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Strategies of Discourse Comprehension
Teun A. van Dijk
Walter Kintsch
1983
New York: Academic Press
GUATEMALA: NO CHOICES*
Compared with the relative shades of gray in El Salvador, Guatemala is a,study in black and white. On the left is a collection of extreme Marxist-Leninist
groups led by what one diplomat calls a pretty faceless bunch of people. Onthe right is an entrenched elite that has dominated Central Americas mostpopulous country since a CIA-backed coup deposed the reformist governmentof Col. Jacobo Arbenz Guzmn in 1954. Moderates of the political center.embattled but alive in E1 Salvador, have virtually disappeared in Guatemala-
joining more than 30.000 victims of terror over the last tifteen vears. Thesituation in Guatemala is much more serious than in EI Salvador, declares oneLatin American diplomat. The oligarchy is that much more reactionary. and thechoices are far fewer.
Zero: The Guatemalan oligarchs hated Jimmy Carter for cutting off U.S.military aid in 1977 to protest human-rights abuses-and the right-wingers hired
marimba bands and set off firecrackers on the night Ronald Reagan was elected.They considered Reagan an ideological kinsman and believed they had a specialfriend in White House aide Michael Deaver, whose former PR firm hadrepresented a Guatemalan businessmens group, Los Amigos del Pas (Friendsof the Country). But after a year of Reagan, the Guatemalans have beendisappointed. If Reagans team has proved friendlier than Carters, the persistentU.S. demands for political moderation continue to grate on the Guatemalans. Asone diplomat in the Guatemalan capital puts it. U.S. leverage on the regime iszero.
Cold Shoulder: The Guatemalans have snubbed visiting U.S. congressmen.calling some of them communists. They have even given the cold shoulder to
Reagans special emissary, Gen. Vernon Walters, who visited Guatemala twicelast year. On the first trip Guatemalas President Romeo Lucas Garcia finallyagreed to receive Walters at the last minute. On the second visit the Presidents
plane was preparing for takeoff just as Walterss landed. They feel they arewaging our war in Central America, and were not helping them. says oneAmerican in Guatemala. They say, Wed rather do it with you-but with you orwithout you-well do it.
The government is certainly making every effort to do it. Guatemala hasacquired Brazilian armored vehicles and an array of arms and equipment fromFrance, Yugoslavia, South Korea and Romania. But the principal ,ourre ofweapons for the Lucas Garcia government appears to be Israel. The Guatemalan
Army is equipped with everything from Israeli-made cartridge belts and helmetsto Galil assault rifles, Uzi submachine guns and araw transport planes. TheIsraelis are also reported to be training radio
*Copyright 1982 by Newsweek, Inc. All rights reserved, Reprinted by permissionfromNewsweekMarch 1, 1982, p. 16.
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techniciansatarecentlyopenedmilitary-communicationsschoolinGuatemala.
AndnowthattheReaganAdministrationhasloosenedJimmyCartersmilitary
embargo,theGuatemalanArmypatrolsthecountrysideinAmerican-made
trucks,jeepsandhelicopters.
Still,ReagancanhardlymendrelationswithaGuatemalanGovernmentthat
seemstohavemademurderanofficialpolicy.Morethan13,000peoplehave
beenkilledsince1978,andtheStateDepartmentestimatesthat300moreare
murderedeachmonth.Themorningpapersarefullofreportedkillingsby
desconocidos(unknowns).Mostmurdersseemtobetheworkofright-wing
deathsquadsliketheSecretAnti-CommunistArmy,widelyassumedtobe
covertagentsofthegovernment.AU.S.missionary,JohnArnoldMiller,was
killedtwoweeksago,theseventhclericmurderedinfourteenmonths.AndinthevillageofUspantanlastweek53peasantswereroundedupandbeheaded.
Thegovernmentblamedguerrillas,buttheevidencewasskimpy.Thereareno
politicalprisonersinGuatemala,formerVicePresidentFranciscoVillagran
Krameronceremarked.Onlypoliticalmurders.
Hydra:Thewholesalekillinghasnotyetdauntedtheregimesguerrilla
opponents.EarlierthismonththefourprincipalguerrillagroupsannouncedtheyhadjoinedinaGuatemalanNationalRevolutionaryUnity.Withinhoursof
thedeclarationGuatemalaCitywasalmostblackedoutbyaseriesofbomb
blasts-evidencethatunificationmayworktotheadvantageoftheestimated
3,000to5,000guerrillas.Theymayalsobebolsteredbyassistanceandtraining
fromCommunist-bloccountries.Lastsummerthegovernmentdiscoveredmorethan25guerrillasafehousesstockedwithChineseandSoviet-blocweapons,
includingacacheofU.S.M-16rifleswhoseserialnumbersmatchedthoseleft
behindinVietnam.In1981therewere383reportedclasheswithguerrillas-
almostfourtimesasmanyastheyearbefore.Wehavebeenabletopacify
someregions,saysCol.JaimeRabanalesReyes.Buttheguerrillasarelikea
hydra-theirheadsalwaysshowupinsomeotherplace.
ThechoicesfacingtheUnitedStatesinGuatemalaarefewandunpleasant.
Washingtoncanhardlyhopeforacentristpoliticalsolution:thesameChristian
DemocratstheUnitedStatessupportsinElSalvadorcontinuetobedecimated
inGuatemala.Inthelasteighteenmonths238ChristianDemocraticleaders
havedisappeared.Somediplomatsthinktheextremerightisdestroyingthemoderatecenterpreciselytoprecludethesortofreformistsolutionthatthe
UnitedStatesadvocatesinElSalvador.Ultimatelythepolarizationservesthe
causeoftheleftistrevolutionaries.Thegrowingstrengthoftheleftconceivably
couldpersuadetheUnitedStatestobackyetanotherCentralAmerican
dictatorship-thisone,inGuatemala,themostbrutