MW and is located at the Afsluitdijk. It uses the freshwater of the Ijsselmeer
and the salt water of the Wadden Sea to generate energy. The second renewable energy source
in the Wadden Sea is wind energy. The construction of wind turbines is prohibited in the whole
Wadden Sea. However, it is conducted outside of the conservation area on the mainland and
on some islands to generate energy (Nehls & Witte, 2009). Wind energy has a high potential,
especially in the Wadden Sea which is blessed with (almost) constant winds from the sea side.
To use this wind energy, three proposed offshore wind farm projects have been submitted for
licensing (Nehls & Witte, 2009). The last renewable energy source which is used in the Wadden
Sea is tidal energy. Tidal energy uses the force of the incoming and outgoing water of the tidal
cycles to produce energy. In the Wadden Sea tidal energy is used in the Afsluitdijk as well. The
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tidal movements of the Wadden Sea and the surplus water from the Ijsselmeer are used to run
this tidal energy plant. The turbines have a capacity of 100kW and are used to convert the
current energy into kinetic energy (Scheijgrond & Raventos, 2015).
All these energies are used to produce ‘clean’ energy. This basically means that the
environmental impacts, regarding emissions, pollution and depletion, are absent or minimized.
According to the Oxford dictionary, the official definition of renewable energies is: ‘Energy
from a source that is not depleted when used, such as wind or solar power’. Within that, it
becomes clear that renewable energy aims at improving the environment. Fewer fossil fuels
are depleted while pollution is minimized. Especially energy won from wind and water, like in
the Wadden Sea, have very low environmental impacts. Wind energy, for example, has one of
the lowest environmental impacts of all energy sources (Klugmann-Radziemska, 2014).
Greenhouse gas emissions during the construction are less than for every other energy source.
It produces a net decrease of greenhouse gases during operation while producing a net increase
in biodiversity, and modern turbines are silent and rotate slowly which decreases the
probability of lethal bird accidents. Hydropower, on the other hand, is more associated with
negative environmental impacts. It still generates ‘clean’ energy, regarding pollution and
contamination. However, hydropower is associated with a range of negative impacts, including
amongst others alteration of currents and waves, alteration of sediment transport, alteration of
habitats, noise pollution during construction and operation, and interference of animal
movements (Polagye, Cleve, Copping, & Kirkendall, 2010). In total, the negative impacts of
the three renewable energy sources used in the Wadden Sea can be summarized in eight
pressure points: filtration, collision, barrier, habitat loss, freshwater-marine transition, turbidity
increase, electromagnetic charges, underwater noise and pollution (WaLTER, 2016).
Nevertheless, it should not be ignored, that even with these minor environmental impacts,
renewable energy is better for the environment than alternative energy resources like fossil
fuels (Edenhofer, et al., 2012).
The impact on the tourism industry is debatable. Some studies indicate that the perception of
people regarding renewable energies, and especially wind farms, is that they have a negative
impact on the tourism industry. Most people think that the visual and/or noise pollution will
result in a decrease in tourism, since such wind farm may ‘ruin the view’
(TheTourismCompany, 2012). When putting it in prospective to other alternative energy
sources, like fossil fuels, it becomes more debatable. People, and especially tourists, would
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also avoid walking/looking at i.e. coal-fired power plants. Probably they are even more likely
to choose destinations with renewable over alternative energy sources since it is associated
with ‘green’ energy. Also, some might argue that renewable energy farms, such as solar and
wind farms are aesthetic appealing (Prinsloo, 2015). Additionally, new renewable energies,
like the BlueEnergy project at the Afsluitdijk, can be used as attraction points for tourism.
Especially for ecotourism, which is aiming to attract environmentally orientated tourists, this
can be highly profitable. It can be said that previous preconceptions of people changed over
the years. The fear that, for example, wind farms, would ruin the aesthetic of an area and keep
tourist away seems to be wrong (Prinsloo, 2015). Of course that also highly depends from area
to area. When looking at the Wadden Sea, where wind farms are located offshore in the open
sea, it can, on the one hand, even add value, regarding tourist attraction, to the region. On the
other hand, many tourists come to the region for its emptiness and wilderness. This could be
harmed by the light pollution that derives from wind farms in the distance (Oost, 2017).
The impacts on the aquaculture sector are rather minimal. According to the Wadden Sea Long-
Term Ecosystem Research (WaLTER, 2016), some impacts of the tidal energy source at the
Afsluitdijk include increasing turbidity which can decrease the productivity of the mussels.
However, this is a rather small impact, since the turbines are only active during the peak tides
and when water is discharged from the Ijsselmeer. Therefore, only a temporary increase of
turbidity can be recognized. Renewable energies can also have small beneficial impacts on the
aquaculture sector. The aquaculture sector is still dependent on machinery, like purification
units, power washers or grading machines, which need a power source to work. Therefore,
renewable energy sources can be used to contribute in the energy mix to make the overall
operation more ‘green’ (Toner, 2002)
Habitat creation/restoration
Humans have a long history of using environmental resources in order to generate energy,
providing food or have the possibility for recreational activities. All of these measures result in
the destruction and/or depletion of these environmental resources and within that of the
ecosystem and habitats, they can be found in. It only makes sense to compensate the loss of
these ecosystems by creating new habitats or restore the ones that have been depleted (Hill R.
I., 2002). Currently, several habitat restoration projects can be found in the Wadden Sea region.
Examples include, among others, sea grass (i.e. Eelgrass), wetland, salt marsh, and/or beach
and dune restoration. For the purpose of this report and the development of the alpha version
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of the ESSG habitat creation and restoration is not divided into specific measures as it would
exceed the time frame of this research.
It is not hard to imagine that habitat creation/restoration has very beneficial impacts on the
environment. Important habitats that have been lost in the past due to anthropogenic
development can be compensated in order to create new feeding and nesting grounds. An
example for this could be the beach and dune restoration. By restoring the beaches and dunes
of the area, original physical and biological habitats can be restored. These are vital to keep the
flora and fauna of an area intact. Especially for birds, the restoration of the beach and dunes,
but also the wet- and marshlands, can be very beneficial as they use this area. Millions of
migrating and native birds use the Wadden Sea as feeding and nesting grounds and restoring
these habitats can be highly beneficial for avian species (NOAA, 2015). Additionally, restored
or newly created habitats can serve as a corridor between habitats which in turn lowers the
habitat fragmentation of an area (Oost, 2017). In general, it can be said that restoring and/or
creating habitats is highly beneficial for the overall ecosystem. Physical and biological
processes that are native to the area are restored, which in turn can then be used by animals of
the area.
Habitat restoration and creation is also a very beneficial measure when looking at the tourism
sector. Tourists in the Wadden Sea are attracted by the natural diversity and landscape of the
area. This unbroken intertidal system attracts millions of tourists every year. Keeping this
unique environment intact is therefore not only beneficial for the biological and physical
processes of the area, but will also keep attracting tourists to the region. In addition to that, the
restoration of specific habitats, like wetlands, beaches and dunes, creates more recreational
space for common tourist activities.
Finally, habitat restorations can be beneficial for the aquaculture sector in the Wadden Sea.
Especially, sea grass restoration projects can have very beneficial impacts. By restoring
depleted or lost sea grass habitats more plants are brought back to the environment. Within
that, higher photosynthesis levels can be recognized, which in turn lead to more food
availability for the grown mussels (Katwijk, Hermus, Jong, Asmus, & Jonge, 2000). Moreover,
sea grass natural purifies water, resulting in a better water quality of the area, which is
beneficial for the aquaculture sector as well as the tourism industry (Govers, 2016). However,
some habitats might attract bird species which in turn might feed on the mussel plots (Oost,
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2017). In this sense, it can be said that while the overall quality of the water is increased, the
threat of predation is increasing.
Evaluation of impacts based on literature and expert knowledge
As mentioned beforehand, the following measures do not elaborate on the differences between
literature and expert knowledge, but rather summarize the outcome of this process. The specific
differences between literature and expert knowledge can be observed in Appendix VIII
(literature impact matrix) and Appendix IX (expert impact matrix). Nevertheless, it can be
observed that the environmental measures have several impacts on the ES indicators used.
When looking at the renewable energy measure, it can be realized that the impacts are rather
absence. Literature, as well as expert knowledge, indicates that renewable energy has no impact
on the aquaculture sector or on existing habitats. It has been taken into account that some
renewable energies, like windmills, can create additional habitats, i.e. for marine organisms.
At the same time, these windmills pose a threat to other organisms like birds. A very small
positive effect can be observed in overnight stays, as it has been argued that innovative
renewable energies, like reverse osmosis which is conducted at the Afsluitdijk, can be used to
attract eco-tourism. It is debatable though since other renewable energies, like windmills, tend
to pollute the aesthetic of the region which can also have negative impacts on tourism (Table
38).
More positive effects can be observed when looking at the habitat creation measure. Due to
better water quality resulting from habitat creation projects can result in an increased quality
of cultivated mussels in the Wadden Sea. Consequently, the impact on the Aquaculture sector
has been evaluated to have small positive impacts. Additionally, new created habitats results
in more opportunities for organisms to feed, nest, hide and grow etc. Since new habitat is
created or restored the effects on the habitats is evaluated to have strong positive impacts. This
increase in possible habitat grounds can also lead to the attraction of more tourist, as they
mainly come to the Wadden Sea region for the unique landscape and wildlife. Consequently,
the impacts on the tourism sector have been evaluated to have very small positive impacts.
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Table 38: Impact of Environmental measures on ES indicators based on literature and expert
knowledge
Environmental measures
Renewable energy Habitat creation
Aquaculture
Net weight of production 0 2
Nb. of employees 0 1
Total impact 0 1.5
Habitats
Habitat heterogeneity 0 5
Habitat fragmentation 0 3
Total impact 0 4
Tourism
Overnight stays 1 1
Ferry tourism 0 1
Total impact 0.5 1
4.2.5 Governance
The governance of the Wadden Sea is a very complex system. It involves several governmental
bodies, various (economic and environmental) interest groups as well as the Wadden Sea
Memorandum (PKB) in the Netherlands. The PKB is a physical planning instrument with a
strong legal basis and intensive consultation procedures in the Dutch Wadden Sea region
(Turnhout, Hisschemöller, & Eijsackers, 2007). However, the main issue for a proper
governance of the Wadden Sea region is that it stretches over three countries. This makes
managing such a massive area difficult, especially since all countries have different rules and
regulations. However, efforts have and had been done in the Wadden region. A trilateral
agreement between Germany, Denmark and the Netherlands was created, which states the
overall goals for the Wadden Sea region. There are many agreements on a variety of concerning
topics. To go into detail for all possible governance measures would exceed the scope and time
of this research. It has been decided that the only governance measure included in the alpha
version of the ESSG will be focusing on pollution/contamination policies for the Wadden Sea
region.
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Pollution is one of the major problems around the world. Mankind is great in producing
substances that are harmful to the environment and even for humans itself. There are many
kinds of pollution, but the main ones discussed throughout the world are air and water pollution.
For the purpose of this report and the alpha version of the ESSG, the focus will be on water
contamination. There are several rules and regulations existing for water bodies in the
Netherlands (for more information please refer to: https://www.government.nl/topics/water-
management/contents). Within the ESSG the participant will have the opportunity to
implement pollution/contamination policies. The impacts on the indicators are discussed in the
paragraphs below.
First of all, the environmental impacts and within that, the impacts on the animal habitats are
elaborated on in the following sections. It seems logical that policies regarding pollution and
contamination limits have positive impacts on the environment. Nevertheless, some of the
major impacts are discussed in this section. With lower pollution and contamination levels, all
water bodies become cleaner in the long run. This means that the policy measure will focus on
achieving a decrease in raw sewage, less discharge from shipping operations, reduce industrial
waste water, limit hazardous substances (such as heavy metals, pesticides, PCBs and oils) and
minimize anthropogenic nutrient loads from anthropogenic origins entering the Wadden Sea
(CWSS, 2012). An overall trend in the reduction of contaminants can already be seen in the
Wadden region. Regardless of all endeavours, levels are still highly elevated compared to the
system before the industrialization (CWSS, 2012). Therefore, environmental pollution and
contamination policies have the potential to greatly help to reducing current pollution levels in
order to make the ecosystem healthier in the future. This reduction of hazardous substances
might also decrease current dead zones and within that lower the overall habitat fragmentation
(Oost, 2017).
An improvement of the overall water quality of the Wadden Sea also has some impacts on the
tourism sector. Improvement in water quality due to higher pollution restrictions can strengthen
the image or ‘brand’ developed by the UNESCO Wadden Sea World Heritage Centre, as they
advertise a clean and healthy environment. An increase in water quality can therefore not only
increase the beach water quality, but also minimize the likelihood of diseases related to
contaminated water, such as rashes, stomach flu and hepatitis (NRDC, 2016). Next to
increasing the water quality and human health, and improvement of the environmental
conditions can also result in more income for the tourism sector. This is due to two reasons.
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Firstly, the ‘brand’ of the Wadden region is strengthened and within that is distributed quicker
and more effectively. Secondly, more income is possible due to additional activities that can
be present, such as more boating, fishing and swimming (NRDC, 2016).
Finally, environmental pollution and contamination policies have positive effects on the
aquaculture sector present in the Wadden Sea. Within stricter pollution and contamination
policies it can be expected that the quality of farmed blue mussels in the Wadden Sea is
increasing. Mussels are filter feeders, meaning they filter the surrounding water, thereby
ingesting everything that can be found in the water column, may it be good or bad. This means
that harmful substances (such as heavy metals, PCBs, chemicals or pesticides) are absorbed by
the mussels when they are filtering the water for prey (Wright, Thompson, & Galloway, 2013).
If a water body is highly contaminated also the mussels will show effects of pollution since
they absorbed some of the contaminants. If this is the case, the quality of the mussel will
decrease. This, in turn, will have impacts on the income of the farmer since they are paid for
size and quality (FAO, 2016). Therefore, environmental pollution and contamination policies
will have positive impacts on the size and quality of the mussels and therefore also on the sector
as a whole.
Evaluation of impacts based on literature and expert knowledge
As mentioned beforehand, the following measures do not elaborate on the differences between
literature and expert knowledge, but rather summarize the outcome of this process. The specific
differences between literature and expert knowledge can be observed in Appendix VIII
(literature impact matrix) and Appendix IX (expert impact matrix). Nevertheless, it can be
observed that the governance measures have several impacts on the ES indicators used.
First of all, reducing pollution from anthropogenic sources directly increases the quality of the
surrounding environment. By limiting pollution sources like sewage or industrial waste water,
fewer contaminant are able to find their way in the Wadden Sea ecosystem. Therefore, also the
quality of cultivated mussels can increase as they filter-feed less pollutants, resulting in a small
positive effect on the aquaculture sector. On top of that, pollution limits can enhance the quality
of the overall ecosystem and within that the habitats that are supported by it. Therefore, it has
been evaluated that pollution limits have moderate positive effects of the overall habitats of the
region. Finally, a healthier ecosystem combined with less polluted beaches and water also
attracts more tourists to the area. Consequently, the effects have been evaluated as small
positive impacts on the tourism sector (Table 39)
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Table 39: Impact of coastal protection measures on ES indicators based on literature and
expert knowledge
Governance
Pollution limits/policies
Aquaculture
Net weight of production 3
Nb. of employees 1
Total impact 2
Habitats
Habitat heterogeneity 4
Habitat fragmentation 3
Total impact 3.5
Tourism
Overnight stays 2
Ferry tourism 1
Total impact 1.5
4.2.6 Infrastructure
Mankind lives in a world in which it became impossible to image how it would look like
without adequate, well-developed infrastructure. The Oxford dictionary defines infrastructure
as: ‘the basic physical and organizational structures and facilities needed for the operation of a
society or enterprise. Examples of infrastructure include roads, buildings, power supplies,
(public) transportation and sewage among others’ (Oxford, 2017). Infrastructure is integrated
into our everyday life and therefore becomes a very big part of it. People need infrastructure to
go to work, to travel or just for recreational purposes.
Within the Wadden Sea region, public infrastructure and leisure facilities are developed, but
they are still lacking improvement (CWSS, 2013). The Wadden Sea area offers many
possibilities to get from the mainland to the islands via ferry, while the cities on the mainland
are accessible by car. Nevertheless, present infrastructure is sparsely distributed within the
Wadden Sea region, and within that, the region experiences a need for further development of
the present infrastructure (CWSS, 2013). The focus of Infrastructure development in the
Wadden Sea is by car and public transport infrastructure. Especially more public transportation
is in the focus or as the Common Wadden Sea Secretariat (CWSS, 2013) puts it: ‘Public
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transport is an environmentally friendly alternative, especially for tourists, but is not yet a
viable option in the Wadden Sea region’. Therefore, a need of sustainable infrastructure and a
network should be created within the Wadden Sea region, which enables people to travel along
the Wadden Sea (CWSS, 2013).
Within the ESSG, the participant has three different options to develop the current
infrastructure of the game. These are 1) inland connection: roads; 2) Resorts; 3) Nature-based
tourism. These three measures and their impact on the indicators are described in the following
chapters.
Inland connection: roads
The most common infrastructures people often think of are roads. Roads are like the veins in
the human body. Roads lance through every country, they connect cities, municipalities,
regions and countries with each other and give people the opportunity to move around. Roads
are a very necessary construction nowadays and life can hardly be possible to imagine without
them. The Wadden region mainland is accessible by car, but the need for improvement is
present (CWSS, 2013). Two major highways are present in the Dutch Wadden Area, the A7
and A31. The highway A31 is passing by Harlingen which is an important connection city to
the islands. Nevertheless, the northern part of the Dutch Wadden Sea is only accessible by
country roads, which can get busy during the peak holiday seasons in the summer time (CWSS,
2013). Therefore the CWSS states that there is still need for improving the infrastructure for
cars.
In general, road projects are conducted in order to improve the economic and social welfare of
people. An improved road capacity can lead to reduced travel times and lower cost of vehicle
use while increasing the accessibility to jobs, markets, education, health services and recreation
possibilities (Tsumokawa & Hoban, 1997). However, road (projects) can not only result in
beneficial outcomes. There is also the risk of negative impacts on the livelihood of people and
the environment. The relation of road projects and the individual indicators is elaborated in the
following paragraphs.
Roads have a major impact on the ecosystem and its habitats. A differentiation might be useful
when talking about road projects. On the one hand, there are new road projects which develop
new roads in an area where they have been absent. On the other hand, there are existing road
projects, which aim at improving the present roads. Since roads (mostly country roads) are
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present in the Wadden Sea region, the focus will be on existing road projects. The impacts of
existing road projects compared to building new roads are less, however, there are still
environmental impacts that are worth mentioning. When looking at the Dutch Wadden Sea
region and associated road projects it can be said that most of them are rather small individual
highway projects. These small individual highway projects are normally associated with little
impact on natural ecosystems. Nevertheless, it is important to consider the contribution of small
projects to the cumulative impacts of a region (Southerland, 1994). The major impact of road
development projects is during the construction and operational phase. The construction phase
is associated with vegetation removal, earth moving and road building activities, which lead to
noise and physical disturbance which impact (sensitive) habitats (Southerland, 1994).
Additionally, soil erosion and forms of pollution can cause environmental impacts. During the
operational phase, a higher number of cars can be expected due to the development. On top of
that roadway maintenance, as well as accidents and spills can have severe impacts on the
environment (Southerland, 1994). In general, highway development can be said to affect the
ecosystem through the following processes: alteration of topography, vegetation removal,
erosion, sedimentation, soil compaction, dehydration and inundation, acidification,
salinization, noise and visual disturbance, direct mortality from road kills and contamination
(Southerland, 1994). These stressors can result in the following impacts on the ecosystem:
direct mortality of resident species, physiological stress and decreased reproduction, disruption
of normal behaviour and activities, the destruction of the habitat, the fragmentation of the
habitat and the degradation of the habitat (Southerland, 1994).
The development of road infrastructure, despites its possible negative impacts on the
environment, has several beneficial impacts on the tourism sector of the region. The main mean
of transportation on the Wadden mainland derives from cars (CWSS, 2013). Millions of tourists
arrive yearly in the Wadden Sea region by car. Mostly people from the Netherlands, Germany
and Belgium use their cars to visit this region. Therefore, the roads of the region need to handle
a high capacity of tourists each year. The road infrastructure provided in the region is enhancing
the ability of tourist to visit different parts of the region (Seetanah, et al., 2011). Additionally,
it allows tourist to travel to city-hubs like Harlingen which connect the mainland and the islands
by ferry. In this sense, road connectivity and availability are key factors when thinking about
tourist development in the Wadden Sea. Good road connectivity in the Wadden Sea allows
tourism to spread across the whole Wadden Sea region. The overall trend of tourism
development, from 2000 to 2005, showed a slight decline. The main reason for this was due to
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the average occupation in hotels and other accommodations (PROWAD, 2012). Road
development can help to allow tourist to reach other destinations within the Wadden Sea and
therefore increase the overall possible tourism in the Wadden region.
Lastly, the impacts on aquaculture are discussed here. Not a lot of information is available
regarding the correlation between these two elements. Consequently, it can be said that the
production and the number of employees of the aquaculture farms are very unlikely to be
impacted. Some contamination might be possible during construction works, which potentially
increases the abundance of hazardous substances in the near surroundings (Southerland, 1994).
However, most aquaculture farms in the Wadden Sea are located far away from the mainland.
Therefore, making it possible contamination unlikely and consequently aquaculture plots will
be very unlikely negatively impacted (Oost, 2017).
Tourist accommodation
Tourist accommodations are necessary in the Wadden region in order to handle the millions of
tourists that visit each year. Many different types of accommodations are present in the Wadden
Sea area. The different types of accommodations can vary from camping sites, caravans,
chalets, hotels, hostel to luxury rooms, as discussed in chapter 4.1.3 on page 67. Hence, for
each type of recreational purpose, a suitable accommodation can be found. Tourism is a
worldwide growing industry and it does not stop in the Wadden Sea region. More and more
people discover the beauty of the Wadden Sea and to satisfy the needs of the growing number
of tourists also more accommodations are required. One way for the participant of the game to
address this issue is by investing in new tourist accommodations.
To build new tourist accommodations has a direct impact on the surrounding environment and
its habitats. The development of such tourist facilities is associated with the possibility to
involve sand mining (chapter 118, page 121), beach, sand and soil erosion in the process
(Sunlu, 2003). This can lead to habitat degradation, which is a major concern in the scientific
community. In addition, new accommodations are linked to extensive paving, which in turn
can also lead to habitat degradation and fragmentation. However, these effects do not have to
become reality when careful environmental management and planning have been implemented
before the construction of these accommodations. In some cases good ‘environmental
management of tourism facilities and especially hotels can increase benefits to natural areas’
(Sunlu, 2003). The success of this environmental management depends on the analysis of the
available local resources, as well as making the most suitable choice between conflicting issues.
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With early planning for tourist development, environmentally damaging can be prevented,
consequently avoiding the deterioration of valuable ecosystem assets of the region (Sunlu,
2003). However, additional space is needed for every urban area development. Using areas
close to already existing infrastructures helps to minimize the impacts to ecosystem habitats.
Nonetheless, some impact will always be the result of urban development. The role of tourism
that contributes to the environment should, however, not be ignored. Tourism, and especially
sustainable tourism, is on the rise and aims at creating awareness and contribute to
environmental protection and conservation (Poudel, 2013). Nonetheless, rapid tourism
development can also harm the environment when tourist numbers exceed the capacity of the
environment (Poudel, 2013).
On the one hand, small environmental impacts are the result of building more tourist
accommodations. On the other hand, it offers the possibility that tourism in the area can
flourish. Tourist accommodations are the basic needs of the tourism industry and for that are
very important for tourism development (Poudel, 2013). In a wider sense, it can be said that
the success of a tourism destination is closely linked to the quality and quantity of available
accommodations. The quantity of available accommodations directly puts a limit to possible
tourist numbers, since only as many can visit the area as there can be accommodated for.
Therefore, by expanding the existing numbers of such tourist accommodations directly
influences the number of tourists that might come to this area in the future (Poudel, 2013). Also
the quality of the accommodations plays an important role. On the one hand, if a tourist comes
to an area for vacation and finds himself in a nice and clean environment, and/or finds the same
facilities as he/she would at home, he/she is much more likely to bind with the place and
considers returning, while telling his/her friends about it. On the other hand, if he/she finds
himself in accommodations with bad facilities he/she will most likely not return, while not
recommending the place to his/her friends (Poudel, 2013). In this light, it can easily be
recognized that the tourist accommodation sector has a major influence on the overall tourism
industry of an area.
Lastly, the impacts of tourist accommodation on the aquaculture sector in the Wadden Sea are
discussed. Information on this topic is very limited. Most likely this is because the two sectors
have not many similarities, as well as conflicts between them. Development of new
accommodations can result in (temporarily) contamination of the surrounding environment.
Contamination can derive from construction vehicles and other used materials, while also
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hazardous substances can enter the water (Ayarkwa, Acheampong, Hackman, & Agyekum,
2014). Therefore, (temporary) contamination can be the result which can lead to a slightly
lesser quality of the farmed mussels. Indirectly, more discharge and contamination can be the
result of a rapid increase in tourism. By developing accommodations, the goal is to get more
tourists in the area, which in turn can lead to a higher amount of contamination and pollution
(CWSS, 2013).
Evaluation of impacts based on literature and expert knowledge
As mentioned beforehand, the following measures do not elaborate on the differences between
literature and expert knowledge, but rather summarize the outcome of this process. The specific
differences between literature and expert knowledge can be observed in Appendix VIII
(literature impact matrix) and Appendix IX (expert impact matrix). Nevertheless, it can be
observed that the Infrastructure measures have several impacts on the ES indicators used.
In general it can be said that both infrastructure measures have no impact on aquaculture.
Increased turbidity and the risk of additional pollution are present. However, they are evaluated
as very unlikely to occur which resulted in a non-existing impact of the infrastructure measures
on the aquaculture sector. Both measures show very small negative impacts on the habitat, as
in both situations some kind of environment has to be replaced with urban infrastructure.
Building roads and accommodations mainly aim on benefitting the tourism sector, which is
also reflected in this outcome. Both measures show small to moderate effects since more
infrastructures to handle more tourists is created (Table 40).
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Table 40: Impact of Infrastructure measures on ES indicators based on literature and expert
knowledge
Infrastructure
Inland connection:
roads
Tourist
accommodations
Aquaculture
Net weight of production 0 0
Nb. of employees 0 0
Total impact 0 0
Habitats
Habitat heterogeneity -1 -2
Habitat fragmentation -1 -1
Total impact -1 -1.5
Tourism
Overnight stays 3 4
Ferry tourism 1 3
Total impact 2 3.5
4.2.7 Mining
The demand for energy and resources is increasing year after year. Not only in the Netherlands
but this is rather a global trend. To meet this rising demand of energy and resources, various
options are available. One of them is mining, which is a topic discussed around the world. In
the Wadden Sea there are two types of mining: 1) Gas mining and 2) shell and sand mining
(Baarse, 2014). It cannot be denied that there are several beneficial impacts of mining as well
as negative ones. To find a balance between the positive and negative impacts, all exploration
and/or exploiting activities in the Wadden Sea, and probably worldwide, are subject to very
strict regulations (Nehls & Witte, Quality Status Report 2009. Thematic Report No. 3,6.
Energy, 2009). A short overview of the regulations, as well as the impacts on the indicators,
for both mining types is presented in the following chapters.
Gas mining in the Wadden Sea
The Netherlands are one of the major gas-producers around Europe. The estimated annual gas
production of the Netherlands is approximately 70 billion m3. There are several extraction sites
in the Netherlands, of which five are located within the Wadden Sea. These five fields are:
Zuidwal, Ameland, Blija, Moddergat and Groningen (Nehls & Witte, Quality Status Report
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2009. Thematic Report No. 3,6. Energy, 2009). Especially the Groningen gas field is of major
importance as it is accountable for 1200 billion m3 of the total available 1600 billion m3 gas
extraction sites. In the future, it is expected that another 200-570 billion m3 should be added
(MEA, 2016). The overall available gas resources of the Netherlands are expected to be around
4500 billion m3, of which around 2600 billion m3 has already been produced (MEA, 2016).
Gas mining is an intensely discussed topic in the Wadden Sea. Policy and management have
to find a balance between natural values on the one hand and economic benefits in the other
(Turnhout, Hisschemöller, & Eijsackers, 2007). Therefore, gas mining is allowed in the
Wadden Sea as long as it can be guaranteed that the impacts on the environment are limited.
The Dutch Wadden Sea policy is laid down in the PKB, which is a physical planning instrument
with a strong legal basis and intensive consultation procedures (Turnhout, Hisschemöller, &
Eijsackers, 2007). All projects have to fit within the main goals of the PKB. Additionally, the
Wadden Sea area is subject to a variety of Dutch laws on the environment, such as water
quality, fisheries, mining, shipping, etc. The overall policy system of the Wadden Sea,
including all these different acts and governmental layers, as well as various (economic and
environmental) interest groups, can be considered very complex (Turnhout, Hisschemöller, &
Eijsackers, 2007). For more information about the Dutch mining policy, please refer to:
www.government.nl.
Gas mining is an anthropogenic measure which is conducted in the Wadden Sea and has several
impacts on the chosen indicators for this ESSG. Firstly, the habitat indicators should be
elaborated on. The Ministry of Economic Affairs (2016) state in their report ‘Gas production
in the Netherlands’ that gas extraction is better for the environment than importing it (due to
leakages, compressor energy use and transport) while saying that ‘there is no reasonable doubt
that possible gas production […] will not have harmful consequences for the natural values’
(MEA, 2016). However, this is questionable due to several reasons. First of all, seismic surveys
are conducted before a gas extraction site can be built. These surveys use seismic waves in
order to measure the earth`s (geo-) properties by means of physical (-physic) principles such
as magnetic, electric, gravitational, thermal and elastic theories. Within that, they are also used
to find suitable oil and gas fields located beneath the sea floor (McFarland, 2009). Animals are
disturbed by the produced sound which can lead to masking, while surveys are carried out with
vessels that interfere with the physical environment (MEA, 2016). When a suitable reservoir is
found and a gas extraction plant is built, the environment will suffer under (temporary) physical
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disturbance during the construction period of the drilling rig (MEA, 2016). Once the
construction process is finished and the actual mining process starts, the drilling into the earth’s
crust will not only result in elevated levels of noise pollution but also in physical disturbance.
Especially benthic communities are prone to this physical disturbance (MEA, 2016). Another
major environmental consequences resulting from gas mining is land subsidence. When the
gas is extracted from beneath the earth, the pressure that existed in this gas reservoir bubble is
decreasing. This, in turn, leads to subsidence which can result in impacts on the water balance
and thus also for the vegetation of the surrounding area (MEA, 2016).
Soil subsidence has also major impacts on the surrounding infrastructure, which in turn can
have impacts on the tourism sector. When the soil is subsiding, major infrastructures such as
streets, bridges and tunnels can suffer severe damage. This is particular problematic for the
barrier islands, where infrastructure is limited. Therefore, damages to this existing
infrastructure can have direct impacts on the tourism sector as important connections can be
damaged (MEA, 2016). Additionally, soil subsidence in combination with sea level rise results
in safety concerns. It is logical that with decreasing soil height and rising water levels the
hinterland becomes more prone to flooding and posing a great threat to the inhabitants and
tourist in the region (MEA, 2016). Besides these impacts, the construction of gas drilling rigs
clearly has a visual/aesthetic impact on the environment. This is especially crucial for the
Wadden Sea region, which is advertising the region as environmentally friendly to the tourists.
The overall vision of the Wadden Sea is to ‘to achieve, as far as possible, a natural and
sustainable ecosystem in which natural processes proceed in an undisturbed way’ (Turnhout,
Hisschemöller, & Eijsackers, 2007). This said, gas drilling projects can interfere with this
Wadden Sea World Heritage ‘brand’ and therefore can have major negative impacts on the
tourism industry in the Wadden region (Rumbach, 2016). Many present tourists come to the
Wadden Sea especially to witness this unbroken system of intertidal sand and mudflats. This
environmental friendly image produced by the UNESCO Wadden Sea World Heritage Centre
can suffer severe damage if gas mining interferes with the desired tourist expectations
(Rumbach, 2016).
Finally, not much information is available on the relation between gas mining and the impacts
on the aquaculture sector. Soil subsidence can have an impact on the seabed and the habitat
overall. These environmental impacts can also impact the mussel populations as well as the
seabed where the mussels grow on (Mercaldo-Allen & Goldberg, 2011). Additionally, possible
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contaminations from the drilling site can impact the quality of the mussels. Mussels are filter-
feeders and if the surrounding water becomes more contaminated, so does the mussel
(Mercaldo-Allen & Goldberg, 2011). As mentioned in chapter 4.1.1 the income of mussel
farmers is dependent on the size and the quality of the mussels. In this sense, if the surrounding
waters become more contaminated due to the gas drilling rig and the mussel quality decreases,
also the income of the farmer will decrease (Mercaldo-Allen & Goldberg, 2011).
Sand and shell mining
Sand and shell mining is conducted in the whole Netherlands. Around 72 million cubic meters
of sand are used yearly in the Netherlands and more than half of it originates from national
waters like the Wadden Sea. The extraction of sand in the Wadden Sea is only allowed in case
of navigational channels. This is mainly due to the trilateral agreement between Germany,
Denmark and the Netherlands (Ecomare, 2015). However, sand and shell mining can be
permitted by local authorities when it is for coastal protection. It must be done in such a way
that the environmental consequences are minimized while long-lasting impacts have to be
avoided and/or compensated for (Ecomare, 2015).
The impacts of sand and shell mining are very close related to channel maintenance and
dredging. Especially in the Wadden Sea, where sand and shell mining is mostly just permitted
in order to keep channels navigational. Therefore, the impacts on the indicators are basically
the same as for channel maintenance. In order to read about the impacts refer to chapter 4.2.2.
Evaluation of impacts based on literature and expert knowledge
As mentioned beforehand, the following measures do not elaborate on the differences between
literature and expert knowledge, but rather summarize the outcome of this process. The specific
differences between literature and expert knowledge can be observed in Appendix VIII
(literature impact matrix) and Appendix IX (expert impact matrix). Nevertheless, it can be
observed that the mining measures have several impacts on the ES indicators used.
Both mining operations are evaluated to have exactly the same consequences on the indicators.
Mining operations increase the risk of turbidity, pollution and subsidence. The result can be a
very small negative impact on the quality of the mussels. Additionally, both mining operations
need space and require drilling which can lead to very small negative impacts on the
surrounding habitats. Finally, the Wadden Sea region is advertised in a very environmentally
friendly way, which is one of the main reasons that attract tourists. However, mining is seens
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as something unsustainable while also disturbing the aesthetic of the region. The only
difference is that, on the one hand, sand and shell mining can be used for sand nourishment,
which in turn can be used for recreational purposes, resulting in a very small positive impact.
Gas mining on the other hand has no recreational benefits, resulting in a very small negative
impact on the tourism sector.
Table 41: Impact of mining measures on ES indicators based on literature and expert
knowledge
Mining
Sand and shell mining Gas mining
Aquaculture
Net weight of production -1 -1
Nb. of employees 0 0
Total impact -0.5 -0.5
Habitats
Habitat heterogeneity -1 -1
Habitat fragmentation -1 -1
Total impact -1 -1
Tourism
Overnight stays 1 -1
Ferry tourism 1 0
Total impact 1 0.5
4.3 Measure-impact matrix
The literature review conducted for each individual measure resulted in a measure-impact
matrix. This matrix was originally developed for the PoFSG, but has been changed to fit the
needs of the ESSG. This matrix visualizes the impacts of each individual measure on every
single sub-indicator. All information gained from literature resulted in the first measure-impact
matrix for the game. All factors were based on that literature review and consequently, an
educated guess for the impact on each sub-indicator has been created (Appendix VIII).
As mentioned in the beginning of this chapter, all impacts of the anthropogenic measures are
rated on a scale from -5 to +5, whereas -5 stands for very negative impacts on the indicator and
+5 for very high positive impacts. Consequently, a 0 indicates no significant impact on the
indicator (Table 32 on page 86). Additionally, the vertical grey beams in Table 42 and Table
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43and on Page 124 describe the average impact on each ES. Additionally, it should be noted
that the orange marked row for general port expansion is just the average of all combined port
expansion measures.
To validate the table, experts at Deltares were asked to confirm or disconfirm assigned values.
One of the experts was Albert Oost who has years of experience regarding ES in the Wadden
Sea. He identified which of the measures he would have rated differently. The outcome of the
expert meeting is shown in Appendix IX.
Many of the measures rated by Mr Oost resulted in very low or even none impacts. This in turn
is very bad for the game, as the game is aiming at showing the participants the change on ES
associated with these anthropogenic measures. In order to satisfy the experts and still be usable
for the game, a mixed table was created. This table included the knowledge of the expert as
well as the knowledge gained from the literature review into account.
Another expert meeting was conducted with Mr Arjen Boon, who also specialized in ES. The
outcome was almost the same; however, he mentioned that the measures used at this stage of
the game are very much focusing on tourism development. It can be observed that all measures
have a positive impact on tourism, while most of them have negative impacts on aquaculture
and tourism. This leads to an overvaluation of one indicator. This overvaluation might pose a
problem as it seems to the player that the positive effects outbalance the negative impacts,
which is questionable. Additionally, he mentioned that another factor that might influence the
development is the linear regression that is assumed within the game. Within the ESSG, it
seems that tourism grows linearly if more development is taking place. However, at some point
tourism will start to slow down even if more development of the sector is conducted.
Nevertheless, both expert meetings combined with the literature review conducted led to the
results of the measure impact matrix, which can be seen in Table 42 & Table 43 on page 124.
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Table 42: Measure-impact matrix of the ESSG
Table 43: Close-up of the impact matrix for the ESSG.
MeasureCode Category BackgroundImage MeasureImage Title EffectProvisioningNet weight of production Nb. Of employees EffectRegulating&MaintenanceHabitat heterogeneity Habitat fragmentation EffectCultural Overnight stays Ferry tourism
a_1 Port expansion 1 x General -0,8 -1,3 -0,3 -1,5 -2,0 -1,0 2,3 1,7 3,0
a_2 Port expansion 1 x Inland expansion: mainland -0,5 -1 0 -1 -1 -1 2 1 3
a_3 Port expansion 1 x Inland expansion: barrier island -0,5 -1 0 -1,5 -2 -1 3 3 3
a_4 Port expansion 1 x Inland expansion: nature areas -1,5 -2 -1 -2 -3 -1 2 1 3
b_1 Navigation 2 x Channel maintenance/Dredging -0,5 -1 0 -2 -3 -1 2 1 3
c_1 Coastal protection 3 x Additional nourishment: barrier islands -0,5 -1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1
d_1 Environmental measures 4 x Renewable energy 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,5 1 0
d_2 Environmental measures 4 x Habitat creation 1,5 2 1 4 5 3 1 1 1
Governance 5 x Pollution limits/policies 2 3 1 3,5 4 3 1,5 2 1
f_1 Infrastructure 6 x Inland connection: road 0 0 0 -1 -1 -1 2 3 1
f_2 Infrastructure 6 X Tourist accommodation 0 0 0 -1,5 -2 -1 3,5 4 3
g_1 Mining 7 x Sand & Shell mining -0,5 -1 0 -1 -1 -1 1 1 1
g_3 Mining 7 x Gas mining -0,5 -1 0 -1 -1 -1 -0,5 -1 0
Aquaculturer Habitats Tourism
Title EffectProvisioningNet weight of production Nb. Of employees EffectRegulating&MaintenanceHabitat heterogeneity Habitat fragmentation EffectCultural Overnight stays Ferry tourism
General -0,8 -1,3 -0,3 -1,5 -2,0 -1,0 2,3 1,7 3,0
Inland expansion: mainland -0,5 -1 0 -1 -1 -1 2 1 3
Inland expansion: barrier island -0,5 -1 0 -1,5 -2 -1 3 3 3
Inland expansion: nature areas -1,5 -2 -1 -2 -3 -1 2 1 3
Channel maintenance/Dredging -0,5 -1 0 -2 -3 -1 2 1 3
Additional nourishment: barrier islands -0,5 -1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1
Renewable energy 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,5 1 0
Habitat creation 1,5 2 1 4 5 3 1 1 1
Pollution limits/policies 2 3 1 3,5 4 3 1,5 2 1
Inland connection: road 0 0 0 -1 -1 -1 2 3 1
Tourist accommodation 0 0 0 -1,5 -2 -1 3,5 4 3
Sand & Shell mining -0,5 -1 0 -1 -1 -1 1 1 1
Gas mining -0,5 -1 0 -1 -1 -1 -0,5 -1 0
Aquaculturer Habitats Tourism
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4.3.1 Analysis of the measure-impact matrix
The following analysis is based on Table 42 & Table 43 provided on page 124. Looking at the
measure-impact matrix it can be observed that the different measures have different impacts
on the ESs. The different impacts on the individual indicators and the outcome of this matrix
are discussed in the following chapter.
When looking at the aquaculture sector, it can be observed that many of the measures actually
have negative impacts. Out of the twelve measures used, a total of seven has negative impact
on the aquaculture indicator. All measures that fall under the categories of port expansion,
navigation, coastal protection, and mining show negative impacts on the indicator.
Additionally, the measures of renewable energy, road connections and tourist accommodations
reveal themselves to not have any impact on the indicator. Only two out of the twelve
implemented measures have positive impact on the aquaculture sector. These are habitat
creation and pollution limits. This means that in general, the participant of the game has only
limited choices when it comes to positively developing the aquaculture sector. When looking
at the total points that can be scored, another observation can be made. When combining all
seven negative measures a total score of -4.5 can be achieved. Therefore, the player of the game
could theoretically achieve a negative score of -6 (combined with the initial state score of -1.5).
However, when looking at the way the aquaculture sector is effected it can be observed that
mainly the sub-indicator ‘net weight of production’ is affected. All measures that have negative
impact on aquaculture, except for the port expansion measure into the nature areas, have no
impact on the sub-indicator ‘number of employees’. This means that this indicator is basically
never negatively impacted, which leads to the assumption that this sub-indicator might not be
suitable for the game. When looking at the other end, it can be observed that the player of the
game can positively impact the aquaculture sector with a total score of +3.5. Consequently, the
player has the theoretical chance to score a +2 (combined with the initial state of -1.5).
Therefore, it seems pretty hard to actually developing the area without further harming the
aquaculture sector. It makes it a very unbalanced outcome combined with the fact that only two
measures are responsible for the total positive impact. In general, the total impact scale for the
aquaculture indicator is between -6 and +2. When all measures would theoretically be
implemented, the player would end up with a score of -4. This also shows that it is much easier
to score negatively, than actually positively developing the sector. Consequently, it can be
argued if the indicator is unsuitable or if the measures have to be updated.
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When looking at the habitat indicator a similar development can be observed. Eight out of the
twelve measures that have been used show negative impacts on the indicator. All measures that
fall under the categories of port expansion, navigation, infrastructure and mining result in
negative impacts on the habitat indicator. Additionally, two measures, named renewable energy
and additional nourishment, reveal themselves to have no impact at the habitat indicator.
Consequently, there are only two measures that have positive impact on habitats. These are
habitat creation and pollution limits. The player of the game has, therefore, only very limited
choices to positively develop the habitat indicator of the game. When looking at the eight
measures that have negative impact on habitats, a total theoretical score of -11 can be achieved.
Combined with the initial score of -1, the player of the game could theoretically achieve -12
when only negative and neutral measures are implemented. On the other end, it is possible to
achieve a positive score of +7.5 when combining both measures with positive impacts.
Therefore, the player of the game has a total score range of -12 to +7.5. This also means that
when all measures are theoretically implemented, the player of the game would end up with a
score of -4.5. As with the aquaculture indicator, it can be recognized that it is much harder to
positively develop the habitat sector then it is to negatively affect it. Also, as mentioned, the
player has only two measures that positively impact the habitat indicator. Both measures,
however, have a very strong positive impact. Therefore, it could be argued that the measures
are maybe over rated as it seems like a very positive impact can easily achieved by just
implementing one or two counter measures. This could lead also to misinterpretations as
negative measures can easily be compensated, which in real life might not be the case.
However, when looking at the way the sub-indicators are impacted by the measures it can be
observed that both sub-indicators are constantly impacted. Therefore, it seems that the sub-
indicators are more suitable in general, then i.e. in contrast to the aquaculture indicators. In
general, it seems like that on the one hand the indicator is suitable for the game, on the other
hand it seems like the measures have to be adjusted or new ones have to be added in order to
achieve a more balance between the measure impacts.
Something completely different can be observed when looking at the tourism indicator. Eleven
out of the twelve measures that are used have a positive impact on the tourism indicator. This
means that when the score for all measures that impact tourism positively are implemented, a
score of +19.5 can be achieved. Combined with the initial score of +0.5 this would result in a
total possible score of +20. The only measure that has very small negative impact on the
tourism indicator is gas mining, with an impact of -0.5. This means that in theory the player
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can have a minimum score of 0 (when combined with the initial state score of +0.5).
Consequently, the player has a theoretical score range from 0 to +20. Additionally, when
adding all measures together, the score achieved is +19. When looking at the way the two sub-
indicators are impacted by the measures it seems like no indicator is overvalued in comparison
to the other, not like it was the case for the aquaculture indicator. Nevertheless, it is literally
impossible for the player to score negatively for the tourism indicator, no matter which
development measures are implemented in the game.
After the impacts on the indicators and sub-indicators have been analysed it could also be
recognized that some measures have similar impacts on all indicators. First of all, the measure
of gas mining has negative impact on all indicators. Secondly, the measure of renewable energy
shows neutral impacts to all indicators (except a very small impact of +1 on overnight stays).
Thirdly, both environmental measures (habitat creation and pollution limits) have positive
impact on all indicators used.
4.3.2 Conclusion measure-impact matrix
It can be recognized that the impacts of the measures are still very unbalanced. While there are
only very limited options to implement measures that positively impact the indicators for
aquaculture and habitats, it is not possible at all to score negatively for the tourism indicators.
Also it could be recognized that for the sub-indicator ‘number of employees’ is rarely affected
by any measure. Also several measures have similar impacts on the indicators, which might
not be bad but still could influence the attitude of the player as it seems very appealing to
implement a measure that only has positive impacts ion everything. In general, it can be
recognized that most of the indicators work to see the impacts of developing measures on them.
It is questionable though if the selected measures are the most suitable ones to use as they show
a bias towards the tourism indicator. It can be argued if this could derive from the measures
itself or from the scores they are associated with.
4.4 Serious game as a management tool
All the mentioned ES classifications, the indicators and the measures are combined and create
the scientific backbone of the ESSG. The model visualized in Figure 11 gives a detailed
overview of the model of the ESSG. The overall aim of this scientific background is to project
a realistic environment for the participants/participants rather than a fictional one, which is
widely used through the serious gaming world. However, this SG takes this fictional aspect
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aside and includes collected data in order to achieve this “real-life” scenario. In this context,
this overall real-life environment is reflected as the red box labelled “Current state of the
Wadden Sea”.
To determine the current state of the Wadden Sea, the three CICES classifications of ESs are
used (see chapter 2.1 & 0). These three classifications are provisioning services, regulating &
maintenance services and cultural services and are labelled green in the model. These three
classifications are determining the current state of the Wadden Sea as they will reflect the data
fed into the SG. The data fed into the SG will be transformed into scores by using performance
indicators (see chapter 4.1, page 51, 63 & 83). The transformed score will allow
participants/participants to easily recognize if the current state of the Wadden Sea is good (a
positive score), bad (negative score) or in a neutral state (score of 0). Within that, the three
classifications have a direct link to the current state of the Wadden Sea, which is indicated by
the red arrows linking them to each other.
The three CICES classifications, which determine the current state of the ES in the Wadden
Sea, are dependent on indicators. These indicators contain data collected in order to achieve
this real-life environment. As to this stage, for the alpha version of this SG, one indicator per
classification is used. These are for the provisioning classification the indicator “aquaculture”,
for the regulating & maintenance classification the indicator “habitats” and for the cultural
classification the indicator “tourism”, which are all labelled orange in the model. The indicators
have a direct influence on the individual classification as they determine the score for them,
which are again indicated by the red arrows.
Each of the indicators is dependent on two individually chosen sub-indicators (see chapter 0).
These two sub-indicators per indicator are fed with data collected and are the key scientific
backbone of this SG. The data fed into the sub-indicators derived from a combination of historic
and newest data available. Therefore, these sub-indicators are able to show a trend in the
Wadden Sea as well as the current state. Dependent on how the sub-indicators behaved over
time and to what extend they are present at the moment, these indicators will be given an
independent score to feed the collected data as a mathematical component into the SG. The
score from both sub-indicators, then in turn will be merged (grey box in the model and grey
arrows) to the final score of the indicator, which then in turn show the current state of the
Wadden Sea region.
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Finally, the participant can influence these sub-indicators by the actions they take within the
game. The participant is able to choose specific measurements for the Wadden Sea region based
on what he/she thinks is the most appropriate measure for the Wadden Sea region at this
moment. The measures than in turn will have a positive or negative on one or more sub-
indicators, which then in turn have a positive or negative effect on the indicators and within
that of the current state of the Wadden Sea (see chapter 4.3). The development of the Wadden
Sea region, and within that the impacts on the ESs provided by it, dependent directly on the
actions taken by the participants in the game. The measures, which can be chosen by the
participants, derived from a mix of current policy aims and targets as well as current actions
that are already executed in the Wadden area. Therefore, the participant can choose from a
range of realistic measures and can experience what the consequences of each action are (see
chapter 4.2).
The final model derives from all the above-mentioned items. The ES classifications are
dependent on the indicators and sub-indicators, which can be influenced by the measures in the
game.
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4.4.1 Visualization
The visualization of this ESSG is a crucial factor for the overall success of the game since the
participants/participants of the game will obtain many of their information directly from the
game itself. First of all, the overall design of the game shows the participant in which
environment they are finding themselves in. Therefore, the overall look of the game is the first
impression the participant will obtain from the game and therefore it is important to visualize
the wished environment (in this case the Wadden Sea) as realistic as possible. Secondly, the
indicators used within the game should be visualized in such a way that the participant can
recognize positive or negative changes as easy as possible. Thirdly, also the different
measurement options, which are available for the participant to choose from have to be easily
understandable visualized. The measurement options in combination with the indicator
visualization should result in an overall picture that shows the participant how the measures
and indicators are correlated and, to be more precise, what impacts specific measurement
options have on the chosen indicators. Finally, important objects and elements are included in
the game to achieve a more realistic view of the gaming environment.
This is especially true for the visualization of the three indicators, namely tourism, habitats &
aquaculture, as they are the number one feedback for the participants in order to know how the
current state of the environment is. Since all three indicators are validated by two sub-
indicators, the visualization of those sub-indicators will stand in focus in this chapter. Several
options on how to visualize these sub-indicators are presented within this chapter.
Main design
As mentioned above, the overall design of the ESSG is a crucial factor. It is the first impression
the participant obtains from the game and therefore has to show the participant in what kind of
environment he/she is finding himself. To achieve the most realistic reflection of the Wadden
Sea, the three most outstanding areas of the Wadden Sea are emphasised. These are namely the
mainland, the sea and the islands (CWSS, Wadden Sea Plan 2010. Eleventh Trilateral
Governmental Conference on the Protection of the Wadden Sea, 2010) (Shoeman, 2015).
Those three elements are the basis of the ESSG as they in combination form the Wadden Sea
as it is known. To achieve an even more realistic effect, satellite imagery was used to draw the
contours of the mainland and the islands used.
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A total of four different design options were created (Appendix X). These design options were
given to the client (Deltares) as well to the experts working on SGs. To make it more realistic,
the option with two islands, four cities and two ferry connection was chosen (
Figure 12). Within the two islands the participant of the game can easily recognize the Wadden
Sea area, when he knows the environment a little. However, the game is addressed to managers
of the area so the design should meet its purpose. In
Figure 12 the main design can be seen. The two islands represent Terschelling and Ameland
which are connected to the mainland by the ferry channels (dark blue channels). On both islands
a small harbour and a small city can be found while the rest of the area is left for nature.
However, walking paths can be found through the nature areas, as it is present in real-life. On
the left hand side, next to the ferry channel, mussel plots can be found. These mussel plots,
which indicate the aquaculture sector in the game, are visualized with wooden sticks. Finally,
on the mainland, two cities with bigger harbours can be found. Small streets connect the cities
with each other, while in-between natural areas, as well as agricultural used space, can be
found. Additionally, coastal wetlands are taken into the design.
Figure 12: In-Game design
All in all, the environment resembles the real Wadden Sea environment. All important factors
are taken into account to make the game look as real as possible. Additional Screenshots can
be found in Appendix XI.
Visualization of indicators
Secondly, suitable visualization strategies for the indicators were identified and incorporated
within the game. Several options have been developed for each individual indicator. All the
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different options can be found in Appendix XII. The following chapter deals with the options
that have been chosen for the game.
The visualization steps of the game depend on the score that can be achieved by the participant
of the game, which is described in the following sub-chapters. These scores in turn depend on
which measures the participant implements in the game (see chapter 4.3). Consequently, if the
participant only implements measures that affects an indicator positively, a very high score is
achieved and vice versa. Including visualizations for the complete range of scores possible to
achieve exceeds the scope of this alpha version. Additionally, in later versions more measures
will probably added, which in turn means that the score range will be alternated. Therefore, the
visualization steps are adjusted to the score range of the indicator variables, which determine
the beginning values of the indicators within the game (see chapter 4.1, page 51, 63 & 83).
Consequently, the range of scores lies between -5 and +5. However, the participant can achieve
scores below -5 and above +5. Exceeding these scores is seen as the maximum impact.
Consequently, the highest and lowest scores show no further visualization.
In the beginning, the decision to visualize a change for every sub-indicator value scored in the
game was made. However, this exceeds the scope of the alpha version of the game.
Consequently, it was agreed that the indicator visualization will depend on the combined value
of the individual indicator of the game.
Finally, expert meetings with Mr. Joling and Mr. van Bergh, both working on serious game
programming at Deltares since ten years, was held to determine which possibilities for the
visualization of the indicators within the ESSG are possible. A detailed description of all
possibilities can be found in the Appendix XII. The final visualizations that have been agreed
upon is described in the following sub-chapters.
Tourism indicator visualization
The first, among three, indicators to determine the current state of the Wadden Sea environment
within the ESSG is tourism. Tourism is chosen because it shows that recreational activities are
possible in the Wadden region, which in turn directly benefit human well-being and therefore
is falling under the cultural ecosystem service classification of CICES.
To visualize the participant of the game that tourism in increasing or decreasing is by
introducing parasols to the beach areas of the islands. Parasols are one major object for most
people when they think about beach tourism. For most people the bare sun is much too hot, so
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they seek for shelter under the refreshing shade of the parasols. It is irrelevant if the parasols
are brought personally or, as it can be found in almost all beach tourism areas around the world,
are provided by hotels and beach-bars. Everybody knows that, especially touristic, beaches are
mostly covered with parasols.
To visualize the increase or decrease in tourism to the participant, the amount of these parasols
on the island beaches is modified accordingly to the score regarding cultural ESs (since tourism
is the indicator for that ES). Together with the experts at Deltares, it was agreed upon a five
step changing strategy, meaning that there are five different levels in which the amount of
parasols will change within the game (Figure 13).
Figure 13: Five step parasol development. From non to very crowded.
The first step is that there would be no parasols whatsoever in the game. This means that a total
beach area of 0% is covered with parasols. This will be the case when the participant of the
game achieves a score for the cultural ES of ≤ -5 (Table 44). No parasols on the beaches shows
the participant that tourism is absent in the region and there is a need for improvement.
The second step is to include some parasols to the beach area of the islands. This means that
when the participant reaches a score between -4 to -2 parasols are introduced to the game (Table
44). The score is still pretty negative, but tourism is present in the game. To visualize that, the
beach areas of the islands will be covered by about 25% by parasols.
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The third step is when the participant of the game achieves a neutral or slightly
positive/negative score for the cultural ES indicator. Therefore, the beach area of the islands is
covered by 50% with parasols. This will be done when the participant scores a value of -1, 0,
and +1 (Table 44).
The fourth step indicates that tourism is booming. The participant achieved a very positive
score (+2, +3, or +4) which should be reflected in the visualization. Therefore, 75% of the
available beach area on the islands is then covered by parasols (Table 44).
Finally, tourism is reaching its limit. A score of ≥ +5 is achieved within the game. However,
too much tourism is also bad for the environment, as more people and more anthropogenic
measures in general are present. To visualize that, 100% of the beach available on the islands
is covered by parasols (Table 44). Many people know these pictures from beach tourism places
around the world where there is no free spot available anymore (i.e. Copacabana, Mallorca,
etc.). When the beach is that crowded, a holiday is mostly more stressful and most people
experience this as something bad. Therefore, this negative feeling will be transmitted to the
participant of the ESSG.
Table 44: Visualization steps for tourism indicator
Tourism visualization steps
Score of tourism in the ESSG
≤ -5 -4; -3; -2 -1; 0; +1 +2; +3; +4 ≥ 5
Beach area covered by
parasols 0% 25% 50% 75% 100%
All in all, a touristic feeling shall be created by introducing parasols to the area. By changing
the amount of parasols drastically, the participant of the game will recognize if there is a need
for improvement (no parasols or just a few), or if the focus of the participant should be on
developing other indicators (everything full of parasols).
Aquaculture indicator visualization
The second indicator chosen for the ESSG is entitled Aquaculture. Aquaculture, especially
mussel aquaculture, is a very well developed business in the Netherlands and especially in the
Wadden Sea region. About 82 individual mussel aquaculture farms can be found in the Wadden
Sea, of which 91% are using bottom culture as their main technique (Hagos, 2007) (see chapter
4.1.1). Therefore, aquaculture is not only an important source of food for humans, but also a
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very important income source for aquaculture farmers in the Wadden Sea (FAO, 2016). This
makes aquaculture a more than suitable indicator for the provisioning ecosystem classification
of CICES.
There are many ways to visualize an increase or decrease in the aquaculture sector, let it be the
production or the amount of people working there (Appendix XII) However, it was decided
that just the appearance of aquaculture plots within the game will give the participant important
visual feedback (Figure 14).
Figure 14: Example of the alternation in the amount of mussel plots
In order to visualize the participant of the ESSG that the Aquaculture indicator changing, is to
change the amount of mussel aquaculture plots within the ESSG. By changing the amount of
the mussel plots a clear visualization for the participant regarding a un-/development of the
sector is achieved. The amount of plots is again done within five individual steps, in order to
indicate the current state of aquaculture in the Wadden Sea.
The first visualization step would be to include no aquaculture plots whatsoever in the game.
This is done when the participant of the game achieves a score of ≤ -5. No single aquaculture
plot in the game gives the participant direct visual feedback that the sector is underdeveloped
and need for improvement is present (Table 45).
The second step is to include some aquaculture plots in the game. There are two locations
where mussel plots will appear in the game (Figure 15). When the participant has a score
between -4 and -2 the first mussel plots will appear on location I. A total of three mussel plots
are visible to show the participant that the aquaculture sector exists but still needs further
development.
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Figure 15: Aquaculture mussel plot locations in the game. Left plot (I) is where the first plots
appear (score -2 and below). Right plot (II) is where the second farm appears (score +2 and
above)
The third visualization step is achieved when the participant has a neutral (0) or slightly
positive/negative score for the aquaculture indicator (1-/+1) (Table 45). When this situation
occurs, a total of 6 mussel plots can be found in location I. Consequently, the participant
witnesses an increase (compared to lower scores) or a decrease (compared to higher scores).
A second aquaculture farm is introduced to the game when the participant has a score of ≥ +2
for the aquaculture indicator. I the participant of the game achieves a positive score (+2, +3,
+4) the amount of mussel plots of each farm is set to 6 (Table 45). This means there will be 12
plots in total, divided on two farms. Therefore, the participant either experiences an increase in
plots and farms (compared to lower scores) or a decrease in available plots (compared to higher
scores).
I
II
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Finally, the aquaculture sector reaches its limits. This step is achieved with a score of ≥ +5.
This is visualized by two mussel farm with each having 9 mussel plots. Consequently, there
are 18 mussel plots visible for the participant (Table 45).
Table 45: Visualization steps for the aquaculture indicator
Aquaculture visualization steps
Score of Aquaculture in the ESSG
≤ -5 -4; -3; -2 -1; 0; +1 +2; +3; +4 ≥ 5
Amounts of Aquaculture farm
0 1 1 2 2
Amounts of mussel plots (total)
0 3 6 12 (2x6) 18 (2x9)
Animal Habitats indicator visualization
The third and last indicator of the ESSG is animal habitats. Habitats are an important part of
the ecosystem as it provides a place for animals to feed or nest. Therefore, it is important to the
overall biodiversity of the ecosystem that natural habitats are present in rich abundance and
space. Especially the Wadden Sea is providing food and nesting opportunities for millions of
local, but also migrating, bird species. To indicate how the current state of animal habitats is in
the Wadden region, two sub-indicators are used. These indicators are firstly habitat
heterogeneity and secondly habitat fragmentation. These two sub-indicators play an important
role when looking at the (bird) species diversity of an area (Tews, et al., 2004). On the other
hand, studies have shown that even habitats with a high heterogeneity had low species diversity
when habitat fragmentation was high. Therefore, both indicators supplement each other (see
chapter 4.1.2)
However, to visualize a change in habitat heterogeneity and fragmentation is a rather difficult
task. Ideas to change the landscape of the game related to the score were developed (Appendix
XII). However, it was mentioned by the serious game experts at Deltares that changing the
whole landscape is impossible in this time frame and it could lead to confusion for the
participant. Therefore, this idea has been neglected and it was agreed to just change the amount
of animals within the alpha version of the game correlated to the overall score for the animal
habitats.
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Changing the amount of animals within the ESSG seemed to all parties as the best and easiest
way to visualize a change in animal habitats within the alpha version of the game. There are
many different animals calling the Wadden Sea their home. However, many of them are benthic
organisms or shellfish, which are not a suitable visualization for the game, since they are much
too small. Therefore, the animals appearing in the game are limited to mammal and avian
species. An increasing or decreasing amount of animal species gives the participant direct
visual feedback that the environmental quality is either improving or decreasing.
The first visualization would be that there is absolutely no animal life present in the game. This
happens when the score is ≤ -5 (Table 46). This visualizes the participant that the environment
is suffering. No animals in turn should indicate a bad environmental quality and need for
improvement is present.
The second step in visualizing the overall habitat quality of the game is to introduce an animal
species. This is done when the score for habitats within the game is in between -4 and -2 (Table
46). The first species that is introduced to the game are Fish. Fish are the very basic species
that people would associate with the Wadden Sea, or any water body in the world. Additionally,
they are basically the start of the food-chain that can be visualized within the game, since
benthic organisms or mussels are almost impossible to visualize.
The third visualization step is achieved when the score for habitats in the game is neutral (0)
or slightly positive/negative (+1/-1). The most common animals in the Wadden Sea, which are
also the major tourist attractions, are birds. Therefore, birds are also introduced to the game
when the participant has these neutral or slightly positive/negative scores (Table 46). Within
that, the participant can see fish and birds in the game.
The fourth visualization step is achieved when the score for habitats is in between +2 and +4
(Table 46). If this is the case another animal is added to the game. The most common marine
mammals in the Wadden Sea are seals. They can be found sunbathing on beaches and intertidal
mudflats or swimming around in the sea. Consequently, seals have been incorporated into the
game. That means that when the participant has a positive score he will be able to see fish,
birds and seals around the game.
Finally, the last visualization step is achieved when the score of the habitat indicator in the
game is very positive (≥ +5). When this is achieved, the amount of animals in the game is
increased into a ridiculous amount. This also includes whales being present on the northern site
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of the island, not in the Wadden Sea itself. However, with increasing the amount of animals to
a ridiculous number, the participant will recognize that the environment is thriving (Table 46).
Table 46: Visualization steps for the habitat indicator
Habitat visualization steps
Score ≤ -5 -4; -3; -2 -1; 0; +1 +2; +3; +4 ≥ 5
Amount of animals present
None Some Moderate Many Too many
Types of animals present
None Fish Fish, Birds
Fish, Birds, Seals
Fish, Birds, Seals,
Whales,
Al in all, it can be said that the framework of the game is there. Indicators, based on scientific
data, are used to show positive and negative impacts of anthropogenic measures on the ES.
Different visualization steps are used to give the participant also visual feedback for easier
understanding. However, the development of the ESSG is still in its fledgling stage. Therefore,
adjustments and further research into the topic is needed in order to move the game from a
demo version to a fully playable one.
Visualization of measures
The third major visualization part of the ESSG is deriving from the different measures the
participant can implement within the game. The measures are the key elements that bring
change to the game as they influence all sub-indicators. To let the participant of the game know
what measures he/she implemented small objects are added to the environment. All objects
should give the participant specific feedback on what measure is implemented.
Not many different options have been elaborated as most of them developed during expert
meetings. Therefore, the feasibility of the visualization options have been directly discussed
and consequently resulted in fewer options. Nevertheless, all measure visualization options can
be found in Appendix XII. However, for the scope of this research, the approved visualization
for each individual measure is described in the following sub-chapters.
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Port expansion: Mainland (inland)
Within this measure the harbour on the mainland is extended towards the hinterland. As
described in chapter 4.2.1, a harbour extension into the hinterland often transforms already
existing man-made structures, like roads and buildings, into harbour extensions.
One way to visualize a port expansion into the hinterland to the participant of the ESSG is to
transform the hinterland directly behind the harbour also into harbour facilities. To do so, the
existing waterways in the harbour can be extended in order to create a bigger harbour basin
area. A bigger area symbolized the participant that the harbour got extended ergo more berthing
stations for shipping vessels is present. This can be done in two locations as two harbours are
present on the mainland (Figure 16). The development of the harbour, therefore, takes place at
one or both harbours, since the alpha version does not include the option to choose which
harbour can be developed. The final decision if both or just one harbour is extended is left to
the expert SG programmers at Deltares.
However, by changing the build environment from urban housing to a harbour area shows the
participant that he/she sacrificed already used the space for a different purpose. Homes and
offices are sacrificed in order to develop the harbour(s) of the area.
Figure 16: Mainland inland harbour expansion sites.
Port expansion: Barrier islands
As mentioned in chapter 4.2.1, a port expansion on the barrier islands would mainly impact the
wetlands in front of the harbour. The island harbours vary very much in size compared to the
harbours present on the mainland. Nevertheless, these harbours are very important regarding
capacity, as only a specific amount of ships can berth at the same time. By increasing the
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capacity, and expanding the harbour present, a higher tourist capacity can be created. To
visualize this to the participant the following options have been elaborated.
One of the ways to visualize the participant that the port has been expanded is by adding more
piers, or berthing stations, to the island harbour(s). Three possibilities to do so are given, since
the alpha version of the game has no spatial component, regarding where exactly to expand the
harbour. It is either possible to expand both harbours on both islands and just one harbour on
one island. However, the island on the right hand side offers more space to show a development
of the harbour. The amount of piers can be increased, so that the total number of piers is, instead
of one, three or four (Figure 17).
By changing the amount of piers at the right hand sided island, the participant can witness a
development of the harbour. More piers consequently mean that there are more possibilities for
shipping vessels to land. Ergo also more tourists can be shipped to the islands.
Figure 17: Location of harbour development, in form of additional piers, on the barrier
islands
Port expansion: Mainland (nature areas)
Expanding the port on the mainland into the nature areas is the last possible harbour expansion
measure. Within this measure the participant of the game is extending the port on the mainland
towards the nature areas of the area (see chapter 4.2.1).
One way to visualize harbour expansion towards the nature areas is by transforming the present
wetlands of the game into a harbour basin area (Figure 18). To do so, the existing berthing
basins are extended alongside the green space next to the cities outer skirts. By doing so, the
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participant sees that the green space if transformed into man-made structures, while the extra
area of berthing basins visualizes a bigger capacity of the harbour.
Figure 18: Locations of harbour extensions towards the natural areas.
Navigation: Channel maintenance/dredging
Another measure the participant can choose in the game is channel maintenance. A detailed
description of the measure can be found in chapter 4.2.2.
The easiest way to symbolize channel maintenance/dredging to the participant of the game is
by introducing channel dredging vessels next to the channels (Figure 19). The channel
dredging vessels can constantly look like they are dredging by letting sand flow out at the back
of the vessel.
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Figure 19: Dredging vessels next to the shipping channels
Coastal Protection: Additional nourishment
Additional nourishment is mostly conducted on the Wadden islands in order to balance the
erosion problems. To do so, dredging vessels are used which deploy the sand on the wanted
location (see chapter 4.2.3)
The easiest way to visualize to the participant of the ESSG that sand nourishment is conducted,
is by introducing dredging vessels in front of the islands (Figure 20). Since the left-sided island
has already a wider beach, it would be suitable to place the dredging boats there. This is because
there would be more space which would make it look more open and not cramped on the map.
Figure 20: Location of the sand nourishment vessel in the game
Environmental measures: Renewable energy
As mentioned in chapter 4.2.4, there are three different types of renewable energies present in
the Wadden region: BlueEnergy, tidal energy and wind energy. However, visualizing hydro-
power is very difficult, especially in the developed design of the game. Consequently, the most
feasible visualization of renewable energies is by introducing wind wheels to the game.
However, since wind energy is prohibited within the nature conservation of the Wadden Sea
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the most suitable location for the wind wheels is behind the barrier islands (Figure 21). A wind
wheel park could be created there when the participant of the game decides that he/she wants
to invest in renewable energy. To do so, introducing 5-8 wind wheel sin the selected area
probably would be enough in order for the participant to see a change.
Figure 21: Location of Wind Park for the renewable energy measure
Environmental measures: Habitat creation
As mentioned in chapter 4.2.4, there are two major restoration and creation habitats in focus in
the Wadden Sea region. The first one is creating/restoring seagrass habitats while the other one
is focusing on wetland restoration. However, wetland restoration is very tricky to visualize,
especially in the basic design of the game. This is because the wetland areas look already very
green and healthy. Nevertheless, introducing seagrass beds to the game is a suitable possibility.
The Seagrass beds can be introduced to the area in front of both islands (Figure 22, left). A lot
of space used for water is providing a suitable location for the implementation of this measure.
When looking at seagrass bed pictures taken with a drone or by plane, it can be seen that
seagrass beds look like dark patches in the water (Figure 22, right). This is included into the
game. However, making them more green-bluish with some structure would make look the
beds more natural.
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Figure 22: Left: Location of seagrass beds. Right: foto of seagrass beds from above
Governance: Pollution limits
There is no visualization developed for this measure. Visualizing pollution limits/policies is
very tricky, especially in an environment without industry present. According to experts the
most suitable solution is to not visualize these pollution limits and focus on the other measures.
Infrastructure: Roads
Infrastructures, and especially roads, are sparsely distributed within the Wadden region. Still,
most tourists arrive in the region by car, which makes roads a necessary part of the region (see
chapter 4.2.6). One suitable way to visualize the participant of the game that roads are
developed is by turning the present country roads into highway like roads. This is done for two
roads in the game, the one connecting the cities with each other and the road leading to the
upper city (Figure 23). The other roads are kept in a country road style so the participant still
sees the development done.
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Figure 23: Roads that are developed into highways
Infrastructure: Tourist Accommodations
One of the limiting factors in Wadden Island tourism is the capacity of accommodations (see
chapter 4.2.6). To tackle this problem, the participant of the game has the opportunity to create
new tourist accommodations on the island. To visualize that, currently used nature area on the
island is transformed into housing areas, similar to the ones present in the cities. A suitable spot
is the green space on the right hand island, as no measure takes place there yet and enough
space for some tourist accommodations is given (Figure 24). Also, the participant realizes that
by building the tourist accommodations that the nature areas are suffering.
Figure 24: Location for the development of tourist accommodations
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Mining: Gas mining
Gas mining is one of the big topics in the Wadden Sea. On the one hand it brings economical
revenue, on the other it could harm the ‘brand’ of the Wadden Sea area and the environment
(see chapter 4.2.7). However, the participant of the game has still the possibility to choose this
measure. The most straightforward way to visualize the participant of the game that gas mining
is supported or further developed is by introducing gas rigs to the game. The most suitable spot
for a gas rig would be on the right hand side of the right island (Figure 25). This is because no
other measure takes place there yet, and within that no measure is overlapping.
Figure 25: Left: Location for gas rigs in the game. Right: example of gas rig
Mining: Sand & shell mining
Sand and shell mining is mostly conducted to dredge the shipping channels and/or for coastal
protection, regularly happening near the edges of islands (see chapter 4.2.7). In order to
visualize this to the participant, river boats can be visualized behind the right-hand island.
These river boats are filled with sand in order to visualize the participant that sand has been
extracted from the area.
Figure 26: Right: Location of river boats that carry sand from extraction. Right: Example of
river boat filled with sand
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Interface
Another important component in the visualization of the ESSG is the actual interface of the
game. The interface is defined by the Oxford Dictionary as ‘a point where two systems,
subjects, organizations, etc. meet and interact’. In relation to gaming this means the interaction
between the game and something else, most of the time as well as here this is the participant of
the game. However, the interface is very broadly defined. It can be the visual components on a
screen that is readable by the participant (i.e. HUDs, avatars, text, etc.), the visual areas that
can be interacted with (i.e. characters that can be moved, buttons that can be pressed, etc.), non-
visual feedback (i.e. sound) and non-screen inputs like controllers (Sorensen, 2016).
However, for the ESSG the interface is the interaction of the game with the participant
regarding input options for the participant and feedback possibilities for the game. This is
because the visual areas that can be interacted with are described in earlier visualization
chapters, sound is absent and the input method is the mouse from the computer the game is
played on. Therefore, just one major interaction point is missing. How does the layer implement
the wanted measures and how, despites the visual component, does he/she receive feedback?
This question is addressed in the following.
The interface of the ESSG is very much orientated from the PoFSG as it serves with the needed
elements. The interface of the game is very basic. There are three elements in the top left corner
which can be interacted with (Figure 27, red circle). On the far left a clock can be seen. This
clock is used as a time indication for the participant as it gives information about how long the
game (or the round of the game has been going on). The icon in the middle is the most important
direct interaction between the participant and the game. The card icon symbolizes the possible
measures that can be implemented within the ESSG. The ESSG is a mixture out of cards, where
the measures are written on, and the computer software (see chapter 4.4.2). However, cards
cannot be simply transferred into the computer. With the card icon this is possible. When the
participant clicks on the cards, a menu opens with all possible measures that the participant
could implement. By clicking on the measure the participant of the game then chooses the one
he wants to implement. When the round is done and all measures are chosen, the participant
can click on the last of the three icons, the hourglass. When the participant clicks on the
hourglass, the chosen measures are implemented and the visual components are updated
(depending on the new score for the indicators and the impact of the measure itself).
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Figure 27: Screenshot of the interface of the PoFSG on the ESSG. Red circled area:
Interaction Interface of the game. Black circle: ES feedback
So we are at a stage that the participant can choose measures and implement them. He/she will
hereupon get visual feedback within the game (see chapter 4.4.1, from page 132 & 140).
However, people are all about scores and feedback that is not up to interpretation. To satisfy
this need, the four icons on the right hand side are used (Figure 27, black circle). For the PoFSG
the three indicators have been people, planet and profit (which are represented by the first three
icons from the left). For this ESSG, the indicators, though have changed. The indicators are
aquaculture, habitats and tourism, representing the PRC ES. Therefore, the icons are updated
to fit the need of the game (Figure 28). When looking at Figure 28, the three icons represent,
from left to right, provisioning ES (aquaculture), regulating & maintenance ES (habitats), and
cultural ES (tourism). Therefore, icons need to be used, which represent not only the indicators,
but also the ES as a whole, in order to make them suitable for future versions of the game.
Finally, the icon on the far right side resembles the resource the participant has available for
implementing measures. In the case of the ESSG this is not evaluated. However,
recommendations, regarding the resource limitation for the game, are given in chapter 0, page
181.
All icons are chosen regarding their informative value. Aquaculture is associated with fish and
shellfish, which also resembles the aquaculture sector of the Wadden Sea. Consequently, an
icon is chosen that reflects this while keeping in mind that it can also be used at later stages of
the game. The icon should not only depict aquaculture, but provisioning ES in general.
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However, due to difficulties a shell is chosen as it resembles food and the mussel aquaculture
sector in general. Secondly, the habitat icon (Figure 28, second from the left) should express
habitats and regulating & maintenance ES as a whole. Regulating & maintenance ES are
associated with environmental processes. Therefore, a green acorn leave is chosen, as it is most
likely to be associated with nature and the environment, and within that habitats and regulating
& maintenance ES. The last icon for expressing the different ES is the icon for the cultural ES
(Figure 28, third icon from the left). Two masks are chosen as they are used on many tourist
maps. Two masks are the universal symbol of cultural activities. As it may not be the most
suitable to represent the cultural indicator of tourism, it serves the overall goal to represent
cultural ES, and within that can also be used in later stages of the game. Finally, the resource
value, for implementing measures, has to be visualized. The resource limitation idea is defined
as growth (see chapter 0). A simple way to indicate growth is by using an arrow, as it is the
universal sign for (economic) growth (Figure 28, far right).
Figure 28: Feedback interface of the ESSG. From left to right: Provisioning ES
(aquaculture), Regulating & Maintenance ES (habitats), Culture ES (tourism) and the
resource component (growth).
4.4.2 Gameplay
The gameplay of the demo version of the ESSG is very much like the one of the PoFSG.
However, instead of managing a port, the participants of the game are managing a protected
area, in this case the Wadden Sea. The main goal for the participants is to balance the ESs in
the projected area. Therefore, the three indicators of provisioning ES (aquaculture), regulating
& maintenance (habitats), and culture ES (tourism) are used. Different measures impact the
indicators differently (see chapter 4.2) and within that, the participant has a variety of options
how to develop the gaming environment. To do so, several rounds (no specific limit, but 2-3
rounds are advised) can be played to further and further implement measures and therefore
change the environment and the ES in the game. Three different versions for the gameplay are
developed. One is based on the gameplay of the PoFSG, especially the division of participants,
while the other version also aims at the same base design of the game but the division of
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participants and their role is different. Finally, interested people should also be able to explore
how development measures in the Wadden Sea impact the present ESs.
Gameplay scenario I: Multiplayer
Before developing the environment, the participants are divided into different stakeholder
groups. The recommended amount of stakeholder groups for the alpha version is meant to be
about 2-3. Per stakeholder group there should not be more than five participants, which results
in a maximum number of participants of about 10-15. However, more people can make the
game more difficult to play. It is believed that smaller groups contribute greatly to the learning
process of the participants as the game gets more interactive on an individual level.
Nevertheless, the alpha version is aimed at testing the game with a smaller audience, since only
a restricted amount of measures are available.
Every stakeholder group now has a wide variety of management options in front of them, sorted
in the seven categories named 1) Port expansion, 2) Navigation, 3) Coastal protection, 4)
Environmental measures, 5) Governance, 6) Infrastructure and 7) mining. This results in about
12 different management options to choose from. On each management option card a short
description of the strategy is given, as well as the scores for the different ES, as well as the
possible limiting resource factor of growth. The scores reflect how the management strategy is
affecting the provisioning ES (aquaculture), the regulating & maintenance ES (habitats) and
the culture ES (tourism) positively (+), negatively (-) or neutral (0). The cards show the average
impact on the ES, however, the impact on the sub-indicators behind the general number are
hidden from the participants. An example of a card from the PoFSG can be seen in Figure 29,
since the cards for the ESSG are not produced yet.
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Figure 29: Example of a playing card of the PoFSG
Now, the game is about to start. Every stakeholder group is given 15minutes (time can be
alternated to fit the purpose of the game) in the first round. The individual stakeholder groups
have now the task to choose two out of the twelve management options. While doing that, the
individual stakeholder groups should not forget their personal interest. Every group has to
develop the environment, as the game states in the beginning that there is a need for
development. However, different stakeholders mostly have different goals they want to
achieve. Some common used stakeholder groups used in the PoFSG are for example
environmentalists (i.e. WWF) or profit oriented organizations (i.e. banks). Within that, a
conflict is emerging as every stakeholder might choose different management strategies. Of
course, the ones that are mostly fitting into the individual interests. Each stakeholder group is
asked to choose two management strategies (which can result up to 6 different management
solutions, dependent on how many stakeholder groups the game is divided into). However,
only one-two management options in total will be chosen. Since every stakeholder wants their
management strategy to be implemented, the stakeholder groups are asked to prepare five
arguments per management strategy.
In addition to the personal interests of the stakeholders and the need for development, extra
events are introduced into the game. This is done by newspaper articles which are chosen by
the facilitator (see chapter 0). Within that, the facilitator has the chance to influence and steer
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the game into a desired direction. Examples of these events could be that the water is polluted,
that the sea level is rising, that the environmental quality is decreasing and many more.
However, these cards do not have a direct effect on the game, but rather on the behaviour of
the participants. However, participants might also choose to ignore these events, which would
not have a direct effect on the game.
Once the time is over, one representative of each stakeholder group (team leaders) is asked to
step in front of the participants and discuss their chosen management option with the other
stakeholder groups. Who the team-leaders are can be chosen by the facilitator of the game or
by the stakeholder groups themselves. This is mostly dependent on the participating audience
and on the aim of the game. When there is a high hierarchy within the audience it might be
better that the facilitator is choosing the team leaders. Within that, also the real-life hierarchy
order can be twisted, which can be an interesting procedure. However, this is up to the
facilitator. Once each stakeholder group has one representative in front, they each get two
minutes to explain who they are, what their interests are, what management strategy they chose
and why they chose the specific management strategy. Once every stakeholder representative
conducted this step, all representatives will get 5-7minutes to discuss which option to choose.
When the time is over, the team leaders have to decide on which two (and only one-two out of
them all) will be implemented.
After the representatives of the stakeholder groups have decided which two development
strategies to use, the facilitators are entering the cards in the system, which then provides direct
feedback on the status of the three ES. Additionally, the participants will get visual feedback
in the form of a changing environment (see chapter 4.4.1, from page 132 & 140). Afterwards,
a new round begins. Again, the facilitator has the option now to provide the participants with
newspaper articles, in order to introduce another event to the game. It is also possible to give
different stakeholders different events. However, this was not tested this workshop so no
further information on this matter can be provided.
When the events took place, the individual stakeholder groups get 5-10 minutes to again react
to the event and the situation in order to improve the port. Again, one development strategies
are chosen per individual stakeholder group, of which in the end one-two in total will be chosen.
However, now the participants can also directly react to the feedback derived from the game.
When for example the scores for provisioning and culture ES are good and satisfying, but the
score for the regulating & maintenance ES is not, then the stakeholder groups might want to
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invest more in the regulating & maintenance ES in order to achieve the overall goal of a
balanced environment
This process is repeated until the intended time for the workshop is reached. After the game, it
is wise to have a debriefing session in which the participants and the facilitator can reflect on
learning outcomes, challenges, concerns, feedback, ideas and so on.
Gameplay scenario II: Multiplayer
The second version of how to play the game is very similar to the first one. The major difference
though is that the participants of the game stay in the role they have in real life. The game is
mainly addressed to policy makers and protected area managers and should teach them about
how anthropogenic measures impact the ES.
To experience this, the participants don’t need to change the role. The participants should aim
on discussing different options, implement them and see how these measures are affecting the
ES of the area. Within that, the participants of the game can experience how man-made
measures impact the environment and they can take that lesson with them when planning for
an area in real life again.
Gameplay scenario III: Single player
In general, the ESSG is aimed to be played with a variety of protected area managers, policy-
and decision makers in order to raise awareness regarding the current state of the ES that are
present in the Wadden Sea region, how man-made development measures affect these ES and
finally what management responses the participants of the game have. To transmit all this
knowledge, it is aimed at playing the game with a facilitator who is guiding the participants
through the game, while explaining interrelations and possible outcomes. However, it should
not be the case that the game can only played with multiple people. Anybody, who would be
interested in this topic should have the chance to explore this gaming environment and learn
about all the possible interactions that are present in such a unique environment. Nevertheless,
it assumed that people who play this serious game play it in order to explore the environment
and all the interactions that are possible. Consequently, it is very difficult to place specific rules
on top of this game to make the gaming experience in a single player modus even better.
Additionally, till now the game is created to be a mix out of cards and digital resources which
allows the player of the game to learn about the impacts of development measures on the
environment. However, a person playing the game at home alone will not have the ability to
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obtain these cards. To make a single player version possible more development has to take
place, in order to also create a complete digital version (***)
Despite this fact, a single person will still be able to play the game and explore management
options and related impacts to the ESs of the region. As in the other gaming versions, the player
will still be possible to introduce measures and develop the area according to his preferences.
By implementing the measures, he will still receive visual, as well as, numerical feedback.
However, the development of the ESSG is still in its fledgling shoes. Therefore, it is assumed
that the game will take some time to be developed completely in order to get a perfectly running
version. Till this point it is assumed that also a single player modus can be introduced if the
client wishes to develop the game in this direction.
4.4.3 In-game newspaper scenarios
The participants of the game are working together to achieve a balanced and sustainable
ecosystem. As mentioned before, the participants have a variety of anthropogenic measures in
order to influence current ES implemented in the game. Depending on the progress of the game,
the facilitator might need to steer the game in the wanted direction. In order to be able to steer
participants in a more suitable direction, several scenarios have been developed. These
scenarios are brought to the participants via newspaper articles.
The newspaper articles originate from a fictional local newspaper agency, here called “The
Wadden News”. These newspaper articles include relevant news regarding new policy
development for the area and/or report about current developments in the gaming environment.
Within that, the facilitator can take the focus of the player to another relevant topic that needs
more elaboration within the game. However, it has to be noted that the individual newspaper
articles do not have a direct impact of the game per se, but only encourages the participants to
think in a different direction. Therefore, the participants also have the option to ignore these
newspaper articles, if they really feel like the development of the gaming environment should
take a different path.
All newspaper articles have relevant information regarding the ES used in the game, as well as
the possible anthropogenic measures the participants have as development options. The
newspaper articles derived from two main sources. First, similar steering methods of the
PoFSG have been used to gain inspiration on how these newspaper articles could look like.
Additionally, reports regarding scenario development in the Wadden Sea region have been
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used in order to find plausible scenarios that not only fit the ES indicators and anthropogenic
measures in the game, but also support current developments in the Wadden region with
respects to possible development in the near future (Wortelboer & Bischof, 2012). Some
examples with explanations are given in the following sections. However, the newspaper
articles are seen as self-explaining. Therefore, all newspaper articles of the “Wadden News”
can be found in Appendix XIII.
1) The Wadden News - Water quality: The vast growing tourism industry led to more
pollution of the intertidal area, Aquaculture farms report a decrease in mussel qualities.
Within this scenario, the facilitator of the game steers the focus of the participants away from
further developing the tourism sector, but rather focuses on environmental and especially
aquaculture specific developments. Therefore, it is assumed that tourism has developed
strongly within the game and other ES are left behind. This rise in tourism, in turn, has led to
higher pollution in the area, which affected the mussel farming industry of the area and the
player is advised to take action.
2) The Wadden News - Pressure: The fairways of the intertidal area are silting up faster
than expected. Ferry organizations experience delays and navigational difficulties.
Within this newspaper article it is mentioned that current fairways in the gaming environment
are setting up faster than it has been expected. This is putting immense pressure on the present
ferry sector as they have difficulties operating in this environment. With a higher siltation, the
risk of delays, caused by increasingly difficult navigational operations, is increasing.
Additionally, with higher siltation, also bigger boats have difficulties manoeuvre through the
present channels. Therefore, the participants of the game are steered in a direction that focuses
on tourism, and more specific on the ferry tourism sector of the game.
3) The Wadden News - Public Concerns: The wildlife and the overall quality of life of the
area are declining. Inhabitants and environmental action groups are raising their voices.
Within this newspaper article, current public concerns regarding the environmental health of
the area are brought to the participants. It is assumed that the environmental ES have been
negatively impacted, resulting in a needed change. To underline this statement, the participants
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are given the information of public concerns, which has no impact on the game per se, but
stimulates the participants to steer in the wanted direction.
4.4.4 Remote sensing as a possibility for data evaluation
Within this research, the current state of the ES in the Wadden Sea derived from an extensive
literature review. This resulted in a trend-analysis of indicator variables and how they changed
over time, including to what state they can be found nowadays. However, this approach is
questionable as, especially biodiversity and habitat quality, are inherently difficult to quantify.
One approach that is more and more used throughout the scientific community, to determine
changes in habitat quality and biodiversity, is remote sensing. The most approaches that aim
on quantifying the biodiversity of a specific ecosystem use the quantification methods of either:
(1) the diversity of a specific taxonomic group (species, functional groups, etc.); or (2) the
deviation from an ideal reference state of the studied environment (Zlinksy, Heilmeier, Balzter,
Czúcz, & Pfeifer, 2017). Especially, the second approach is widely used throughout policy-
and decision making. However, according to Zlinsky et al., (2017) there are two main working
definitions that try to operationalize quantifying the biodiversity of a specific area:
• “Habitat quality” which refers to a concept which is widely used in ecology and
conservation. It is defined as the “ability of the environment to provide conditions
appropriate for individual and population persistence” (Johnson M. D., 2007)
• “Conservation status” which refers to a concept that is the most favoured one by
protected area managers. It is defined as “the sum of the influences acting on a natural
habitat and its typical species that may affect its long-term natural distribution, structure
and functions as well as the long-term survival of its typical species within the territory”
(Zlinsky et al., 2017; http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX%3A31992L0043&qid=1490526752014&from=e
n)
There are many additional concepts that are aiming at quantifying habitat quality and
biodiversity, including “vegetation condition, naturalness, and ecological integrity” (Zlinsky et
al., 2017). However, all these concepts have one major thing in common: they need to integrate
the complex information derived from ecosystem properties and produce an output mechanism
that is taking the individual importance of these properties into account when weighting and
summing up all integrated information. To include this kind of information for specific
ecosystems requires very efficient, standardized and reliable data collection, in order to make
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it more reliable. This is especially true for bog conservation areas like the European Natura
2000 program, which also is a major part of the Wadden Sea study area. Traditionally,
necessary information was taken from field studies. This, however, is a very time-demanding
exercise, while the precision of the collected data is questionable and very difficult to evaluate
due to inter-subjective differences (Lengyel, et al., 2008). Furthermore, it is very difficult to
obtain data regarding many habitat values via field studies. This led to a rise of a new
technology to obtain needed habitat data, called remote sensing. Remote sensing is defined by
NOAA as the science of obtaining information about objects or areas from distance (NOAA,
2015). This can be done in several ways. However, the most common ones are via aircraft or
satellite. This enables scientists to obtain necessary data very time efficient and accurate data
for a large scale. Additionally, remote sensing generates repeatable results with a quantified
accuracy (Zlinsky et al., 2017). Within that, remote sensing becomes more and more popular
throughout the scientific community and is increasingly contributing to obtain relevant data for
habitat quality monitoring (i.e. identification and quantification of species, structures, and
objects).
Regardless the progress of remote sensing as a suitable data collection method, there are still
challenges when it comes to habitat quality monitoring. However, these challenges can be
tackled with remote sensing. Zlinsky et al., (2017) identified three different levels regarding
the information processing of challenges to monitor habitat quality. The first level is the one
that is most widely studied throughout the scientific community. It refers to identifying the
location of habitats which are of major interest. Obtaining relevant data from traditional
methods (field research) can result in inaccuracy of the collected data. New development in
remote sensing, however, promises new methods to analyse habitat locations on a national,
regional and local scale. Lindgren et al., (2015) provided an example of how data integration
from remote sensing can contribute to inventorying the systematic landscape on a national
scale. The second level for determining habitat quality is by mapping environmental,
ecophysical or biometric variables of habitats that are of interest (Zlinsky et al., 2015). This is
also a difficult business when conducting such data collection by field studies. As said, field
studies are very time-demanding and the ecosystem and its habitats are ever changing, which
can result in inaccurate data which cannot be replicated often enough to be used for adequate
policy making of protected area management. However, technological development in remote
sensing technologies allows scientists to use new sensors and new processing algorithms. This
results in possibility to map main drivers of habitat quality at a wide range of spatial scales. An
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example of this technology can be derived from Mandlburger et al., (2015) who combined
airborne laser bathymetry with hydrodynamic models. This resulted in models created at micro-
habitat as well as the meso-habitat scales in order to predict fish habitats. The third and final
level is using ecological knowledge regarding variables that influence habitat quality to create
models. Remote sensing in combination with Geographical Information Systems (GIS) is used
to measure these variables and create finale habitat quality maps. Especially for the
“conservation status” it is very important that the biodiversity of an area is verified. Typically,
this was done by analysing the abundance and presence of specific species of interest. However,
with remote sensing it is also possible to take different approaches. Looking at bird populations,
which are also a big variable in the Wadden Sea, new technologies derived from deploying
networks of nest boxes with scales. This resulted in an accurate measurement of the breeding
success, and within that a more accurate population monitoring scheme (Hill & Hinsley, 2015).
By now, we live in a society where remote sensing evolved so fast that multiple indicator
datasets have been created. This allows scientists to investigate possible synergies and trade-
offs of different habitat qualities. This can be done from a perspective of several taxonomic
and functional groups (Zlinksy et al., 2015). Nevertheless, field studies are still needed,
especially for large monitoring projects in which many ecologically relevant variables are
considered to lay outside of the possibilities of remote sensing. One monitoring program this
is applicable to is the Natura 2000 initiative founded by the European Commission. Every EU
member state creates their own guidelines in order established a field-based conservation status
monitoring. As said, the possibilities of remote sensing are seen as less appropriate for such
monitoring schemes. However, studies have found a way to use the airborne Light Detection
and Ranging (LiDAR) to successfully map 12 out of 13 conservation status parameters which
were requested in the guidelines for the local field-based monitoring (Zlinsky et al., 2017).
As can be observed, remote sensing in combination with GIS can result in quick accessible,
area-covering information on different ecosystem variables that determine the overall habitat
quality of an area. However, remote sensing cannot and is not aiming at replacing field related
studies and monitoring approaches. But the combination of them both can result in an
optimization of the process, including amongst others the detection of change and pre-selecting
sites of interest. However, by standardizing data collected via remote sensing methods,
quantitative habitat parameters can be analysed with a higher accuracy and reliability than in
the field, resulting in results that are less subject to substantially (Zlinsky et al., 2017). An
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example of such an habitat map is illustrated in Figure 30. As can be seen, different habitat
types are coloured differently. The different habitat types have been classified by by the
European Commission and consequently valid for whole Europe. All different habitat types
can be found in the “Interpretation Manual of European Union Habitats” published by the
European Commission (Commission, 2007). However, such habitat maps can be created in
order to show the changes between different years. Consequently, even minor changes can be
observed, leading to a time-efficient and accurate analysis of the habitat quality.
Figure 30: Example habitat map of North-Terschelling. Habitat types according to the
classification of the European Council. Derived from Deltares, property of Rijkswaterstaat
This development in remote sensing technologies has resulted in them being more used for
governance and planning at national, regional and local scales. Or to put it in the words of
Zlinsky et al., (2015): “If habitat quality maps can be integrated into decision support systems
and if their accuracy is convincing, they will allow the conservation of biodiversity and ESs to
be taken into account by governance of spatially explicit way”. And this can be a big step not
only for conservation of the biodiversity of an area and the ES it provides, but it can also be a
big possibility for SG, like the ESSG. By using time efficient, highly accurate habitat quality
maps as indications of the current state of ES of a specific area, more adaptable SG can be
created. By using remote sensing to generate quality maps of a specific area, small changes in
habitat quality can be detected. By doing so, current field-based monitoring standards, i.e.
derived from the Natura 2000 framework, which is also from great importance for the Wadden
Sea area, can be implemented into the game. This would result in an easier assessment of the
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current state of ES for the game. Therefore, the initial state of the ES of the game would not be
based on literature review and trend analysis, but rather on actual quality maps that comprise
standardized measuring methods. Within that, it seems to be possible to create new algorithms,
especially for the SG that detect these changes and convert them into suitable values for the
SG.
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5 Discussion, management recommendations & Limitations
5.1 Discussion and management recommendations
This thesis project investigated the ability of the concept of SG as a data analysis tool in the
context of ES valuation. Advantages and disadvantages of combining data within the SG
platform have been identified and are discussed in this chapter. First, the result of the data
assimilation for the ESSG developed particularly for this study will be reviewed. The
knowledge gained from these results, can then be extended to aid in the application of SGs into
ES research in general.
A thorough literature research was first implemented, which identified how the chosen example
ES indicators are interlinked. On top of that, development trends between 2004 and 2009 were
determined based on the scientific literature. This allowed for an analysis of how these changes
within the context of the three ES indicators could evaluate functions as baseline information
for the ESSG. This generated results, which highlighted the heterogeneity in data availability
for the different ES indicators. For some of the indicators, such as tourism (or more specifically
overnight stays), a lot of data were available in the scientific literature, whereas for the other
indicators such as aquaculture (or more specifically, numbers of employees), less precise/in
depth information was available. These findings are in line with those of de Groot, Wilson &
Boumans (2002), who pointed out that different types of ESs are documented to a different
degree and precision in the literature. This wide-distribution of information generated via
different methods and with different priorities, aggravated the analysis of the existing data (de
Groot et al., 2002). Developing the baseline properties for the ESSG required accumulating,
interpreting and assimilating all information available for the different indicators. In this way,
it appears that developing an SG for ES analysis provides a means of critically reflecting on
existing knowledge about the ES of interest, on the one hand. On the other hand, it seems that
the ESSG provides an environment in which different types of data derived from the literature
can be combined into one medium. Furthermore, it was demonstrated how this multitude of
information can be assimilated into one tool, where ES values can be equally assigned
regardless of the amount and type of data available per ES indicator. This seems to aid ES
research, particularly in the light of combining ES from the different CICES sections, which
has been described as problematic in the scientific literature (i.e. Haines-Young & Potschin,
2012; Admiraal, Wssink, de Groot & de Snoo, 2013).
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Building on the ability to combine data from various types of literature for ES indicators, this
study further demonstrated the opportunity to integrate literature-derived information with
expert knowledge. This ability to integrate several different sources of data is inherently
beneficial in the context of ES research, since, as discussed above, information is not
homogeneously available in the literature for all ES indicators. This suggests that the ESSG,
and SG in general, can be valuable tools for data gathering and analysis. They appear to provide
a good environment for developing complete data sets by bringing together several sources of
existing information. However, when comparing the scores provided by the experts with the
scores assigned based on the literature, the expert’s scores were much more conservative in
contrast to the scores derived from the literature. These discrepancies could have multiple
explanations. One explanation could be that the experts were reluctant to assign more drastic
scores due to biases. Nevertheless, this also points out that using SG as a tool for gathering
information from different sources can be highly useful in finding common ground. This
inclusion of data from sources that vary in opinion and bias allows for a more balanced outcome
to be achieved.
This inclusion of data from various sources has another major advantage for evaluating ESs for
a specific area, which is to be able to analyse different ESs regardless the amount of data
available. Most data sources vary between ESs themselves, meaning that there are different
types of data available for different ESs. One example is the difference in data gathered for
tourism and that gathered for habitats. When looking at tourism, it can be observed that all data
gathered, let it be for overnight stays or ferry tourism, tend mainly to be focused on empirical
data sets. This means, for example, that for the sub-indicator of overnight stays exact numbers
are provided that show the exact decline and/or growth of nights spend on the islands. The
same can be recognized when looking at the aquaculture indicator of net weight of production.
Also, here, specific changes between years can be easily identified and evaluated. In addition,
both of these data sets can be directly related to monetary value, which is one of the major
discussion points when it comes to valuating ESs. It would be highly beneficial to introduce a
method that moves away from this monetary value assigned to ESs, since the ecosystem
approach or the ecosystem service paradigm are to be implemented on national levels. This,
however, is easier said than done. As mentioned, there are different types of ESs and not all of
them can be assigned a monetary value. ESs like tourism and aquaculture production, both
have a direct monetary output, which makes it easy to assess. Other ESs, like habitat
heterogeneity or other cultural ES like the aesthetic of a region or the spiritual value assigned
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to a landscape do not have direct monetary values assigned to them. Nevertheless, these ESs
provide humans with various benefits while also supporting the rise of other ESs (i.e. a good
habitat heterogeneity can result in more tourism). This problem is widely acknowledged
throughout the scientific community. A study conducted by Small, Munday & Durance (2016)
investigated the challenge of valuing ecosystem services that have no material benefits. They
suggest that if an ES definition based on beneficiary is used in the future area management,
society needs to find a way to measure value beyond that of monetary values. They argue that
it would be beneficial to use a method that focuses on the change in ecosystem services rather
than simply on the delivery of said services. One method that aims to address these challenges
is provided within this research. By using SG as a data-gathering tool all ESs can be evaluated
regardless of the monetary value that is assigned to them. A meta-analysis was used in this
research at hand to determine the current or initial state of ESs in the Wadden Sea. By doing
so, empirical data, as well as data gathered from literature, were used to identify trends and
changes regarding the specific ESs analyses. By doing so, positive and negative values could
be assigned to identify the trends. Therefore, it was not necessary to appoint specific monetary
values in order to determine the current or initial state of ESs. It is still possible to identify the
trends in changes to all ESs in a specific region without these monetary values. Therefore,
using SG in combination with meta-analyses as an analytical tool can help to assess and
visualize these trends and changes, which might be more important than the actual monetary
value they provide to society. Daily et al., (2009) argue that all ESs in a specific area are
important for human well-being as they are all interconnected. Therefore, in order to keep the
overall ecosystem and its services function, we need a change in policy and decision-making
processes towards not only focussing on the ESs with the highest monetary value, but focussing
instead on the ESs that are degrading over time and in need of the most support. This can be
achieved by using the SG in combination with meta-analysis as it shows how the ESs are
developing and which ESs have to be developed in order to achieve a balance for the overall
ecosystem.
It has been observed here that SG can be used as a platform for the integration of data different
sources while moving away from a monetary evaluation of ESs. However, when looking at the
different indicators used in the developed ESSG several points of discussion arise, which will
shortly be elaborated upon for every indicator used in this research. To do so, the relation
between the anthropogenic activities used and the impact on the individual indicators and sub-
indicators have to be investigated. When looking at the relation between the impacts of the
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measures on the aquaculture indicators it can be realized that seven out of twelve measures
have negative impacts while only two measures reveal themselves to have positive impacts and
two measures have no impact on the indicator. Within that, it makes it very difficult for the
player of the game to positively develop the aquaculture sector. It can be argued that this
outcome derives from the measures that have been implemented within this ESSG. The
measures used in this ESSG originate from one specific report by Sas et al., (2016), which
identified the most common anthropogenic development measures that are conducted within
the Wadden Sea region. Consequently, it has not been investigated what specific management
options and measures for developing the aquaculture sector are present in the Wadden Sea
region. This is one major reason why it seems like the ESSG is unbalanced when analysing the
impacts on the individual indicators. Future research regarding the development of the ESSG
should therefore focus on implementing measures that specifically focus on the development
of a specific indicator. Within that, the player of the game would have a greater variety of
measures available, while being able to choose different pathways that might suit the situation
more. This might be especially true when looking at the difference between the original impact
matrix and the impact matrix derived from expert knowledge. Both indicate these negative
impacts, regardless if experts choose a more conservative approach. In general, it can be said
that on the one hand the ESSG shows the impact resulting from the selected measures on the
aquaculture sector, but on the other hand it can be observed that almost none of the measures
are actually focusing on the development of the sector. However, when looking at the specific
impact on the sub-indicators it can also be recognized that aquaculture as a representative
indicator for provisioning ESs might not be the ideal indicator. This became clear when looking
specifically at the impacts the selected measures have on the sub-indicator ‘number of
employees’. This indicator was chosen since previous studies indicated that the change in
number of employees can indicate if the sector shows changes not only in the production, but
also in the size of the company and within that the people that benefit from it (i.e. ElSerafy et
al., 2016). However, when looking at the way the measures impact this sub-indicator it can be
recognized that only three measures actually have an influence while nine had no impact on
the sub-indicator. Within that, it is nearly impossible to actually influence this sub-indicator in
the game. Consequently, the question arises if this sub-indicator is the most suitable to use.
Therefore, future research should investigate the possibility to replace this indicator with once
that have a higher information value attached to them. Another possibility would be to add
more indicators that together determine the progress and current state of the provisioning ES.
When looking at other SG, like the Port of the Future Serious Game (PoFSG), it can be realized
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that they use more than one indicator. In this case, a total of three indicators per classification
are used, which combined show the impacts of selected measures (Liagkouras, 2016).
However, in this research the possibility of gathering and data from various sources has been
investigated. While it can be recognized that this is possible, it also showed that it has to be
carefully elaborated, which indicators are the once with the most information value attached to
them. This shows that previous research can be used to identify possible indicators, but an
analysis has to be made in order to see if these indicators are suitable for the wanted purpose.
As it is the case for the ESSG, it can be argued that the aquaculture indicator might not be the
most ideal one to show impacts on the overall provisioning ES classification. However, this
might also change when more measures are implemented into the game. Looking at the current
state of the ESSG it seems like that there is a need to replace aquaculture sub-indicator of
‘numbers of employees’ with more suitable ones.
A similar behaviour can be recognized when looking at the habitat indicators used in this study.
From all the twelve implemented measures, a total of eight have revealed themselves to have
negative impacts on the habitat indicators. Additionally, only two measures have positive
impacts, while also just two measures have no impact on the indicators at all. Again, it can be
recognized that it is very difficult to positively develop the habitat sector of the ESSG. Looking
at the measures themselves, it can be recognized that the same two measures (habitat creation
and pollution limits) are the once that have a positive impact on habitats and aquaculture.
Therefore, it seems like the measures implemented in the game are very unbalanced. This
stands in contrast with other SG, like the PoFSG, which include more measures and within that
a greater variety of impacts and possible management possibilities. In the ESSG it seems like
the only way to actively contribute to the habitats and aquaculture is by implementing the same
two measures which probably will impact the way the game can be played. At the state of this
research, it seems like the only gain from it is that it can be explored how the most commonly
conducted measures in the Wadden Sea are (negatively) influencing the indicators. However,
since it was the aim to gather and analyse data from different sources this must not be seen as
a negative outcome, as the game still shows the impact measures have on the selected
indicators, based on literature as well as expert knowledge. Nevertheless, the big picture of the
ESSG should be that a game is developed that can assist policy- and decision-makers in the
planning and developing process of a specific area. Therefore, it seems like that at this state
this will be difficult to achieve as there are not many measures focusing on the development of
habitats and aquaculture. Future studies should therefore focus on incorporating more
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sustainable measures into the game. When looking at the individual sub-indicators of the
habitat indicator, it can be recognized that the impacts of the measures are well distributed,
meaning that none of the sub-indicators is over or undervalued, as it was the case for the
‘number of employees’ indicator. This means that the SG platform shows that it is possible to
implement data from various sources and identify possible impacts from different measures
implemented. This in turn shows that habitats are a valid indicator to represent the regulating
and maintenance ESs. However, in this study, the initial state of the indicators derived purely
from literature. Changes and trends have been analysed using a meta-analysis. Within that it
was possible to include various habitat types into the development of this indicator, rather than
just focusing on one specific habitat type. However, the collection and analysis of these data is
very time-depending, resulting in analysis reports that are only published every couple of years.
Another idea that has been investigated in this research was to use earth observation (or remote
sensing) data as a possible input method. Studies showed that many of the current habitat
monitoring variables can actually derive from earth observation data (Zlinsky et al., 2015). It
would be very beneficial for the game if such data could be implemented into the game, as it
would allow faster updates of the initial state of the indicators. Additionally, studies have
shown that remote sensing can also be used to investigate the current conservation status of
habitats (Corbane, et al., 2014). Therefore, future research should investigate this possibility as
it could help to create an ESSG that can be updated quickly, while changes over small time
scales can be detected and incorporated into the game.
When focusing on the tourism indicators and how they are impacted by the sued measures
something completely different has been observed. All measures, except one, have revealed
themselves to have positive impacts on the tourism sector. This can be misleading though. As
for this state of the development it seems like that all measures only have positive impact on
tourism, which might be true but is making the game very unbalanced. Even if the only measure
that impacts tourism negatively is implemented, the score of the indicator will never fall below
0, which probably will be a problem for the future development of the game. Especially, when
looking at the impacts tourism has on existing habitats. Several scholars have investigated the
negative impacts of tourism on the environment (i.e. GhulamRabbany et al., 2003). However,
at the state of this game, it seems like that all measures benefit tourism without any
consequences, which is not the truth. When developing the tourism sector, also the
environmental surroundings will at some point experience negative consequences. This
relationship between the indicators themselves in the game is still missing. As mentioned
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everything is interconnected, especially in the Wadden Sea where tourism is highly dependent
on the surrounding wildlife and landscape (WSWH, 2016). It would be very beneficial for the
game to introduce this relationship. An example could be that if tourism is exceeding a certain
value, then the environment will degrade. Also the other way around, if the environment is
degraded to a certain value, tourism will decline as the main attraction is the habitat.
In general it could be observed that the measures tend to positively influence tourism, while
negatively influencing aquaculture and habitats. On the one hand, this shows the trade-off that
has to occur when developing, on the other hand it seems like the game is very unbalanced
when looking at different management options. Even if tourism should not be developed there
is no way around it. For the sake of this research, this does not matter that much. This research
still shows that it is possible to include data from various sources and types and include them
at one platform. However, the game should be used as a management tool in the future that can
assist policy- and decision-makers in the planning process of an area. While it has been
investigated that the indicators habitat and tourism might be suitable to represent the current
state of the ES classifications, it has been observed that aquaculture might not be the most
suitable, especially ‘numbers of employees’/ However, the game is still very unbalanced,
meaning that only tourism can be developed while some of the trade-offs are visible. However,
for the sake of the game, additional measures have to be implemented in order to balance the
game and give players a wider variety of choices in the management process.
When looking at related studies that try to combine SG with ecosystem services it can be seen
that the approach taken is different than usual. First of all it has to be mentioned that there is
not so much information available on the ES in serious gaming. However, the study by Carella,
Everett, Miller & Zanzanaini (2014) investigated the possibility to create a SG that focuses on
ES. However, the approach is very different. First of all, they use a fictional environment,
which is one of the major contrasts. Most SGs, not only limited to ES, are focusing on a
fictional environment with fictional data (i.e. PoFSG, Sustainable Delta Game, Zandmotor).
This in turn, can transmit a general concept but does not zoom into a specific location with
specific problems. The ESSG on the other hand is as non-fictional as possible. It uses specific
data for the Wadden Sea location, resulting in a real gaming environment. All information that
was fed into the game derives from related literature and expert knowledge, resulting in a
duplication of the real environment. In contrast to other SGs, that means that while player can
explore the general concept and the general impacts, it is possible with the ESSG to explore
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what is actually done in the Wadden Sea and how is it influencing the Wadden Sea
environment. Therefore, the ESSG takes the next step in combining and analysing data for a
specific area, while visualizing that as accurate as possible. Another point that is worth
mentioning is when looking in the way the other SG regarding ESs is constructed. The study
by Carella et al., (2014) is not using any ES classification. Additionally, they are not focusing
on a specific environment, but rather work with up-scaling, meaning that you start on a farm
and end in a basin. Throughout the game they introduce different ES like pollination and
nutrient cycle. Therefore, this game is taking a completely different approach. With every level
another component is introduced. Therefore, the major difference is that this game is that while
Carella et al., (2014) is showing different ESs, the ESSG actually shows currently available
ESs in a specific location and how these are alternated by development measures conducted.
5.2 Limitations
The proposed research is limited by several factors. First of all the time is a big limiting factor,
as it is for the most studies. The time frame of this proposed research is limited to 8 months
and should not be exceeded.
One of the biggest limitations was that it was not intended to actually test the game itself.
Within this thesis, the analytical backbone of the ESSG has been developed. This means that
within this research, the focal point was in analysing the indicators that are used in the game,
analyse their current state done via a meta-analysis based on literature. Additionally, suitable
development measures and their impact on the indicators have been analysed using also a meta-
analysis but here based on literature and expert knowledge. Within that a platform for
management decisions was created that can help communicating the concept of ES to policy-
and decision-makers of areas with high value. However, this thesis was not intended to test if
the game output is increasing the awareness of the participants. The focal point of this research
was to bring the data together and analyse included data but, again, not to test the impacts on
the participants of the game. Therefore, future studies should focus on evaluating if the ESSG
is communicating the concept of ESs and the possible trade-offs resulting from the
implementation of various development measures.
Another limitation is the availability of data for the research area. Even with high monitoring
efforts conducted in the Wadden Sea, it is very hard to find specific information, especially as
a non-Dutch speaker. This poses another problem with available data, as most of the present
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data in the Wadden region are in Dutch, especially because this research is focusing on the
Dutch part of the Wadden Sea. This resulted in a restricted method to evaluate the current state
of ESs. Only a critical comparison and trend analysis’s of the existing scientific literature was
conducted. However, other suggested methods, such as remote sensing to identify habitat
heterogeneity, could not be implemented. Nevertheless, they have been investigated to allow
future researchers to pick up on these issues.
Additionally, the development of the ESSG described within this research was restricted the
alpha level (demo version) development and application. This means that this research
identified how the current state of ESs can be evaluated and transferred into a management tool
like SGs. Additionally, the time limitation only the validation of the measure-impact matrix
could be conducted, leaving room for additional validation of the indicator analysis.
Additionally, the time limitation resulted in not allowing testing the game on multiple people.
Only self-testing has been conducted in order to see flaws, bugs and errors within the game.
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6 Conclusion
Throughout this research, it has been investigated how SG can be used as a tool to gather,
combine and analyse various data originating from various sources and types. It has been
shown that it is possible to create such a platform. Additionally, it has been shown that within
this method, the evaluation of ESs and their status can be conducted in a non-monetary
approach. This leads to the outcome that even ESs with no direct monetary value can be
evaluated and implemented into the game.
At this stage, the game needs still further development. It has been observed that some
indicators might not be the most suitable while all measures are focusing on just one indicator.
However, this is just the first start into a possible new future to analyse and gather data.
Therefore, it is believed that with adjustments and more research, the ESSG can one day
develop into a functioning ES management tool for policy- and decision-makers for the
Wadden Sea region.
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7 Game development recommendations
This chapter deals with possible recommendations for future research. This should help future
researchers on that topic to identify setbacks in the process and suitable future research topics
that can take the ESSG from an alpha version to a fully playable ecosystem management tool.
The recommendation part of this research is focusing on how the game can be further
developed. As mentioned throughout the report, the developed ESSG is the very first (alpha)
version of this game. A new concept has been has been developed which first has to be tested.
However, there are several recommendations that can help to take the game to the next level.
Indicator recommendations
First of all, let’s look at the indicators. Right now, most indicators are based on extensive
literature review resulting in the identification of trends and changes over time. Additionally,
the indicators are rated upon those literature reviews. However, this process has been very
simplified, as positive effects are rated with +1 and negative impacts with -1. For follow
research regarding the ESSG it would be recommended to find a way to weight the individual
trends of the indicator variables. As said, in this research everything was weighted the same
way. However, it cannot be denied that some impacts have stronger influences on the indicator
variables than other ones. So, finding an algorithm that the score of the indicator is dependent
on, in regard to the impacts found, would be a great step to make the game more realistic. This
also means that available data, i.e. the trends in ferry tourism, could be weighted differently. It
would even be possible to analyse un-/significant trends of the sector, which could lead to a
more realistic representation of the current state of the ES.
Furthermore, if algorithms are developed that can analyse indicator changes, weight them and
transfer them to score within the ESSG, it can be possible to use literature reviews and trend
analyses as a tool running in the background. This means, that next to the initial state of the
indicators, the trend analysis could be used to run these trends in the background of the game.
Within that, the indicators of the game would be affected in the game even when the player is
implementing no development measures at all. This can be seen as a “business as usual”
scenario that is running in the background. If the player of the game is not changing anything
in the game, the trend analysis or “business as usual” scenario will impact the indicators
dependent on how the trends are indicating it. An example could be that, i.e., this research
identified that the aquaculture sector shows a decreasing trend regarding production and
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employees. Therefore, if this trend analysis is implemented in the game, the aquaculture
indicator would decrease even without the layer changing anything in the game, since the trend
analysis shows that if nothing is changed the sector will decrease over time. The same can be
implemented for the other indicators in order to create a realistic gaming environment that also
includes scenarios.
Additionally, some improvement for the indicators itself can be done. It would be profitable
for the game if all indicators and sub-indicators would be based on actual monitoring data. This
means that sub-indicators, like the habitat heterogeneity, could not be based on literature
review, but rather on numbers and facts which would delete the factor of interpretation. A
possible indicator, for the regulating & maintenance ES, could, for example, be the water
quality of the Wadden Sea. There are several water quality monitoring stations throughout the
Wadden Sea were data can be based on. Possible sub-indicators could, amongst others, include
oxygen or nutrient levels. Within that, the data that influences the performance on the ES could
directly obtained by current fluctuations of the area. Background levels could be used to
indicate positive of negative fluctuations which then in turn would indicate the current state of
the monitored ES. Another possible implementation is to include remote sensing data into the
game (see also chapter 4.4.4). Habitat maps, for example, could be used to detect changes in
habitat quality. Within that, specific parameters that determine habitat quality can be tracked
with habitat maps, which in turn can greatly help to identify even small changes on dependent
indicators. This would make the game less dependent on the interpretation of literature review
and more based on real time changes. Especially, since field studies are very time-demanding,
using remote sensing can lead to a more realistic game that uses the most recent data available
to determine the initial state of ES.
Another recommendation regarding the indicators is to find and implement a suitable
correlation between the indicators. What is meant that the scores of the individual indicators
could also be dependent on the scores of the other indicators. In other words, let’s imagine the
player focuses only on tourism development in the area. This resulted in a very high positive
score for tourism (or cultural ES) and a very low score for habitats (or regulating and
maintenance ES). In the demo version of the game this would be possible. However, tourism
in the Wadden Sea is mainly attracted by the unique landscape and biodiversity that can be
found there. Ergo, if the area would only focus on economic development resulting in a
degradation of the environment, most likely the tourist would be absent. Therefore, a dependent
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relation between the indicators could be established. This could look something like this: “If
the score for habitats is ≤ -7 than the score for tourism cannot be higher than +3”. The
implementation of such dependent relationships could even be implemented at sub-indicator
levels. Therefore, relationships between the indicators could be analysed and suitable
dependencies could be established. Taken the same example, this could look something like:
“If the score for habitat heterogeneity is ≤ -7 than the score for overnight stays cannot exceed
+3”. However, it has to be looked into the most suitable level of this dependent relationship,
since maybe just limiting the sub-indicators would not result in the wished outcome of this
limitation.
So, there is a lot that can be modified within the indicators of the game to make it overall more
realistic. For each sub-indicator algorithm that interpreted the data could be used to base the
impacts not on interpretation of literature and data but on actual facts and calculations.
Additionally, new indicators could be introduced that make data analyses more reliable.
Measures recommendations
But, there are not only recommendations for the indicators that could make the game better.
Also the used measures of the game can be modified to make it a more realistic environment.
For the sake of this ESSG, measures with high impact on the ES have been selected. However,
most of the measures rather have negative impacts on the ES rather than positive ones. This
results in an unbalanced situation for the game as the participant has not so many opportunities
to go for only positive measures. There are basically three ways to deal with this problem. First
of all, the current impacts of the measures could be updated and modified. To this point, the
measures have only been validated by two experts, which resulted in a harsh downgrading of
the impacts. However, the games aim is to show participants the impacts with appropriate
visualizations. This cannot be done when the impacts are rated too low, as not enough change
is happening within the game. Therefore, some impacts should rather be rated a bit higher in
order to achieve this wished outcome. Additionally, finding appropriate numbers is a long
process. When looking at the development of the PoFSG, it took many tries and many expert
opinions to find the right balance for the measure-impacts matrix. Another way to deal with
this issue is by not showing the participant the impacts of the measure, or easier said by hiding
the impact values. It is a common problem, with the PoFSG for example, that participant of the
game are choosing the measures depend on the actual impact value (number) presented to them.
Therefore, the participants are taken less their personal goal, but rather a value as a decision
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point. Since the ESSG is aimed to be played with policy makers and protected area managers
familiar with the gaming environment, it can be assumed that the general impact of the
measures is clear to them. By hiding the values, the participant will experience the impacts of
the measure without being distracted by the values. Of course the impact values are still active
in the game and could be presented at the end of the game or during the game if a major
discussion develops. Finally, the last possible way to adjust the measures is by introducing new
measures and/or deleting current used measures. By now the measures in the game are based
on currently conducted measures in the Wadden Sea region. However, it would be useful for
the game to implement more sustainable and/or innovative measures into the game. By
implementing more sustainable measures into the game, the unbalanced situation of the ES
indicators can be tackled, as the player of the game has more freedom to choose development
measures that suit the purpose of the player in the game.
In general, it can be said that the measures in the game need to be updated in one way or the
other. The most suitable way would be to implement new measures into the game in order to
achieve a balance between the measure-impacts and the ES. However, more expert meetings
to validate current measurement impacts on the ES should be done to adjust current measures.
Visualization recommendations
Another recommendation for future research on the development of the ESSG is regarding the
visualization of the game. Due to the minimal impact of the measures relatively small
visualization steps are used. If these are working has to be tested when the game has been
played some rounds. However, in the future, it can be expected that more indicators and more
measures are introduced to the game, within that, it could easily happen that the currently used
visualization steps are too small and have to be adjusted. Looking at the measures in this demo
version, the highest possible score for regulating and maintenance ES is +7. Therefore, it is
very hard for the participant to experience positive changes in the environment. By adjusting
the visualization steps to the measure impact matrix could help to make the visualization steps
more accurate and actually dependent on measure impact values.
Furthermore, additional visualizations could be introduced to the game, which focus on the
visualization of the sub-indicators. The visualization for this alpha version of the ESSG is
focusing on visualizing changes in the overall change for an ES indicator. It would be nice if
visual feedback, focusing on the sub-indicators, rather than the overall value of the ES, could
be introduced. This would give the participant a more detailed visual feedback.
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Additionally, the starting interface of the game could be more updated. Especially texts
explaining the game shortly, but clearly would be of great help, so that the game cannot only
be played in groups and a facilitator but also alone. What can greatly help for that would be to
include the option that shows and explains the player the impacts of selected measures on the
ES. It does not have to be a permanent, but more like a selective option that indicates the game
that the player would like to learn more about the measure and within that shows the player the
positive and negative impacts. This could also be done by introducing little question marks
next to the measures where the player can click on in order to see all impacts.
Visualization of very low indicator scores
As mentioned in the indicator visualization chapter (chapter 131, page 132), there are different
visualization steps within the ESSG. However, one recommendation for future versions of the
ESSG could include the visualization of very low indicator scores within the ESSG. Of course,
some visualization for that situation is already implemented in the game. But bad conditions
for an indicator of the game could be underlined in order that the participant recognizes that
change is very much needed. To do so, each indicator could include one extra visualization
step to give additional feedback to the participant of the ESSG.
An idea to introduce an extra visualization for the provisioning would be that when the player
scores very badly (i.e. ≤ -8) for the provisioning ES (aquaculture) the animals in the game will
disappear, regardless of the score achieved for the regulating & maintenance ES (habitats). The
motivation to do so is that when the mussel production stops also an important food, nutrient
and water quality source is gone. Without the mussel beds the animals won`t have enough to
eat, nutrient levels would drop and the water quality would decrease. Consequently, the animals
leave the area. It is known that just because of the absence of mussel plots, the animals wouldn’t
leave the area, as there are still other food sources and so on present. However, this drastic
measure will visualize the participant that something is wrong with the overall balance of the
environment and its ES.
Secondly, when the participant of the ESSG scores very badly (i.e. ≤-8) for the regulating &
maintenance ES (habitats), algal blooms could be implemented in the ESSG. Algal blooms
have severe negative impacts on the surrounding aquatic ecosystem as well as on humans.
Harmful algal blooms produce toxins that can sicken or even kill animals as well as humans
(EPA, 2017). Within that, they create dead-zones in the water. Therefore, the water becomes
181
harmful to animals, as well as for humans as they cannot enter the water zone any more. Most
dangerous algal blooms have a reddish colour. Consequently, the colour of the algal blooms
within the game could be reddish, as even just the colour red normally represents danger to
humans.
Finally, if the participant of the ESSG scores very badly (i.e. ≤-8) for the cultural ES (tourism),
the buildings on the islands could start to break down. The islanders are very dependent on the
tourism sector of the area, as it is the major source of income for most people. When tourism
is absent, most people will lose their income and will probably leave the area to find different
jobs in other locations. Consequently, the town could start to bedraggle, which will be the extra
visual component within the ESSG.
In-game resource limitation
Another element of the ESSG is the limiting factor. The limiting factor of the game represents
what kind of measures and how many they can implement. Taking the PoFSG as an example,
the limiting factor there was money. Within that, participants of the game could only implement
the measures which met their budget. Consequently, participants had to take care about the
initial implementation/construction costs of the measure and the maintenance costs of the
measure. Nevertheless, most implemented measures generate income over the years.
Therefore, the participant of the game could also earn revenue by implementing measures that
are very economically profitable.
For the sake of the ESSG, it has been decided that money should not be the limiting factor. It
is a widely known problem that ES are very hard to put into monetary terms and values. ES,
like morphological processes, are often undervalued, while other ES, like food provisioning,
are often overrated. This is mainly because for some ES direct value can be obtained while
others keep the system running, but do not have direct economic value. Since this SG is
focusing ion present ES in the Wadden Sea region, it has been decided that the limiting factor
should not be money, in order to prevent over/underestimation of ES.
To this day, the idea of introducing a growth indication as a limiting factor has been developed.
This means that during the game the participant can collect growth points. These growth points
are dependent on the measures the participant of the game has implemented. However, these
growth points should not be linked to economical values, but rather to the contribution of the
measure to the growth of the ES. This means that the measure is rated amongst all used
182
indicators in the game. Consequently, each measure will have different impacts on the ES
indicators and therefore will get different implementation costs. In the long-run, each impact
of the measure is generating growth points over time. These are also generated by the overall
impacts and contributions to the ES. Additionally, the generation of the growth points could be
linked to the sector most profiting from it, in order to represent the growth value of the sector
the measure is implemented for.
Nevertheless, to this point, this system of rating has not been developed yet. However, this is
not a major problem for the alpha version of the game. Limiting factors for the game can also
originate from the amount of measures the participant(s) are allowed to introduce per round
played (see chapter 4.4.2).
However, it is planned to introduce a functioning limiting factor in the next month. This can
then be implemented within the final stage of the project or in follow up researched on the
ESSG.
Impact of measures as growth indication
One idea how to obtain these growth points within the game could be directly based on the
impacts the measures have on all ES combined. Within that, the overall impact on ESs is used
as an indication of how much growth points the player of the game will receive during the
game. Let’s take two examples to exemplify this scenario. When looking at the impact-matrix
(Table 42) we can recognize that the measures have a combined impact within the range of -2
(gas mining) and +7 (pollution limits/policies). This means that gas mining has an overall
negative impact on ES in the region while pollution limits/policies have an overall positive
impact. Therefore, it would make sense that measures with positive impacts earn more growth
points than measures with negative impacts. The scaling of this could be inspired from energy
labels (Figure 31). This means that measures with high negative impact will still be rewarded
with growth points, but not as much as possible measures with highly positive impacts. All
impacts of the measures used in this demo version of the game range from -2 to +7. However,
the impact matrix has to be reviewed in the near future, while probably more measures will be
implemented in the game to make it more realistic. Introducing a rewards scheme from -10 to
+10 points might be suitable enough to establish a reward system. This means that a measure
that has an overall impact of 0 for example, would receive a medium reward (like the yellow
183
D in Figure 31). When the impacts become lower, the player would receive less points and
vice versa.
Figure 31: Example energy label. Red indicates negative impacts and green positive impacts.
Source: efddgroup.eu
When looking at such a reward system, it can be recognized that there might be some setbacks.
I.e. let’s look at gas mining. Gas mining is an operation that has negative impacts on all ESs
but is mainly implemented in the Wadden Sea because of its high profit margin. However, the
reward would be based on the overall performance of the measure, which would have overall
negative impacts on the indicators. This would mean that gas mining would not bring as much
growth points as probably expected. Therefore, it makes it very difficult to implement such a
scheme. Additionally, it would be very difficult to base the implementation costs on such a
scheme. In order to do so, new ways have to be developed. However, by implementing such a
scheme, the impacts to the ES can maybe be projected more realistically. Or put in other words,
people would not have the possibility to choose measures regarding the profit they generate,
but only on the impacts the measures have on the ESs and isn’t that what the game is all about?!
Economic growth
Another possible way would be to base the growth points the player obtains in the game from
actual economic data. That means that actual implementation costs and average profits can be
transferred in growth points. This means that the costs and benefit of development measures
could also be based on actual data and not on estimations or something similar. Additionally,
by transferring this economic data into something called growth points can also distract people
from the actual monetary value behind it.
However, the main advantage from using economic data input as an input for the
implementation costs and profits generates is that all measures would have relevance to the
184
game. Let`s have gas mining as an example again. Gas mining has negative impacts on all ES
indicators, but is still very big in the Wadden Sea due to the profit it is generating. This means
that without a proper limitation/reward scheme player would not implement such a measure.
However, when this measure would be based on economic growth, the implementation costs
would probably be higher, but the profit generated as well. Additionally, by not calling it
“money” and not using icons symbolizing money, the player might not directly witness the
economic value behind this scheme. On top of that, the player will still be witnessing the
negative impacts of the measure on the ES (through the scores and visualization). Therefore,
this idea could not only than bring an economic factor and more data into the game, but would
also show people the trade-off between growth or development and environmental factors.
However, the game was created with the idea in the back of the head to not use monetary
values. This is because many ES are under- or overvalued in nowadays society, mainly because
some (like tourism) is generating direct profits while regulation of air and water flow is
supporting other ES but do not directly have monetary values attached to them. Therefore, the
decision on how to implement a resource limitation within the game is still open for debate.
Single-player development recommendation
To the state of this research, the ESSG is developed to be mainly played with a group of
stakeholders, protected area managers, policy- and decision makers. However, it would be very
useful to develop a version that can also be played as a single player. This could result in a
bigger outreach to the public which would result in raising awareness on a bigger scale. To
implement that, it would be useful that before starting the game, the layer and/or the facilitator
of the game can choose between a single player version and the multiplayer version which
development has begun within this research. Therefore, further recommendations to develop a
single player version of the ESSG are presented within this sub-chapter.
In order to create a single player version of the game, additional rules and additional
programming have to take place. The basic design and interactions will still stay the same;
however, the interface and how the player can interact with the environment have to be changed
in order to make it suitable and fun to play. The first step in this direction would be to create a
starting interface (before actually starting the game) where the player can choose between
multiplayer and single player. However, since the multiplayer version of the ESSG is aimed at
being played with a facilitator, and not like an online multiplayer game, it could be decided to
duplicate the currently developed version and create a separated single player version of the
185
game. Within that, players that play home alone would not be confused when they press on
multiplayer and nobody would be there to play. However, this has to be further looked into
once, such a decision is made.
The first step to a single player version would be to change the interface just a little bit. The
developed demo version includes an hourglass on the top-left edges of the game, which is used
to limit the time participants have to choose suitable development measures and discuss them
in order to finally implement them. However, this is unnecessary for a single player version.
The time limitation is needed in order to not exceed length of workshop in which the game is
played. Within that, there will be probably no need for a time limitation for a single player
mode. However, it would also not hurt to leave it in and let the player decide if he wants to
have a time limitation or not.
Secondly, specific rules should be introduced to the player before he/she starts the game. This
could be done in a separate menu choice option called “rules” where the player can get familiar
with the game. Another option would be to introduce an avatar to the game who explains the
rules when starting the game. This could be done by implementing speech balloons that appear
in the corner of the game. Within that the game flow would not be interrupted while it can also
be used to deliver additional knowledge to the player of the game. Additional rules for a single
version of the game could include the limitation of measures that can be introduced in one
round in order that the player is not implementing everything at ones. However, such an
experimental part of the game where the player would just explore every possibility should not
completely excluded as many people maybe just want to click around and explore the
landscape. Nevertheless, further thinking about specific rules should be developed ones a final
version of the game is developed.
However, what has to be implemented within a single version of the game is introducing some
kind of information in which the player gains knowledge about the specific impact of the
measures. In a multi-player version the facilitator, as well as the provided cards, give the needed
informational value. This is missing in a completely digital version and within that a big
knowledge gap for the player would arise. An easy way to do this would be to include a button
(could be a little blue question mark as it is prevalently done) on which the player can click. If
this is done a separate window could be opened that show him/her the card with the specific
impact or just a flow text that explains the impacts in detail. Within that, the player can gather
186
useful knowledge he/she might need in order to choose the right management options for
his/her purposes.
Finally, the facilitator of the game is able to introduce scenarios in form of newsletters to the
game (chapter 4.4.3). This is currently not possible in the ESSG as these cards have no direct
influence on the game, but rather influences the perception and the gaming attitude of the
player. It would be nice to be able to implement these newsletter scenarios also to a single
player version of the game. These newsletter scenarios could be generated randomly or, what
would be more beneficial, be based on the current score for the individual indicators in the
game. An example may illustrate this better. Let`s assume the player of the ESSG is
implementing only measures that focus on overnight stays. Algorithms could be developed that
recognize this unilateral development and could generate newspaper scenarios that fit the
situation, i.e. “The Wadden News Water quality: The vast growing tourism industry led to more
pollution of the intertidal area, Aquaculture farms report a decrease in mussel qualities
“. Within that, the player would be notified that he/she is neglecting the other indicators of the
game and consequently is called upon introducing measures that also focus on other indicators.
However, the feasibility of this development will have to be further elaborated in the future.
In general, the developed demo version can be used for single players to explore possible
measures and their impact in a completely sandbox environment. The development into a fully
working single player version, however, would definitely benefit the overall gaming
experience.
187
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Appendix II: CICES ecosystem services
To determine the current state of the Wadden Sea, the guidelines of CICES are used. CICES is
working towards a common classification of ecosystem services and differs slightly from
earlier approaches of classifying ecosystem services. CICES has classified ecosystem services
in three classes named provisioning, regulating & maintenance and cultural (PRC). Within that,
CICES excluded the classification of supporting services. The motivation to do so is that
supporting services are the underpinned structures and processes that lead to the rise of
ecosystem services (CICES, 2016). The final motivation to exclude supporting services as a
classification is that within the CICES classifications only the final services which deliver
goods and benefits to mankind are identified. Since this model becomes more and more
accepted in the scientific community. Additionally, also Deltares adopted this classification
and therefore the CICES classification will be used in this research.
To determine the current state of an area (within this research the Wadden Sea area) indicators
for each classification are used. These indicators are chosen due to their information value and
availability. For each classification three indicators will be used to evaluate the current state of
the Wadden Sea area. Each individual indicator will consist out of three sub-indicators to
evaluate the current state of the chosen indicators. In other words, the classes provisioning,
regulation & maintenance and cultural will reflect the current state of the Wadden Sea, which
is determined by three indicators which consists out of sub-indicators.
The indicators for each classification are chosen on the basis of previous work conducted by a
Wadden Sea working group at Deltares. The outcome of this working group was a very
comprehensive mind map, which identifies the present ecosystem services in the Wadden Sea.
After several indicators are chosen also their information value in analysed. This is conducted
within the literature review. Finally, the availability of data for the specific indicators is playing
a major role in the identification process.
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Indicators and sub-indicators of the CICES classifications
In Table 47 the individual indicators and sub-indicators for the classifications can be
recognized. Nonetheless, a small description, especially of the sub-indicators should assist the
reader to understand the meaning behind it.
Provisioning ecosystem services:
Within the provisioning classification, nutrition (i.e. food), materials (i.e. raw materials) and
energy (i.e. renewable energies) obtained from an ecosystem are included. Therefore, the first
indicator is animal populations. Since humans obtain several provisioning services from plants
and animals (i.e. food) the population numbers of such species is used. Sub-indicators which
determine the current state of the animal populations are the population numbers of fish,
mussels and shrimp. Therefore, annual population numbers of these species are used.
The second indicator is available materials obtained from biotic and abiotic sources. Biotic and
abiotic materials are widely used by humans for several purposes (i.e. food or construction
material). Sub-indicators to determine the current state of available material in the Wadden Sea
are the number/weight of molluscs harvested and the total amount of sand obtained annually.
Finally, the third indicator is present aquaculture in the Wadden Sea region. Approximately
50% of the seafood caught or produced is nowadays obtained via the concept of Aquaculture
(FAO, The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture, 2014). Aquaculture therefore provides
many people with seafood and is an important factor for determining the current state of the
provisioning classification. The sub-indicators used to determine the current state are the
quantity of aquaculture farms present, their annual net weight production and their annual
income.
To evaluate if the indicators show a positive or negative current state of the Wadden Sea region,
comparisons with data from previous years is conducted. This comparison will show a trend in
the Wadden Sea area. This trend can either be positive or negative, which in turn reflects the
current state (trend).
Regulating & Maintenance ecosystem services:
The second classification used is regulating and maintenance. This classification is focusing
on processes which provide a safe and healthy environment, resulting in ecosystem services
that can be obtained by humans. Thus, the first indicator for this classification is the water
208
quality in the Wadden Sea. Clean water leads to a healthy environment in which animals and
plants can grow and exist. If the water quality is insufficient, animals and birds are highly
threatened, leading also to fewer to none benefits and goods that can be obtained from the
system by humans. Sub-indicators to determine the current state of the water quality are the
concentrations of dissolved oxygen (DO), nitrogen and phosphorus. The optimal concentration
of these three sub-indicators are varying from location to location, thus, a baseline obtained
from related literature will be used to determine a positive or negative current state of the water
quality in the Wadden Sea.
The second indicator used is the Atmospheric quality in the Wadden Sea. As it was the case
with water quality, also the quality that surrounds us is highly important for a healthy
ecosystem. Both, animals and plants need air to breath in order to exist. If the air is polluted
also the ecosystem suffers and within that the ecosystem services provided by the ecosystem.
To identify the current state of the atmospheric quality of the Wadden Sea region the
concentrations of carbon-dioxide (CO2), mono-nitrogen (NOx) and methane (CH4). These three
substances are chosen as they are identified by the European Commission as three out of six
most dangerous substances. Within that, these substances can express the quality of the air in
the Wadden Sea. From related literature a baseline will be analysed to determine if the
concentrations of these substances in the Wadden Sea are below these levels or exceeding
those. Thus, in turn the current state of the air quality in the Wadden Sea region can be
evaluated.
Finally, the third indicator used to determine the current state of the regulating & maintaining
ecosystem services is the animal habitat present in the Wadden Sea. The area used by animals
as habitats are highly important as they provide them with nursing, feeding and living ground
as well as providing a safe place against predators. In turn, this also reflects on the benefits and
goods that can be obtained by humans from the ecosystem. In order to determine the current
state of animal habitats in the Wadden Sea region, the habitat cover and fragmentation is
analysed. The habitat cover will be compared to earlier researches and within that a decrease
or increase of habitat cover can be identified. Thus, it can be determined if the current state of
the animal habitat is positive or negative in the Wadden Sea.
209
Cultural ecosystem services:
The last classification used is cultural. Cultural ecosystem services provide humans with
aesthetics, religion, well-being and the opportunity to go into an ecosystem and just do
something. It is very hard, if not impossible to measure the aesthetic or the religious value of
an area. Also, different parties would judge the outcomes differently as some places show a
higher religious value to some than others. However, the possibility that an ecosystem is
providing humans with tasks to perform and absolve. This is one reason why some areas are
more used for recreation than others. The first indicator to measure the current state of cultural
ecosystem services is called recreation, as many people yearly visit the Wadden Sea region for
recreational purposes (i.e. vacations). The sub-indicators used to determine the current state of
recreational activities in the Wadden Sea region, the annual number of tourists, the annual
income from tourists and the number of eco-tourism is used. The number of eco-tourism is
used since too many people could destroy an ecosystem, but appropriately managed, as with
eco-tourism, the impact on the ecosystem can be minimized. A comparison to previous years
will show if the Wadden Sea is experiencing a positive or negative trend which in turn is used
to evaluate the current state of the sub-indicator recreation. The second indicator is called
leisure. This indicator will provide information about leisure activities in the Wadden Sea
region as many activities are conducted which mostly in turn result in a better human well-
being. To do so, the numbers of fishing and mud-flat walking tours are used as sub-indicators.
These will be compared to previous statistics to analyse if there is a positive or negative trend
in the Wadden Sea region. Finally, the third indicator used is themed eco-tourism. As
mentioned above eco-tourism can reduce the impacts on the ecosystem to a minimum while
recreational of leisure activities can still be performed. Therefore, suitable activities are
selected which reflect this philosophy, named the numbers of seal and bird watching tours.
Also here these numbers will be compared to previous statistics to see a positive or negative
trend in the Wadden Sea area.
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Appendix III: Possible indicators for the ESSG
Table 47: Classification, Indicators and Sub-Indicators used to determine the current state of the Wadden Sea
Classification Provisioning Regulation & Maintenance Cultural
Indicators
1) Animal population 2) Available materials (biotic &
abiotic) 3) Aquaculture
1) Water quality 2) Atmospheric quality 3) Animal habitats
1) Recreation 2) Leisure 3) Eco-Tourism
Sub-indicators
1) Population numbers of fish, mussels and shrimps
2) Mollusc harvesting, sand and excavation
3) Number of aquaculture farms, net weight of production and annual income
1) Concentration of Dissolved Oxygen (DO), Nitrogen & Phosphorus
2) Concentration of Sulphur dioxide, Mono-Nitrogen & Methane
3) Habitat cover, fragmentation and increase and/or decrease of habitat areas
1) Number of tourists, annual income from tourists and industrial growth
2) Number of fishing and mud-flat walking tours, Vessel presence
3) Number of seal and bird watching tours,
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Appendix IV: Validity of performance
indicators
Validity of use of performance indicators
Schipper , 2015
Based on various references pertaining to the development of EPIs (e.g. Laane & Van den Ende
1995, OSPAR 2012, Rice 2003; Rice and Rochet 2005), the following criteria has been derived
for evaluating environmental performance indicators:
1 Ecological relevance. The ecological relevance of the indicators needs to be high. Any
indicator, either pressure-related or state-related, need to be a quantitatively well-linked
parameter to the cause-and-effect chain between pressure and state. Contaminant
concentrations are usually good indicators for pollution pressure, and also for effects at
the individual and population effect level. Ecosystem effect levels are less well assessed
by such indicators, and need to be viewed in a broader context (hysteresis effects). Large
predators are often seen as good indicators for the state of the food web they form part of,
although such assumptions are often not validated.
2 Responsiveness/sensitivity. The indicator must detect environmental changes in a timely
way. Indicators should therefore be relatively closely linked in time to human-induced
stressors. For compensation and mitigation purposes they should be able to detect changes
in timeframes and on scales that are relevant to the measures being taken. The indicators
should be sufficiently sensitive to show trends in human-induced changes (REFs).
3 Specificity. Several environmental factors and human activities may contribute to the
indicator’s response. The risk of misinterpretation of this cause/effect relationship is
substantially reduced when the indicator is primarily responsive to a single human
activity, with low responsiveness to other causes of change (REFs).
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4 Measurement accuracy. It is essential that all necessary elements can be measured
accurately in a monitoring program, with appropriate quality (e.g. a coherent monitoring
program with appropriate frequency and spatial coverage, and quality assurance) (REFs).
5 Spatial applicability. The indicator should be measurable over a large proportion of the
area to which it applies.
6 Historical data. Indicators should be based, as much as possible, on existing time-series
of data to allow realistic objectives to be set. Reliable data on historical levels are needed
to construct area-specific background levels against which the current levels may be
assessed and evaluated. Background levels are commonly considered when setting
reference levels.
7 Measurement. The indicator must be measured easily and with a low error. This means
that the underlying techniques and parameters exhibit low measurement error, are stable
during the sampling period and are robust.
8 Acceptance. The power of an indicator depends on its broad acceptance and the common
understanding of its concreteness. To achieve a general acceptance of the validity of the
indicator by all relevant stakeholders a considerable proportion of the indicators (or suites
of indicators) must be relatively easy to understand by a non-scientific audience and
decision-makers. A parameter such as species diversity is easier to understand by laymen
than any other multi-metric index such as have been developed for the WFD (REFs).
By analyzing correlations and variances, the performance-oriented indicators have been
arranged in order to establish a proportional contribution of the set of indicators.
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Appendix V: Use of performance validity on
selected indicators
The individual indicators and sub-indicators were color-coded in order to determine which
indicators are the most suitable for the game. The colour coded was inspired by related
literature. A value was given to each colour in order to get an overview of the performance of
the indicators. Therefore, dark green = +2, green =+1, orange = =+/- 0, light red = -1, dark red
-2. The higher the achieved value the more suitable the indicator. However, this was not the
final decision on the which indicator to use, but it was rather used to get an overview over
possible indicators for the ESSG.
Animal populations
Validity of performance indicators
Mollusc Fish Birds
Ecological relevance
Animal populations are used around the world to identify the quality of the area and/or the habitat. Molluscs are filter feeders and therefore can have several advantages when looking at the habitat quality of a surrounding area.
Animal populations are used around the world to identify the quality of the area and/or the habitat. The abundance of fish can indicate the quality of the habitat as population numbers go down when the quality of the habitat decreases.
Animal populations are used around the world to identify the quality of the area and/or the habitat. The Wadden Sea region is one of the most important bird habitats in the world. Millions of birds live here while more travelling though on their way to the South. An irritation in the habitat quality, due to human intervention, habitat degradation or less food availability directly indicates the quality of the surrounding environment.
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Responsiveness/ sensitivity
“Biomarkers (general- and specific stress as well as genotoxicity), which represent biochemical, cellular,, genotoxical, physiological or behavioural variation that can be measured in mussels, providing evidence of exposure to and/or effects of, one or more chemical pollutants being present into the water, were briefly mentioned, in order to emphasize the use of mussels as bio-indicators” (Dailianis, 2010)
Fish populations are researched around the world to identify the quality of the habitat and just the abundance of the fish species. With changing parameters and more human activities, fish stocks change rapidly and therefore can be used as a fast indicator
Every year 10-12 million birds are passing through the Wadden Sea and use it as an important stop to refill their energy. Therefore, birds are quite sensitive to changes in the environment, especially when their live is depended on it.
Specificity Mussel harvest in the Wadden Sea was banned due to the decrease in mussel populations. Only hand racking is a legal method to enable locals to harvest them for their need. However, no big industrial mechanisms are used, leaving mussel populations only prone to the quality of the area
The amount in fish stocks is not only determined by the quality of the habitat. Also other anthropogenic activities, especially fishing, greatly contribute to the change in fish stocks over the years.
As said, millions of birds passing through the Wadden Sea on a search for food. A decrease in the quality directly impacts the birds itself. In contrast to other nations in the world neither the birds nor the eggs are used in the Netherlands. Additionally the Natura 200 policy is aiming on the protections of birds. Nonetheless, since a majority of the birds is just travelling through, the number of birds can also be affected by their country of origin.
Measurement accuracy
Since only population is used as an indicator
Since only population is used as an indicator
Since only population is used as an
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no other measurements can interfere with it.
no other measurements can interfere with it.
indicator no other measurements can interfere with it.
Spatial application
Samples from the whole Wadden Sea region are used to estimate the total population, covering a wide range of the area.
Samples from the whole Wadden Sea region are used to estimate the total population, covering a wide range of the area.
Samples from the whole Wadden Sea region are used to estimate the total population, covering a wide range of the area.
Historic data
Measurement Mussels can be found everywhere and it is nearly impossible to count all of them, especially in such a big area. Therefore estimations are made, which is scientifically sound, but leaves room for error.
Fishes are moving throughout the water column, while many fishes also swim in schools making it nearly impossible to count the whole fish population. Therefore estimations are made, which is scientifically sound, but leaves room for error.
Birds are never standing still and are always searching for food. New technologies to tag individual birds made population estimations more reliable and accurate. However, there is still some room for error.
Acceptance Used in literature and previous researches (Dailianis, 2010)
Used in literature and previous researches (Kwak, 2012) (RAMP, 2015)
Used in literature and previous research (Padoa-Schioppa, Baietto, Massa, & Bottoni, 2005) (Bonardi, et al., 2010)
Score 14 7 12
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Aquaculture
Validity of performance indicators
Number of Aquaculture
farm
Number of employees
on aquaculture
farms
Net weight of production
Economic Efficiency
(Cost/Benefit ratio)
Ecological relevance
Aquaculture farms can have several impacts on the natural environment as they contribute to pollution, higher nutrient loads and medication to some extent. A higher number of aquaculture farms also results in more impacts. Additionally, Aquaculture provides humans, and to some extends (unwanted) animals, with food, which makes it a relevant indicator for provisioning ES.
Aquaculture farms have become a highly developed sector in the industry. Therefore, many people find themselves working there directly or indirectly. Providing money to employees enables them to provide themselves and their families with food and other necessary materials. In comparison to the number of aquaculture farms, the number of employees also shows the size of the industry. Thus making
Aquaculture farms have become an important source of food for mankind. Within that, aquaculture farms, and especially their productivity, play an important for providing food. Without these farms a large proportion of the necessary food would be missing Additionally, the biomass produced can show the link between nutrients in the surrounding water and within that show the effects of aquaculture on the environment.
The cost benefit ratio can be used to identify how much profit is generated after subtracting the costs. However, no direct ecological relevance can be identified from this indicator.
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it a good indicator for provisioning ES.
Responsiveness/ sensitivity
The number of aquaculture farms cannot indicate any changes in the environment. However, the increase or decrease of the amount of aquaculture farms present in the Wadden Sea can indicate if the industry is growing, and within that if it is contributing to a positive or negative provisioning ES, since it shows food availability and security
The number of employees gives an indication about the scale of all aquaculture farms, individually and/or combined. Within that, not only the monetary value of the farms, but the value to the citizens and therefore directly their well-being can be analysed.
Decreases and increases in production can easily recognized by the individual farms, which in turn can indicate not only food security but also water quality. Therefore, changes in the water quality can be detected by the productivity of aquaculture farms.
An increase or decrease in the economic efficiency indicates if the industrial sector is increasing, decreasing or is stable over time. Annual reports and figures are the basis, which results in a rather long response time. Additionally, with increase or decrease of the sector also a higher or lower stress level on the environment can be recognized.
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Specificity Not only has the number of aquaculture farms determined if food security and availability is safe. Additionally, the number of farms doesn’t give any idea about the scale of the farms.
More employees, or an increase of employees over time, indicate a growth in the industry with more jobs for the locals.
It is indisputable that people, especially in the western world, have access to food, regardless of aquaculture farms present in the Wadden Sea. However, aquaculture farms in the Wadden Sea, and especially their net production, can be a useful indicator to determine the local food security. Additionally, aquaculture productivity can indicate a change in water quality. Nonetheless, this is difficult to tell since most farms use fodder to enriched the water body which could lead to misinterpretation
Both, environmental and human activities can lead to a response of this indicator. Bad water quality can result in a bad harvest (less weight or less animals), which in turn leads to a worse economic –efficiency. But due to fodder and within that a change in water quality can lead to misinterpretations. On the hand also slow working forces and unmotivated employees can contribute to a bad harvest. However, the environmental factor dominates this relationship.
Measurement accuracy
All aquaculture farms in the Wadden Sea are registered and locations can be obtained via satellite imagery.
Aquaculture farms are obligated to provide the government with annual reports in which they also state how many employees are working there.
Annual reports with production rates should be available directly from the farms
Aquaculture farms are obligated to provide the government with annual reports in which they also state how much profit or loss they achieved in a calendar year.
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Spatial application
Most aquaculture farms in the Wadden Sea are situated in the Netherlands. However, since the focus is on the Dutch Wadden Sea, a large proportion of the area can be measured.
Most aquaculture farms in the Wadden Sea are situated in the Netherlands. However, since the focus is on the Dutch Wadden Sea, a large proportion of the area can be measured.
Most aquaculture farms in the Wadden Sea are situated in the Netherlands. However, since the focus is on the Dutch Wadden Sea, a large proportion of the area can be measured.
Most aquaculture farms in the Wadden Sea are situated in the Netherlands. However, since the focus is on the Dutch Wadden Sea, a large proportion of the area can be measured.
Historic data Since the introduction of Aquaculture, registration is required and within that also historic data is prognosed to be available.
Since the introduction of Aquaculture, registration is required and within that also historic data is prognosed to be available.
Since the introduction of Aquaculture, registration is required and within that also historic data is prognosed to be available.
Since the introduction of Aquaculture, registration is required and within that also historic data is prognosed to be available.
Measurement Fact figures as well as satellite imagery leave little room for errors
Facts and figures from the different aquaculture farms leave little room for errors
Facts and figures from the different aquaculture farms leave little room for errors
Facts and figures from the different aquaculture farms leave little room for errors
Acceptance The number of aquaculture farms can give an indication of the current situation. Basically an overview of the area.
Literature (Jackson, 2015) (NAO, 2011), indicate employment as a reliable human resource indicator. Also expert
Literature (Whitmarsh, 2004) (INDECO, 2005) indicates that productivity is a suitable indicator for socio-economic performance of aquaculture farms.
Literature and earlier studies (Whitmarsh, 2004) (INDECO, 2005) (Molyneaux, 2014) have used economic efficiency of aquaculture farms as a socio-
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However, Literature derived from the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) state that more suitable indicators are present
meetings at Deltares indicated these indicators as more suitable.
economic indicator.
Score 7 16 13 13
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Water quality
Validity of performance indicators
Concentration of Dissolved Oxygen
(DO)
Concentration of Nitrogen (N)
Concentration of Phosphorus (P)
Ecological relevance
DO is necessary to sustain aquatic life. Therefore, an optimal DO level indicates a healthy environment where animal populations can thrive. Additionally, DO is important to sustain aquatic life. Therefore, DO is relevant when looking at regulation and maintenance ES.
N is an important nutrient for plants and algae. High concentrations lead to algal blooms and within that may lead to the eutrophication of the system. Additionally, N is important to sustain aquatic life. Therefore, N is relevant when looking at regulation and maintenance ES
P, like N, is a critical nutrient to sustain (aquatic) life. High concentrations derived from human pollution can result in eutrophication of a water body. Additionally, P is important to sustain aquatic life. Therefore, P is relevant when looking at regulation and maintenance ES
Responsiveness/ sensitivity
DO concentrations can very due to temperature, elevation and/or salinity. Therefore, changes in DO can occur naturally, which poses a problem since they could be too sensitive and therefore be prone to misinterpretation.
N fluxes show immediate consequences on the ecosystem. Higher nitrogen concentrations are linked to many human activities (i.e. industrial pollutant). However, if pollution is stopped nitrogen levels also drop fast.
P fluxes show immediate consequences on the ecosystem. Higher P concentrations are linked to many human activities (i.e. industrial pollutant). However, if pollution is stopped nitrogen levels also drop fast. P is also considered the “limiting factor” which paces the rate in which algal and plants produce.
Specificity DO can be a good indicator for eutrophication. However, N and P are also used to determine eutrophication in water bodies, which
N can be a good indicator for eutrophication. However, DO and P are also used to determine eutrophication in water bodies, which
P can be a good indicator for eutrophication. However, DO and N are also used to determine eutrophication in water bodies, which
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in turn can lead to misinterpretation.
in turn can lead to misinterpretation.
in turn can lead to misinterpretation.
Measurement accuracy
DO can be measured accurately and site specific. A common units used are mg/L
N can be measured accurately and site specific. A common units used are mg/L
P can be measured accurately and site specific. A common units used are mg/L
Spatial application
DO can be measured at several places and within that over a large proportion of an area.
N can be measured at several places and within that over a large proportion of an area.
P can be measured at several places and within that over a large proportion of an area.
Historic data Available for at a decade back
Available for at a decade back
Available for at a decade back
Measurement Due to the experience mankind gained over the years in analysing water samples, it can be said that concentrations of DO show low to none measurement errors.
Due to the experience mankind gained over the years in analysing water samples, it can be said that concentrations of N show low to none measurement errors.
Due to the experience mankind gained over the years in analysing water samples, it can be said that concentrations of P show low to none measurement errors.
Acceptance Literature indicates that DO is widely used as an indicator for water quality and eutrophication.
Literature indicates that M is widely used as an indicator for water quality and eutrophication.
Literature indicates that P is widely used as an indicator for water quality and eutrophication.
Score 10 13 13
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Validity of performance indicators
Spatial heterogeneity Habitat connectivity
Ecological relevance
Human activity has been proven as a driving force in shaping landscapes. With a higher area usage by mankind, less area is available for marine and terrestrial species, resulting in a higher pressure for such species. Spatial heterogeneity ensures a high biodiversity in an area and within that is also relevant when looking at it from an regulating and maintenance ES point of view.
Habitat connectivity indicates the extent and spatial arrangement of habitat patches (structural connectivity) and/or the likelihood that species will be able to move or disperse through the landscape, between or through suitable patches and/or changes in distribution and/or abundance of particular species (NIA, 2014) Habitat connectivity contributes to a high biodiversity and within that is also relevant for an regulating and maintenance ES point of view.
Responsiveness/ sensitivity
A characterization of the shape, size and spatial arrangement of different habitat patches within a landscape can be used to connect the detected spatial patterns to the driving forces generating them, such as natural ecological processes or human management practices. Changes in spatial heterogeneity take some time, and therefore the responsiveness is rather slow.
Maintaining and restoring connectivity among high-quality habitat patches is recognized as an important goal for the conservation of animal populations. However, changes in landscape connectivity are occurring rather slowly, as land development takes time.
Specificity Due to satellite imagery, habitat changes over time can specifically be recognized. Especially changes from natural to human use can be recognized.
Due to satellite imagery, habitat connectivity can be analysed very specifically, as land-uses can be easily identified, and within that their connectivity.
Measurement accuracy
Again, satellite imagery combined with programs like EarthEngine contributes to high measurement accuracy.
Again, satellite imagery combined with programs like EarthEngine contributes to high measurement accuracy.
Spatial application
With satellite imagery, a very large area can be analysed to habitat changes over time.
With satellite imagery, a very large area can be analysed to habitat changes over time.
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Historic data Satellite imagery is used since decades and therefore changes over long time periods can be analysed.
Satellite imagery is used since decades and therefore changes over long time periods can be analysed.
Measurement Developed programs like EarthEngine, combined with algorithms by Deltares, make it possible to achieve very high measurement accuracy.
Quality criteria will vary with specific data such as age, resolution, classification accuracy and class structure. However, with satellite imagery high accuracy can be prognosed
Acceptance Literature indicates that habitat heterogeneity is a suitable indicator to detect the influence on human activities to natural environments.
Literature indicates that habitat connectivity is an important factor to sustain the natural biodiversity. Therefore, habitat connectivity is widely accepted as an indicator for biodiversity
Score 14 13
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Tourism
Validity of performance indicators
Overnight stays in tourist
accommodations
Island Tourism/ Ferry Number of fishing, mud-flat, bird and
seal watching tours
Ecological relevance
Human activities have great impacts on nature. Favourite tourist destinations, like the Wadden Sea, attract many people and within that pose a great threat to nature, including destruction or pollution. On the other hand, tourism contributes to the local economy and many locals are dependent on tourists. Therefore, tourism has a high environmental as well as ecological relevance. Since recreation, and especially longer recreational periods, contribute to human well-being. Therefore it makes it also relevant for an cultural ES point of view.
Human activities have great impacts on nature. Favourite tourist destinations, like the Wadden Sea, attract many people and within that pose a great threat to nature, including destruction or pollution. On the other hand, tourism contributes to the local economy and many locals are dependent on tourists. Therefore, tourism has a high environmental as well as ecological relevance. Recreational activities highly contribute to human well-being in several ways. Therefore, it is also important in a cultural ES point of view.
Most of these tourist activities are categorized as eco-tourism and in turn reduces the impact on the environment. More eco-tourism can contribute to a healthier ecosystem while humans don’t have to miss recreational possibilities. Therefore, eco-tourism can have a very positive ecological relevance. Connecting with nature greatly contributes to human well-being. Also awareness and education is increased with such tours, making it a suitable indicator in a Number cultural ES point of view.
Responsiveness/ sensitivity
More people result in a higher disturbance/ stress factor for the environment. Therefore, tourism numbers, and especially an increase in tourist numbers, can greatly affect the environment. However, it is difficult
Island tourism is always connected to shipping, since we humans are not made for long distance swimming and despite Jesus no human ever achieved the skill to walk on water.
A change/ increase in eco-tourism can identify a positive effect on the environment, as people are more aware of their surroundings. In turn, less waste and damage can be
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to tell how fast and how bad the consequences can be.
Boats are not only contributing to atmospheric pollution but also to marine pollution, let it be waste or noise.
recognized as a result. However, with normal tourism still present it is difficult to tell the specific impacts.
Specificity Every person that spends a night in a different town than he is living in can be considered a tourist. There is very little room for misinterpretation. However, effects of tourism in general , i.e. pollution, can derive from several sources and therefore can be prone misinterpreted
Since the ferries are only transporting passengers between the islands and the mainland, misinterpretations of the data can be excluded. However, effects of island tourism, i.e. pollution, can derive from several sources and therefore can be prone misinterpreted
Not only tourists are participating in these recreational activities. Therefore, the data could be prone to misinterpretation.
Measurement accuracy
Statistics and figures are annual provided by the government and other independent trustworthy sources. Under the EU Directive on tourism statistics, adopted in November 1995, all member states must regularly report a specified range of statistics to Eurostat, the statistical office of the European Community. Included in these statistics is the number of overnight stays in tourist accommodation.
Not all people that visit islands are staying there over-night. However, all of them have to go there by ferry. Therefore, data from ferry transfers and ticket sales can be used to analyse how many tourist visited the islands
Ticket operators have facts and figures regarding their ticket sell. However, other operators may also advertise with eco-tourism, which could result in misinterpretation of the data.
Spatial application
Data is available for all major tourist destinations,
When only island tourists are included in this research, the
Since most Eco-tourism activities are available throughout
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including islands and mainland destinations.
tourism on the mainland is left out. Therefore, many people that seek a holiday at the Wadden Sea don’t visit the islands. Therefore, a large group would be left out, which could impact the overall reliability of the outcome.
the Wadden Sea, a large proportion of the area can be analysed.
Historic data Annual reports with facts and figures are conducted. Therefore, also historic data can be obtained.
Annual reports with facts and figures are conducted. Therefore, also historic data can be obtained.
Annual reports with facts and figures are conducted. Therefore, also historic data can be obtained.
Measurement Since tourist accommodation businesses have to keep track of their visitors, it can be assumed that the data has low errors.
Ticket sales from ferry operators leave very little room for errors.
The data can include errors, since also other recreational possibilities can be seen as eco-tourism. It is difficult to tell the line between normal and eco-tourism which could result in errors. Also just including major eco-tourism activities leads to a false outcome
Acceptance At its most elemental, tourism is about numbers – numbers of visitors, numbers of cars, numbers of flights, numbers of hotels, apartments and campsites, numbers of restaurants, clubs and cafés. It is also about the impact of those numbers, whether it is negative (an
At its most elemental, tourism is about numbers – numbers of visitors, numbers of cars, numbers of flights, numbers of hotels, apartments and campsites, numbers of restaurants, clubs and cafés. It is also about the impact of those numbers, whether it is negative (an
Eco-tourism is widely accepted to decrease the impact on the environment. In turn, an increase or decrease in Eco-tourism can show a positive or negative trend. However, eco-tourism is very broad. And only including major eco-tourism activities can false the outcome.
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increase in CO2 emissions, water consumption, energy use, waste and litter, a decline in ecological and cultural diversity)_or positive – (more jobs, more money, more opportunities, more social inclusion, more stable and prosperous communities). This measurement is the necessary first step in an assessment of the relative weight of all those numbers and, therefore, of the relative benefits of tourism itself. Within that, this indicator can be used to simply determine whether the volume of tourism at the coast is increasing, stable or decreasing. (Vliz, 2016)
increase in CO2 emissions, water consumption, energy use, waste and litter, a decline in ecological and cultural diversity)_or positive – (more jobs, more money, more opportunities, more social inclusion, more stable and prosperous communities). This measurement is the necessary first step in an assessment of the relative weight of all those numbers and, therefore, of the relative benefits of tourism itself. Within that, this indicator can be used to simply determine whether the volume of tourism at the coast is increasing, stable or decreasing. (Vliz, 2016)
Score 12 13 2
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Appendix VI: Interrelation of sub-indicators
among each other
All sub-indicators are impacted by each other. This underlines again the interconnectivity of
the ecosystem as a whole. The following paragraphs should help to give more insight regarding
how the individual sub-indicators are impacted by another
Aquaculture production and number of employees and their impact on the
other sub-indicators
It is natural that the production of an aquaculture farm has a direct impact on the amount of
people that can be employed by the aquaculture farm. When the mussel production is
increasing, more mussels (or at least heavier) mussels are farmed. Anyhow, a higher production
means that there is more biomass that can be harvested. Also an expansion of the mussel plots
can lead to a higher production, both resulting in more work for the farmers. When there is
more production also more income is generated which in turn opens the possibility for
additional helpers/employees. Higher net weight of production = Higher number of
employees (and vice versa)
When aquaculture mussel production is increasing, it most likely is due to an expansion of the
plots or higher food intake. Nevertheless, more mussels are generated which can have a
negative impact on the habitat quality as a whole. More mussels on a specific spot can deplete
the available food in that specific area for other organisms. Therefore, when most of the
available food is taken up by the blue mussels, other animals won`t have the opportunity to use
that area as feeding grounds. Therefore, a high abundance of mussel plots can make the area
unsuitable for other animals due to a degradation of the habitat per se (Zimba, 2017).
Increase in mussel production = Higher food intake by mussels = Less food available for other
organisms = Decrease in habitat heterogeneity.
Additionally, when mussel fields are expanded in order to achieve a higher mussel production,
more space for these farms is needed. Within more space needed, other habitats (i.e. area of
mudflats) have to be sacrificed. Within that the natural habitat for other organisms can be
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degraded and fragmented in the worst case (DFO, 2006). Higher production of mussels =
More space needed = Higher habitat fragmentation.
As mentioned before, the most touristic overnight stays are conducted on the Wadden islands
(Sijtsma, Broersma, Daams, Hoekstra, & Werner, 2015). Ergo most of the tourists have to cross
the Wadden Sea via ferry. In order to be able to carry an increasing amount of tourist along the
channels to the Wadden Islands, these channels have to be maintained and dredged. Dredging
ferry channels results in a (temporary) increase in turbidity. The size of the mussels grown in
the Wadden Sea is dependent on fodder in the sea (phytoplankton). If the turbidity is high, the
plankton can absorb less sunlight, ergo it slows down their metabolism and reproduction rate.
In turn, the mussels have less phytoplankton to feed on, which will decrease their metabolism
and within that their growth (Angonesi, Bemvenuti, & Gandra, 2006). Increase in overnight
stays = Lower net weight of aquaculture production.
Look at bullet point above. If the net weight of the production is decreasing also less people
are needed or can be hired. Additionally, with an increase in tourism, more staff is needed to
take care of the tourist. Therefore, a shift in the industry could be the result if overnight stays
are sky rocking (Bakó, et al., 2000). Increase in overnight stays = decrease in employment.
As can be seen, all indicators are relevant to each other. There is not a single indicator that not
in one way or the other can become affected by the other indicators.
Habitat heterogeneity & fragmentation and their impact on the other sub-
indicators
Former studies have shown that the biodiversity of an area is very much correlated to the habitat
heterogeneity of a specific area. Especially for bird/avian studies this was shown to be the case.
Therefore, it can be said that a high biodiversity is dependent on the habitat heterogeneity.
However, the same studies suggest that in some areas the biodiversity was low, even if habitat
heterogeneity was high. The main conclusion was that the habitat types with low biodiversity,
but high habitat heterogeneity showed a high habitat fragmentation. “Negative effects of habitat
heterogeneity may occur as a consequence of fragmentation, causing the disruption of key
biological processes such as dispersal and resource acquisition.” (Tews, et al., 2004) High
fragmentation = less biodiversity = less habitat quality (Habitat heterogeneity) and vice versa
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When aquaculture mussel production is increasing, it most likely is due to an expansion of the
plots or higher food intake due to higher abundance of phytoplankton. Nevertheless, more
mussels are generated which can have a negative impact on the habitat quality as a whole. More
mussels on a specific spot can deplete the available food in that specific area for other
organisms. Therefore, when most of the available food is taken up by the blue mussels, other
animals won`t have the opportunity to use that area as feeding grounds. Therefore, a high
abundance of mussel plots can make the area unsuitable for other animals due to a degradation
of the habitat per se (Zimba, 2017). Increase in mussel production = higher food intake by
mussels = less food available for other organisms = decrease in habitat heterogeneity/increase
in habitat fragmentation.
Additionally, when mussel fields are expanded in order to achieve a higher mussel production,
more space for these farms is needed. Within more space needed, other habitats (i.e. area of
mudflats) have to be sacrificed. Within that the natural habitat for other organisms can be
degraded and fragmented in the worst case (DFO, 2006). Higher production of mussels =
More space needed = Higher habitat fragmentation
Ferry tourism and its impact on the other sub-indicators
Ferry tourism has a direct effect on the other cultural indicator, namely overnight stays. An
increase in ferry tourism also means that more people are visiting the islands. In turn, more
people increase the probability of people staying longer than just for a day trip. Therefore, an
increase in ferry tourism might result in an increase in overnight stays (i.e. (Sijtsma, Werner,
& Broersms, Recreatie en toerisme in het Waddengebied. Toekomstige
ontwikkelingsmogelijkheden en hun effecten op economie, duurzaamheid en identiteit,
2008)On the other hand, a decrease in ferry tourism directly indicates less passengers going to
the island and within that a lower probability that people spend the night. Increase ferry
tourism = Increase overnight stays (vice versa)
Ferry tourism in the Wadden Sea area has also impacts on the indicators of the Aquaculture
sector. An increase in ferry tourism can result in more and bigger boats to be needed in order
to transport the amount of tourists from the mainland to the Wadden islands. Since the Wadden
Sea is very shallow (depth between 1-3m) channels are man-made in order to allow ferries to
sail even at low tide. These channels have to be maintained and regularly dredged as if not they
would silt-up. When channels are maintained and/or dredged a (temporary) increase in turbidity
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is the case. The turbidity is decreasing the sunlight penetration within the water column and
within that is reducing the metabolism and growth rate of present phytoplankton. The
phytoplankton is the food source for all mussels that are grown in the Wadden Sea aquacultures.
Therefore, the amount of phytoplankton is (among others) the limiting factor for the growth
rate of the mussel. So, if phytoplankton is less abundant, mussels won’t grow as big as they
could (Angonesi, Bemvenuti, & Gandra, 2006). Increase in ferry tourism =
Increase in channel maintenance/dredging = Increase turbidity = Lowering phytoplankton
metabolism = Lowering mussel growth rate = Lowering net weight of production
Looking at the statement above, a lower net weight of mussel production in turn means less
income for aquaculture farmers as mussels are sold by weight and meat content. With a
shortened income as well as mussel production, also the risk of decreasing the staff and
especially part-time workers (holiday workers) are the outcome. Additionally, an increase in
ferry tourism indicates also an increase in tourism in general, which could maybe lead to a shift
in the industry as more stuff is needed to make the tourist happy (FAO, 2009).
Increase in ferry tourism = Decrease in aquaculture employment
Additionally, ferry tourism has also impacts on the habitats surrounding the area. If ferry
tourism is increasing (heavily), additional infrastructure (such as harbours) can be the result.
Additional infrastructure can put a high pressure on the ecosystem and its habitats as more
space is needed. Depending on where infrastructure is developed, environmental trade-offs can
be the case (i.e. (Bakó, et al., 2000)). Increase in ferry tourism = Increase in needed
infrastructure = (possible) Decrease in habitat heterogeneity & increase in habitat
fermentation
Overnight stays and its impact on the other sub-indicators
Overnight stays in the Wadden island region naturally has a direct impact on the ferry tourism
of the area. If overnight stays increase in the Wadden region, the area will become more known
across Europe (and maybe the world). In turn more tourists will come to the Wadden Island
and within that more overnight stays will be the result. Since most of the overnight stays are
conducted on the Wadden Island, an increase in overnight stays can in turn indicate an increase
in ferry tourism (Sijtsma, Broersma, Daams, Hoekstra, & Werner, 2015). Increase in
overnight stays = Increase in ferry tourism (and vice versa).
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Additionally, overnight stays have an impact on the habitat heterogeneity. More people always
results in more disturbance to the present habitats, which in turn has an impact on the animal
kingdom. When more people come to the islands, also more activities in nature can be expected,
since most of the tourists come to the Wadden islands because of the landscape and the animals
they can observe there (especially birds). However, this increase in tourism can have negative
impacts on the nature that can be found there (i.e. shoreline activities and recreation could
affect rare species of beach breeding birds or inadequate planning of tourism facilities and
buildings and buildings in coastal zones close to sensitive nature areas are issue of concern
(CWSS, 2013)). Especially new build infrastructure seems to be a big threat next to the
disturbance by people (Bakó, et al., 2000). Increase in tourism = Decrease in habitat
heterogeneity
As mentioned before, a higher amounts of overnight stays most likely result in more
development in the tourism sector and especially in related infrastructure (roads, harbours,
buildings, walking paths, etc.). This means that additional space is needed in order to develop
such infrastructure. The result can be that habitats are interrupted/ fragmented due to this new
development (Bakó, et al., 2000). Increase in overnight stays = increase in (infrastructure)
development = Increase in habitat fragmentation
Most touristic overnight stays are conducted on the Wadden islands (Sijtsma, Broersma,
Daams, Hoekstra, & Werner, 2015). Ergo most of the tourists have to cross the Wadden Sea
via ferry. In order to be able to carry an increasing amount of tourist along the channels to the
Wadden Islands, these channels have to be maintained and dredged. Dredging ferry channels
results in a (temporary) increase in turbidity. The size of the mussels grown in the Wadden Sea
is dependent on fodder in the sea (phytoplankton). If the turbidity is high, the plankton can
absorb less sunlight, ergo it slows down their metabolism and reproduction rate. In turn, the
mussels have less phytoplankton to feed on, which will decrease their metabolism and within
that their growth (Angonesi, Bemvenuti, & Gandra, 2006). Increase in overnight stays =
Decrease of net weight of aquaculture production.
Look at bullet point above. If the net weight of the production is decreasing also less people
are needed or can be hired. Additionally, with an increase in tourism, more staff is needed to
take care of the tourist. Therefore, a shift in the industry could be the result if overnight stays
are sky rocking (FAO, 2009). Increase in overnight stays = decrease in employment
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Appendix VII: Present measures in the Wadden Sea and their impact
on the Environment
Activity Bottom layer Microscopic Marine Life Soil Fish Birds Marine Mammals Landscape Score
Island Tourism No Effect No Effect No Effect No Effect Low Effect No Effect No Effect 13 Indicator cuture
Small Passenger Vessels No Effect No Effect No Effect No Effect
Outside Main Channels,
Possible Effect
Possible effect on
seals and porpoises Visual Effect 5 Indicator culture
Brown Fleet Sails No Effect No Effect No Effect No Effect
Signifigant Effect
(localized)
Signifigant Effect
(localized)
Positive Effect
(possible) 7
Private Small Boats and
Yachts No Effect No Effect No Effect No Effect
Signifigant Effect
(localized)
Signifigant Effect
(localized)
Moderate
Effect 3
Excursions to Seal Berths No Effect No Effect No Effect No Effect Localized Effect
Local decrease in
seals Low Effect 6
Mudflat Walkings Low Effect Low Effect Very Low Effect Low Effect Moderate Effect (Local) Local Effect No Effect 3
Mussel Fisheries and Farms
Sludge on
Farming Plots
(Nutrients)
Local Effects on Plankton and
Primary Productivity
By trawling Mussel
Seed, Less Natural
Banks Fewer natural banks More Sea Ducks No Effect
Visual
Disturbance
by MZI -10 Indicator Provisioning
Shrimp Fisheries Low Effect No Effect
Effect on Benthos and
Sea Grass
Effect on Various
Fish Species
Positive effect on
seagulls No Effect Low Effect 5
Cockle Raking/Fishing (by
Hand) Low Effect No Effect
Local effect on cockle
stocks and other soil
life No Effect
Some effect through
Food competition and
Disruption No Effect
Very Low
Effect 4
Trawl Fisheries (flat-fish)
Moderate
Impact (WWZ) No Effect
Damage on only the
first cms of soil,
especiall WWZ (more
with Beam)
Effect on various
species of fish
because of main and
by-catch No Effect No Effect No Effect 3
Fishing with passive gear No Effect No Effect No Effect No Effect
Unclear (can be Large
Effect)
Unclear (can be
Large Effect) No Effect 8
Mechanical Pier mining
Strong Local
Effect No Effect Strong Local Effect No Effect Strong Local Effect No Effect Limited Effect -1
North Sea Fisheries No Effect Possible Effects Possible Effects
Effects Fish Diversity
(Target vs. Bycatch) Possible Effects Probably No Effect No Effect 2
Handraking for Japanese
Oysters No Effect No Effect
Local effect on the
oyster stocks and other
soil life No Effect
Possibe large local effect
through disruption, less-
so through competition No Effect
Very Low
Effect 5
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Gas Extraction Small Effect No Effect Small Effect No Effect Small Effect No Effect No Effect 11 Possible measurement option
Salt Extraction
Possible Local
drop No Effect Possible Local Effect No Effect
Possible local effect,
larger effect on
migratory birds No Effect Small Effect 10 Possible measurement option
Shell Extraction
Large Local
Effect Large Local Effect Large Local Effect? No Effect Possible Positive Effect No Effect No Effect 3 Possible measurement option
Port-Realted Activities (non-
milaty) No Effect ? ? ? ? ? Large Effect 0
Wind Energy No Effect No Effect No Effect No Effect Large Effect Local Effect
Moderate
Effect (visual
and sound
pollution) 6
Military Activity No Effect No Effect No Effect No Effect Large Effect Local Effect
Visual and
Noise
pollution 3
Helicopters and Small Planes No Effect No Effect No Effect No Effect Collisions (Texel) Low Effect
Visual and
Noise
pollution
(Ameland and
Texel) 5
Seal Watching (opvang) No Effect No Effect No Effect No Effect No Effect
Less risk of disease
resistance and
unnatural
developments No Effect 14
Channel Maintenance and
Dredging
Change in
Morphology Increased Turbidity Effects on Benthos
Effect of
Underwater Noise Small Effect of noise
Effect of
Underwater Noise
Low visual
disturbance -10 Possible measurement option
Ferry and Road Connections No Effection Decreased PP close to Channels No Effect No Effect Moderate Effect Effects by Noise
Visual
Disturbance 0 Indicator Cultural
Laying and Maintenance of
Cables and Pipelines
Regular Local
distrubances Increase in Turbididty
Temporary Effect of
Soil disturbance
Disruption dueing
construction and
permanent due to
magnetic fields No Effect
Disruption via
magnetic fields
Temporary
Visual
Disturbance -10
Sand Nourishments Small Effect Small Effect Small Effect No Effect Small Effect No Effect No Effect 10
Land Reclamation
Change in
morphodynami
cs, less sea-
area
Decrease in life via decrease in
sea bed
Reduction in Sandbar
extent
Less due to less sea
surface
New/Increased Resting
Sites New Rest Areas
Change in
landscape
composition -14 Possible measurement option
Rise in Sea Temperature No Effect Various Effects Various Effects Various Effects
Fewer Birds due to a
decrease in food supply Limited Effect Limited Effect -4 Use as Scenario (?!)
Acidification of Seawater No Effect Change in composition Less Shellfish
Change in
composition
Few Birds? (change in
food supplies) No Effect Limited Effect -2 Use as Scenario (?!)
Versnelede stijgig zeepiegel
>50 years :
Large Effect >50 years: No effect >50 years : Large effect >50 years: No effect >50 years: Large Effect
>50 years: Limited
Effect
>50 years:
Limited Effect 0 Use as Scenario (?!)
236
Increase in Storms No Effect No Effect No Effect No Effect
Large Effect on Breeding
Birds No Effect No Effect 10 Use as Scenario (?!)
Reduced Euttrophication No Effect
A shift in Algal Population
Composition (Currently
unnaturally skewed in the N:P
ratio) Less Oxygen Deficiency
More oppertunities
for Sea Grass No Effect (Yet?) No Effect (Yet?) No Effect 3 Possible measurement option
Contamination with micro-
Plastics No Effect No Effect
Negative Impact,
specifically on worms Negative Effect (?)
Negative impact on
Arctic storm birds and
worm eaters No Effect No Effect 4 Use as Scenario (?!)
Introduction of New toxins No Effect No Effect No Effect No Effect
Negative Effect on Insect
Eaters No Effect No Effect 10 Use as Scenario (?!)
Exotic Species introduction No Effect
Increased Predation by Comb
Jellies
Shifting Population
Structure
Increased Predation
by Comb Jellies
Reduction in food for
shellfish eaters No Effect No Effect -2 Use as Scenario (?!)
Increased Predation of Birds No Effect No Effect No Effect No Effect
Negative effect on colony
brethren, like Arctic tern,
common tern and avocet No Effect No Effect 10 Use as Scenario (?!)
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Appendix VIII: Original measure impact matrix
Table 48: Measure impact matrix based on literature review
MeasureImage Title EffectProvisioningNet weight of production Nb. Of employees EffectRegulating&MaintenanceHabitat heterogeneity Habitat fragmentation EffectCultural Overnight stays Ferry tourism
x General -0,8 -1,3 -0,3 -2,3 -3,0 -1,7 3,8 2,7 5,0
x Inland expansion: mainland -0,5 -1 0 -2 -3 -1 3,5 2 5
x Inland expansion: barrier island -0,5 -1 0 -1,5 -2 -1 4,5 4 5
x Inland expansion: nature areas -1,5 -2 -1 -3,5 -4 -3 3,5 2 5
x Channel maintenance/Dredging -1,5 -2 -1 -3 -3 -3 3 2 4
x Additional nourishment: barrier islands -0,5 -1 0 0 0 0 3 4 2
x Reuse dredged material 0 0 0 1,5 2 1 3 4 2
x Renewable energy 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 0
x Habitat creation 2 3 1 4 5 3 0
x Pollution limits/policies 3 4 2 3 4 2 3 4 2
x Inland connection: road 0,5 1 0 -1,5 -1 -2 2 3 1
X Tourist accommodation 0 0 0 -1,5 -2 -1 4 5 3
x Sand mining -0,5 -1 0 -1,5 -2 -1 1,5 1 2
x Shell mining -0,5 -1 0 -1,5 -2 -1 1,5 1 2
x Gas mining -0,5 -1 0 -1,5 -2 -1 -0,5 -1 0
Provisioning ES (Aquaculture) Regulating & Maintenance ES (Habitats) Cultural ES (Tourism)
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Appendix IX: Expert measure impact matrix
Table 49: Measure impact matrix based in expert knowledge
Title EffectProvisioningNet weight of production Nb. Of employees EffectRegulating&MaintenanceHabitat heterogeneity Habitat fragmentation EffectCulturalOvernight stays Ferry tourism
General -0,8 -1,3 -0,3 -2,3 -3,0 -1,7 3,8 2,7 5,0
Inland expansion: mainland -0,5 -1 0 0,0 0 0 2,5 2 3
Inland expansion: barrier island -0,5 -1 0 0,0 0 0 3,5 4 3
Inland expansion: nature areas -1,5 -2 -1 0,0 0 0 2,5 2 3
Channel maintenance/Dredging -0,5 -1 0 -1,5 -3 0 2,0 1 3
Additional nourishment: barrier islands 0,0 0 0 0,0 0 0 1,0 1 1
Reuse dredged material 0,0 0 0 1,5 2 1 3,0 4 2
Renewable energy 0,0 0 0 0,0 0 0 -0,5 -1 0
Habitat creation 1,0 1 1 4,0 5 3 2,0 3 1
Pollution limits/policies 2,0 3 1 3,0 4 2 2,0 3 1
Inland connection: road 0,0 0 0 0,0 0 0 2,0 3 1
Tourist accommodation 0,0 0 0 -1,5 -2 -1 3,0 4 2
Sand & Shell mining 0,0 0 0 0,0 0 0 0,0 0 0
Gas mining 0,0 0 0 0,0 0 0 -0,5 -1 0
Provisioning ES (Aquaculture) Regulating & Maintenance ES (Habitats) Cultural ES (Tourism)
239
Appendix X: Visualization options for the
main design
Design option I: One Barrier Island
The first design option contains the mainland of the Wadden Sea region, the Wadden Sea itself
and one barrier island. The barrier island design is inspired from satellite imagery of the
Wadden island Ameland (Figure 32). The island Ameland is the third biggest island of the
West Frisians and is mostly consisting out of sand dunes. The island itself is very tourism
orientated, with many tourists wandering around the dunes searching for wildlife. Additionally,
the shape of the island offers many possibilities to project as much information as necessary
on it.
As mentioned above, the barrier island is consisting mostly out of (sandy) dunes. Therefore,
also in the game design itself, the island will consist out of dunes (green shrubs) and sandy
shores (yellow dotted area). Nonetheless, not the whole island is just sand and dunes, as also
anthropogenic activities are taking place on this Wadden Island. One of the most important
activities on the island, which is also a main indicator of the game, is (ferry) tourism. To
visualize this on the island, a city (oval brick shaped area) as well as a harbour (blue squared
area) as a ferry connection point is projected on the island. The ferry connection (red dotted
line) is drawn between the island and the mainland almost exactly as it can be found in real life
between Holwerd and Nes Ameland (Figure 32). In order to allow recreational activities like
hiking or biking to be possible, paved paths (grey dotted line) are present on the island as well.
Also the design of the mainland is inspired by satellite imagery of the area. Therefore, the
(ferry) harbour (blue squared area) that connects the mainland with the barrier islands is
positioned closely to the town (brick shaped area). In front of the town towards the sea,
wetlands (beige coloured area) and sandy shores (yellow dotted area) can be found. These
wetlands and sandy shores are separated from the rest of the mainland via a road symbolizing
the sparsely available infrastructure on the Wadden mainland. Behind this road, agriculture
fields (red hexagons, yellow crossed lines, green lined hatch) that mark the area can be found.
240
The fields can consist out of a variety of crops as is symbolized by the variety of hatches used
(Figure 32).
Finally, the main elements for the Wadden Sea area itself are the multiple aquaculture plots.
The aquaculture plots are rectangular shaped (blue lined area). They are even stronger
emphasised with red flags.
Additionally, it is proposed that the Wadden Sea within the game is, as in real life, changing
tides (Figure 33). That means that during low tide most of the water of the Wadden Sea region
is disappearing, making room for the intertidal mudflats (brown shaped hatch). The only
remaining water is within the ferry connection channel running between the mainland and the
barrier island (red line within the blue wave shaped hatch). This could be influenced in a later
stage within the measurement options, but more on that later on. During low tide also the
aquaculture beds could be made more visible (i.e. mussels instead of blue lined hatches).
Additionally, more activities could take place, making the simulation more realistic to the
participant.
Figure 32: Satellite imagery Am eland (Left) source: maps.google.com, Game design option 1
– one island (right)
Figure 33: From water to mud. Game
design option
241
Design option II: Two islands & two cities
The second design option is consisting out of the mainland, the sea and two barrier islands. By
including a second island, the transition zone between the Wadden and the North Sea becomes
clearer, while there are more opportunities in using this second island. Again, this design option
is inspired from satellite imagery of the Wadden region. Next to the island Ameland also the
island of Terschelling is included into the design (Figure 34).
The idea behind the design stays the same. The islands are hotspots for (ferry) tourism, which
is indicated by city (brick shaped hatch) with a little harbour on the island (blue squared area),
the ferry connection line (red dotted line) and the big harbour (blue square with curved black
lines) on the mainland. Again, paved pathways (grey dotted line) allow recreational activities
on the island while symbolising the sparse infrastructure on the barrier islands of the Wadden
Sea. Additionally, as in real life, the islands are mainly consisting out of (sand) dunes (green
shrubs) and sandy shores (yellow doted area) which also is taken into the game design. The
main difference between the fist and the second design is the additional barrier island. Within
this design, the island is left “empty” from anthropogenic activity. Therefore, this island can be
used to visualize different animals and habitats (Figure 35).
The mainland pretty much stays the same as in design option I. A bigger city (brick shaped
hatch) with a bigger harbour is situated on the mainland. The city and the harbour, together with
the ferry connection are inspired from the town of Harlingen. The city is connected by one road
(black line), which indicates the sparsely available infrastructure in the Wadden region.
Towards the seaside, in front of the road, wetlands and to some extend sandy shores can be
found. On the landward side behind the road, agricultural fields can be found (red hexagon,
orange striped hatches & green striped hatches). The possibility to include different variations
of crops is indicated by the different shapes and styles of the fields.
Finally, at sea the aquaculture plots can be found. These are indicated by blue squared areas
with blue lines as hatches. Additionally, red flags at the corner of the plots symbolize the
boundaries of the individual aquaculture plots. The possibility to let the Wadden Sea retrieve is
thought to be implemented in the design.
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Figure 34: Satellite imagery of Harlingen area as used for design inspiration. Source:
maps.google.com
Figure 35: Design option II - two islands two cities
243
Design option III: Two islands & three cities
The third design option is again inspired by the same satellite imageries from the region. This
means that two barrier islands are inspired by the islands Ameland and Terschelling. The left
island (Terschelling) includes a city (brick shaped hatches, inspired by the city location of
Midsland) as well as a ferry harbour (blue squared area). The locations of the harbours, as well
as the ferry connections, are also inspired by present available infrastructures (Figure 34).
While Terschelling is used to visualize (ferry) tourism, the other island of Ameland can be used
to show wildlife species in their habitats. Both islands are consisting out of (sandy) dunes (green
shrubs) as well as sandy shorelines (yellow dotted area) as that is the main characteristic of the
actual islands (Figure 37).
The mainland region, of this design option, consists out of one bigger city (inspired by
Harlingen city) and one smaller city (inspired by Holwerd city). Both cities are connected via
a road representing the sparsely available infrastructure in the Wadden region. The harbour that
connects the mainland and barrier islands by ferry is situated near the bigger city. In front of
the road toward the seaside, wetlands (beige coloured area) and to some extend sandy shores
(yellow area) can be found. On the landward side, behind the road, different agricultural fields
can be found (Figure 37).
Finally, at sea aquaculture plots are situated in the middle of the Wadden Sea. The aquaculture
plots are located between the islands and in the middle of the frame due to space saving purposes
and nicer alignment to the rest. As before the aquaculture plots are symbolized by blue
rectangles with red flags at the corners. Again the possibility to let the Wadden Sea retrieve is
thought to be implemented in the design (Figure 37).
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Figure 37: Design option IV: two islands & three cities
Design option IV: Two islands & four cities
The fourth design option is consisting out of two barrier islands, the Wadden Sea and the
mainland. Again, the design is inspired by the two islands of Terschelling and Ameland. The
left island (Terschelling) is connected to the mainland via a small harbour that is situated next
to a smaller city (inspired by the city Midsland). The ferry travels along the red dotted line to
the big city located on the mainland (inspired by Harlingen city). The right island (Ameland)
also has a connection to the mainland via the small harbour located next to the smaller city
(inspired by the city Nes). The harbour has also a ferry connection to the mainland to the smaller
city (inspired by Holwerd). Together, both islands indicate (ferry) tourism in combination with
wildlife habitats (the (sandy) dunes and sandy shores) and species, as it can be found at the
present locations, making this design probably the most realistic one. Nevertheless, it has to be
taken into account that the participants might be overwhelmed with the design as there is much
going on (Figure 38).
As mentioned above the design of the mainland is inspired by satellite imagery of the Harlingen
area. One bigger city (Harlingen) and one smaller city (Holwerd) are situated on the mainland
and are connected via a road, symbolising the sparsely present infrastructure in the Wadden
region. Additionally, as in the other designs, the seaward side consists out of wetlands and to
some extend sandy shores, while the landward site consists out of a variety of agricultural fields.
Finally, in the middle of the Wadden Sea, the aquaculture plots can be found. As before, these
are visualized with rectangle blue boxes with flags at the corners. The design again should be
able to let the Wadden Sea water retrieve, leaving the Aquaculture ponds and the mud-flats
245
exposed. Just ferry channels should be still filled with water to allow ferries to move between
the islands and the mainland.
Figure 38: Game design option IV - two islands, four cities
247
Appendix XII: Visualization options of
indicators for the ESSG
As mentioned in previous chapters, the visualization of all components of the game is crucial
for its success. In order to achieve the overall goal, to raise awareness regarding the
interconnection of ecosystem services and anthropogenic measurements, the right visualization
is a key factor, as the participants can detect changes directly from playing environment. This
is especially true for the visualization of the three indicators, namely tourism, habitats &
aquaculture, as they are the number one feedback for the participants in order to know how the
current state of the environment is. Since all three indicators are validated by two sub-indicators,
the visualization of those sub-indicators will stand in focus in this chapter. Several options on
how to visualize these sub-indicators are presented within this chapter.
Tourism
The first, among three, indicators to determine the current state of the Wadden Sea environment
within the ESSG is tourism. Tourism is chosen because it shows that recreational activities are
possible in the Wadden region, which in turn directly benefit human well-being and therefore
is falling under the cultural ecosystem service classification of CICES. The indication of
tourism is subdivided into two sub-indicators, which determine the current state of tourism
within the ESSG. These two sub-division are overnight stays and ferry tourism. However, there
are lots of different possibilities in order to visualize an increase or decrease in these two sub-
divisions. Within this sub-chapter, several possibilities to visualize these indicators within the
ESSG are presented. This should help the client (Deltares) as well as experts (serious game
designers) to choose the most suitable visualization option in order to easily and efficiently
show the participant of the game if the measurers they implemented within the game have
positive or negative impacts on these ecosystem services. Additionally, also a combination of
visualization possibilities can be a possibility. However, the feasibility of this option is left to
the experts.
Overnight stays
The first sub-indicator which is determining the current state of tourism within the ESSG is
overnight stays. Overnight stays are a suitable indication of how many people visit the Wadden
248
region for recreation, since there are more overnight staying tourist present in the Wadden
region than day-trippers (CWSS, 2013). However, there are several options how an increase or
decrease in overnight tourism stays can be visualized within the ESSG. Therefore, three
different options are presented here for the client (Deltares) and the experts to choose from, in
order to pick the most suitable indicator visualization for all participants.
a. Hotel development on the islands
The first option for visualizing overnight stays within the ESSG is to visualize an increase or
decrease in hotel development, preferably on the islands since most tourism in the Wadden
region can be found there (Sijtsma, Broersma, Daams, Hoekstra, & Werner, 2015). Hotel
development can be visualized in such a way that the hotels on the barrier islands within the
ESSG are developed or undeveloped. This means, that the hotels which can be found on the
barrier islands vary in size and shape. The size and shapes of the hotels therefore are dependent
on the present score determined for overnight stays in the Wadden region, which in turn then
results in the most suitable shape and size of the hotel. Within a growth and a development of
these hotels, the participant of the ESSG gets direct visual feedback on the development of this
sub-indicator. A way to visualize this un/development of accommodation on the islands can be
done in five steps, leaving enough freedom for changes even with small impacts on the
overnight stays indication. Therefore the different hotel accommodation can range from small
beach huts to slightly bigger bungalows, bigger private houses, hotels and ending in bigger
resorts (Figure 40). These five steps in the accommodation choices are inspired by present
accommodations that can be found on the Wadden islands, which is also ranging from simple
huts and camping sites to luxury apartments/hotels (i.e. CWSS, 2016 & PROWAD, 2012).
Figure 40: 5 steps in hotel development. Ranging from simple beach huts to luxury hotels.
249
Within this five step development of hotel accommodations, the participant of the ESSG gets
feedback about how the tourism in the Wadden Sea region is currently developed. When a small
beach hut is visualized within the game, the participant can realize that accommodation is
limited, ergo less tourism is possible. When tourism is increasing, due to specific measures
taken within the ESSG, the sizes and shapes of the accommodations are increasing visualizing
that more tourist can be accommodated, ergo tourism is increasing. This means that the hotel
accommodations which are visualized are dependent on the current score the participant
achieved in the game. The switching point for the development of these hotel accommodations
will depend on the data fed into the program. This can also go the other way around, as hotel
accommodations can get undeveloped when the score for overnight stays is decreasing (i.e.
when no action for tourism is taken within the game).
However, a downside of this visualization technique is that there is no reference point for the
participant if tourism is too high and within that has negative impacts on the other indicators
(aquaculture and habitats). The participant could interpret a luxury 5-star hotel with a lot of
accommodations as something entirely positive, which would lead to false assumptions, and
within that to an unwished (learning) outcome.
b. Changing the amount of people within the ESSG
Another way to visualize an increase or decrease in overnight stays is to change the amount of
people within the ESSG. When following the definition of tourism from the World Tourist
Organization (UNWTO) tourism literally means that people are travelling to other places:
"Tourism comprises the activities of persons traveling to and staying in places outside their
usual environment for not more than one consecutive year for leisure, business and other
purposes." (UN, 2008). Therefore, this definition not only comprises foreign tourism, but also
national tourism, which both play an important role in Wadden Sea tourism (Sijtsma, Broersma,
Daams, Hoekstra, & Werner, 2015). Even if a distinguishing between national and international
tourism seems like an impossible task, the amount of people at the beach at least can easily
visualize how much tourism is going on within the ESSG.
In comparison to the first option (the development of hotel accommodations) the participant
can recognize when there is too little or too much tourism happening within the ESSG. Again
five steps can effectively visualize the amount of tourism within the ESSG. Especially, if
possible, in combination with other recreational activities (i.e. hiking, bird watching, swimming
250
or mudwalking), the participant can not only see an increase or decrease in tourism but even a
development of tourism. Therefore, the range of people within the ESSG can range from no
person at all, visualizing that tourism is missing and a need for development is needed, to a
crowded beach/island, visualizing too much tourism and possible negative effects to other
ecosystem services (Figure 41). Additionally, when the score for overnight stays has reached
an optimum, also this can be visualized as a mix of different recreational possibilities can be
visualized without making the environment look overcrowded.
Figure 41: Five step tourism development. From no tourism to optimal to overcrowded
All in all there are a lot of possibilities by visualizing overnight stays by projecting different
amount of people and activities into the gaming environment. Especially that too much tourism
can be displayed is a major strength from this visualization possibility, as it offers easy
recognition by the participant as well as additional possibilities to link it directly to other
indicators in the game.
c. Changing lights presents in hotel rooms
Another option to visualize overnight stays would be to change the amount of lights that are
glowing out of the hotel rooms. However, it must be assumed that all hotels in the ESSG are
similar to each other to eliminate the possibility of wrong interpretation since changing the
amount of lights could also be a regular game component without strong meaning. However,
changing the amounts of light shining out of hotel rooms can also be an easy indication for the
participant of the game, especially if it is announced before the game.
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Changing the amount of lights shining out of the hotel rooms shows the participant how used
the current accommodations in the game environment are, assumed that bigger hotels with
enough windows are implemented into the game. Nevertheless, the gamer can recognize when
no light is shining out of the hotel that the hotel is empty and more need for tourism is present.
In contrast, the gamer can also recognize that there is too much tourism when all lights in the
hotel are shining bright, symbolizing that the hotel is full and more needs to be done to tackle
the problem of overwhelming tourism (Figure 42).
Figure 42: Example of the visualization of different amounts of lights. Source:
http://image.shutterstock.com/
This possibility has the advantage that the message of the amount of tourism is transmitted to
the participant in a more indirect way, leaving more possibilities for other components for the
game. However, it can be difficult to visualize different steps within an increase or decrease of
overnight stays within the game. Only small light changes will probably not have enough
informative power to effectively show the participant of the game how the tourism indicator is
performing just by looking at the hotels. Big changes like no tourism or too much tourism will
still be visible, but a clearer indication of steps between can be difficult to accomplish.
Ferry Tourism
Another indicator for determining the overall state of tourism within the ESSG is ferry tourism.
Ferry tourism is one of the most important tourism activities in the Wadden Sea, since the
majority of tourism (87%) is happening on the islands (Sijtsma, Broersma, Daams, Hoekstra,
& Werner, 2015). Therefore, visualizing ferry tourism is not only a major key point of the game
itself but also can be used to show the participant the current state of tourism within the game.
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However, there are several different possibilities in order to visualize ferry tourism. Three
possibilities are mentioned here.
a. The amount of ferries that sail between the barrier island(s) and the mainland
The first possibility to visualize an increase or decrease of ferry tourism within the ESSG is to
change the amount of ferries which sail between the barrier island and the mainland. Within
that, the participant can directly recognize if and how much ferry tourism is going on within the
game. Different steps, depending on the score for this sub-indicator, can be visualized in
changing the amount of ferries. Starting with no ferries whatsoever to show that there is no
ferry tourism happening and a need for development to a crowded waterway with several ferries
to show that there is too much/enough tourism and the point of focus switch to a different
indicator. To be consistent with the other proposed possibilities for other sub-indicators, the
amount of steps is proposed to range between 0-4 ferries (Figure 43). As before, this allows a
five step development, leaving enough room for changes even if the indicator is just minimally
affected.
Figure 43: The amount of ferries can vary to show different states of ferry tourism
While changing the amount of ferries can be very effective in visualizing the current state of
ferry tourism within the ESSG, it also has some downsides. Ferries in the Wadden Sea have
only smaller channels to navigate between the islands and the mainland. Since it is aimed to
project also different tides within the game, only channels will be present for navigating the
ferries through the mud. This could result into possible conflicts within the game design on the
one hand, but on the other could also lead to the opportunity to combine it with measures like
channel dredging and maintenance.
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b. Changing the size and shapes of the ferries
Another possibility in visualizing ferry tourism within the ESSG is to change the design and
shape of the ferry going between the island(s) and mainland. This is very similar to the different
hotel accommodation possibility. Also here, the shapes and sizes of the ferries are inspired by
present ferries that operate in the Wadden Sea. Different operators in the Wadden Sea (i.e.
Waddenveer, Rederij-doeksen, Robbenboot) are using different types of boats. These boats are
varying a lot in sizes starting from small rib-boats to large car-ferries. These different types of
boats can also be in order to visualize different stages of ferry tourism within the game (Figure
44).
Figure 44: Different size and shapes of current available ferries within the Wadden Sea.
By changing the size and shapes of the ferries, the participant of the ESSG will be able to
recognize an increase or decrease in ferry tourism. Five different levels of different sized ferries
make it possible to give a good indication of this sub-indicator even when it is only slightly
affected. Therefore the steps could be ranging from no ferries over smaller foot-ferries up to
large car-ferries. Additionally, the game can profit by taking the present Wadden Sea ferries as
design inspirations as it appears to be more real rather than fictional.
c. Changing the harbour size within the ESSG
Another possibility to visualize an increase or decrease in ferry tourism within the ESSG would
be to change the size of the harbour or even harbours. Since there must be two individual
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harbours to allow ferries to sail between the island(s) and the mainland, the possibility is also
there to change the size of these harbours. By changing the size of the harbours the participants
will be able to recognize a change within the game as bigger harbours are usually associated
with more activity.
However, changing the size of the harbours in order to visualize an increase or decrease in ferry
tourism can also have its downsides. One possible conflict is regarding measures that could be
implemented into the ESSG. One specific measurement that could lead to conflicts is “port
development”. By implementing this visualization possibility, the opportunity to include port
expansion as a measure within the game is eliminated since it these two would contradict with
each other.
Aquaculture
The second indicator chosen for the ESSG is entitled Aquaculture. Aquaculture, especially
mussel aquaculture, is a very well developed business in the Netherlands and especially in the
Wadden Sea region. About 82 individual mussel aquaculture farms can be found in the Wadden
Sea, of which 91% are using bottom culture as their main technique (Hagos, 2007) (chapter
4.1.1). Therefore, aquaculture is not only an important source of food for humans, but also a
very important income source for aquaculture farmers in the Wadden Sea, since the value of
the production is estimated to be about €55, 5 million yearly (FAO, National Aquaculture Sector
Overview Netherlands, 2016). This makes aquaculture a more than suitable indicator for the
provisioning ecosystem classification of CICES.
In order to determine the current state of the Aquaculture sector within the ESSG, two sub-
indicators are introduced to the game. These two sub-indicators are the number of employees
and the net weight of the production. However, there are many possibilities how these two
indicators can be visualized to the participant of the game. Again, several options are presented
in order to help the client (Deltares) as well as the experts (serious game designers) to choose
the most suitable one. Also combinations might be possible if the feasibility of the combination
is assigned by the experts.
Net weight of mussel production
As mentioned above, the aquaculture sector is providing many of the people in the Wadden
region with food and income. However, the amount of mussels that have been harvested is the
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number one indication of how much value has been generated. Within that, it can be directly
visible how much food and therefore how much monetary value has been generated. When
looking at data from 2005-2006 the total production of blue mussel was around 58.000 tonnes,
resulting in a market value of nearly €55, 5million. However, there are several possibilities to
visualize the participant of the ESSG an increase or decrease in the net weight of mussel
production. Several options are presented here so the client (Deltares) and the experts (serious
game designers) can choose the most suitable ones.
a. Changing the size of the mussel plots within the ESSG
One easy indication of a higher or lower production of mussels is by increasing and decreasing
the size of the aquaculture plots. By increasing and decreasing the size of the individual mussel
plots the participant can recognize a visual change in the environment. Within that, the
participant can realize that when only small farms are present that the production is low while
when the farms are from a gigantic scale that the production is high. This is more a logical
constellation since it has to be assumed that with a large aquaculture plot more mussels can be
harvested than from smaller plots.
Again five individual steps can visualize the net weight of production indicator. Therefore, the
plots could be absent when production is very low and start to grow when production is higher.
An optimal size should be reached by approaching a middle value while when exceeding this
value the plots grow to an unfeasible size. Nonetheless, there is the slight chance that even
enormous fields are interpreted by the participant as something wanted since more seems to be
always better in real-life. Therefore, it must be ensured that the fields reach an unreal size so
the participant won`t be able to interpret the fields wrong.
b. Changing the amount of plots in the Wadden Sea
Another opportunity to visualize a growth or decline in net weight production is by changing
the amount of aquaculture plots in the Wadden Sea. By changing the amount instead of the size
a clearer development of the sector can be achieved. By just changing the size the participant
could also not realize a change if the steps are too small. However, by changing the amount of
plots located in the gaming environment, the participant can easily recognize a growth or
decline in the aquaculture sector.
The amount of plots can again be done within five individual steps in order to indicate the
current state of aquaculture in the Wadden Sea. Therefore, if the aquaculture sector value of the
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game is at its minimum no aquaculture farm can be visualized, showing the participant an
absence of aquaculture and a need for change. Further on, the amount of aquaculture plots can
grow with each step by two to three plots. It is dissuaded to just go forwards in one plot steps
as such a small change can also not be recognized by the participant. Additionally, five
aquaculture plots at the most would not be enough to visualize a surplus of aquaculture plots
and a need for change. Therefore, individual steps of 2-3 aquaculture plots (more or less) will
result in a clear visual communication between the game and the participant. Also ending at
10+ plots again is a clear way to realize that the focus point should change to other measures
(Figure 45).
Figure 45: Changing the amount of aquaculture plots as visual feedback for the participant
Number of employees
As mentioned above, the aquaculture sector is a well-developed sector, on which many people
are directly depended as their main source of income. The indicator was chosen after expert
meetings at Deltares. The experts are specialized in ecosystem services in the Wadden Sea.
They mentioned that by looking at the amount of people working at an individual farm, the size
of the farm can be identified. Also a development trend over time can be possible to recognize
by looking at the amount of people working in the aquaculture farms. However, there are
several ways how an increase or decrease of people working at the aquaculture farms can be
visualized within the ESSG. Therefore, several options are presented below.
a. Changing the amount of mussel dredging boats
The first option to visualize an increase or decrease in the amount of people working at the
aquaculture farms is by increase or decrease the amount of mussel dredging boats. This can be
done also in 5 steps, as done with the other indicator options. Therefore, zero boats would
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indicate that the Aquaculture sector is doing badly and there is a need for improvement. On the
other hand, if five boats are present it can be realized that there is too much going on and the
focus of the layer should switch to a different indicator. Again a perfect balance can be found
between zero and five.
However, by increasing the amount of boats and machinery around the aquaculture plots the
participant will be able to see actual work happening at the mussel fields or even not if the
indicator shows a badly developed aquaculture sector. However, also by increasing the amount
of boats with a more developed sector, it can also become too crowded around the aquaculture
fields and the participant of the game can realize that there is a need for a change.
b. Introducing workers to the game
Another possibility to visualize an increase or decrease in the amount of employees at
aquaculture farms is to literally introduce workers in the field. One of the main ideas is to let
the Wadden Sea disappear like it does in real-life. When the water has retrieved, the mudflats
and aquaculture plots become visible. And when the fields are visible, they are also accessible
to humans or employees of the aquaculture farms.
The amount of workers on the fields is again dependent on the score the participant has achieved
during the game and the actual data fed into the game. However, also here, too many people
can indicate the participant that the mussel plots are overcrowded, exactly like with too many
people resulting in a crowded beach.
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Animal habitats
The third and last indicator of the ESSG is animal habitats. Habitats are an important part of
the ecosystem as it provides space for animals to feed or nest. Therefore, it is important to the
overall biodiversity of the ecosystem that natural habitats are present in rich abundance and
space. Especially the Wadden Sea is providing food and nesting opportunities for millions of
local, but also migrating, bird species. To indicate how the current state of animal habitats is in
the Wadden region, two sub-indicators are used. These indicators are firstly habitat
heterogeneity and secondly habitat fragmentation. These two sub-indicators play an important
role when looking at the (bird) species diversity of an area (Tews, et al., 2004). On the other
hand, studies have shown that even habitats with a high heterogeneity had low species diversity
when habitat fragmentation was high. Therefore, both indicators supplement each other.
The visualization of habitats can be very challenging though. It has to be feasible to program
on the one hand while visualizing a good or bad change in the environment to the participant.
Habitat heterogeneity & Fragmentation
The first sub-indicator to determine the current status of the Wadden Sea is habitat
heterogeneity. Habitat heterogeneity has been defined in many different ways (i.e. (Kolasa &
Rollo, 1991)). Additionally the definition of habitat heterogeneity changes from small scale
single plan (Lawton, 1983) to landscape patterns (Böhning-Gaese, 1997). However, since the
biggest focus in the Wadden Sea is on bird species, large scale patterns are used to determine
the habitat heterogeneity. This gets underlined by studies that show that the species diversity of
avian fauna is highly depended on habitat heterogeneity of an area (Tews, et al., 2004).
On the other hand, the second indicator is habitat fragmentation. Studies have shown that an
environment with high habitat heterogeneity can still have low species diversity. In nearly all
studies, this low species diversity was then back related to a low habitat fragmentation (Tews,
et al., 2004). Habitat fragmentation can easiest be expressed as a landscape-scale process
involving both habitat loss and the breaking apart of habitat (Fahrig, 2003). This means when
the habitat fragmentation is low, the habitat consists out of one big mono-habitat, while when
fragmentation is high the environment consists out of smaller mosaic shaped habitats that
together become a large habitat (Fahrig, 2003).
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Nonetheless, the visualization of habitat heterogeneity and especially fragmentation can be very
difficult, since it must be feasible to program into the game while it has to visualize the
participant a good or bad change in the environment. To find a good compromise two options
are presented in order for the client (Deltares) and the experts (serious game designers) to
choose the most suitable one. For both indicators just two options have been developed, since
the visualization of these indicators is more difficult and therefore gives less opportunities.
a. Changing the landscape/habitats
One way to visualize a change in habitat heterogeneity is to change the actual landscape pattern
of the game (Figure 46). That means that specific habitats that are presented in the game are
changing to a better or worse state dependent on the current state. Examples of this could be
that the islands, which naturally consists out of sandy dunes is changing into a grassland if the
state gets worse, mudflats could turn into the mainland with trees and reed growing on it, salt
marshes could silt up. However, this change in the environment might be visible as something
negative for people with background knowledge of the area and its ecosystem services.
Participants who get introduced into the game environment may see changes like sandy dune
to grassland as something positive since they can associate plants and trees with something only
positive.
Figure 46: Examples of changing habitats. Up: sandy dunes becoming grassland. Low:
Mudflats becoming mainland
Changing the habitats within the game can result in a nice effect for the participant that he
actually sees how the habitat is changing. However, the programming will take a high amount
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of work and time. Additionally, as mentioned above, it can be difficult to find the right amount
of change to visualize the good or negative changes within the environment.
b. Changing the amount of animals in the game
Another way to visualize the participant a good or bad change in the environment is by
controlling the number of animals present within the game. This would mean that when the
current status of habitat (heterogeneity) is at its minimum no animals are present within the
game. With an increase slowly more birds are introduced to the game who could be feeding on
the islands. When the present status is getting increased further, more animals that are related
to the Wadden Sea (i.e. seals) could be introduced. On the other side of the scale, if the score is
too high the amount could change to ridiculous much, i.e. whale’s jumping out of the water and
birds are overrunning the island.
Within that, the participant would recognize that there is something missing when no animals
can be found in the game. Ergo the participant has to focus more on the environment with his
next actions in the game. On the other hand, when the game is overwhelmed with animals,
making it look more like a pest than a healthy environment, the participant knows that he should
focus on different measures.
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Appendix XIII: Newspaper articles for
facilitating the ESSG
The newspaper articles can be used by the facilitator of the game in order to steer the game in
the wanted direction. Policy or development scenarios are presented to the participants so that
they in turn can react to them. All developed scenarios can be read upon below.
1) The Wadden News Water quality: The vast growing tourism industry led to more
pollution of the intertidal area, Aquaculture farms report a decrease in mussel qualities.
2) The Wadden News Pressure: The fairways of the intertidal area are silting up faster than
expected. Ferry organizations experience delays and navigational difficulties.
3) The Wadden News Public Concerns: The wildlife and the overall quality of life of the
area are declining. Inhabitants and environmental action groups are raising their voices.
4) The Wadden News Pollution: Increased pollution has led to declining visitor numbers.
Hotels are concerned about the degrading quality of beaches and swimming water.
5) The Wadden News Politics: The Trilateral Cooperation’s have agreed upon an
expansion of the current mining operations.
6) The Wadden News Business: New studies have shown that regional tourism is limited
by present infrastructures. Advice to upgrade current infrastructure is given.
7) The Wadden News Climate Change: Sea levels are rising faster than prognosed. Heavy
erosion on the islands edges put pressure on public safety.
8) The Wadden News Food: The international demand for food is increasing. This has led
to a switch in priorities from nature to more functional aspects of the ecosystem.
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9) The Wadden News Energy: Energy demands have increased in the area due to rising
popularity as a tourist destination. The energy sector sees the possibility and wants to
become the number one industry of the area.
10) The Wadden News Aquaculture: Increase in mussel seed imports from outside the
Wadden area have led to environmental impacts of the region.
11) The Wadden News Aquaculture business: Mussel farmers of the regions are becoming
less profitable and comprise the least capital-rich sector of the area. Farmers are
outraged and demand positive change.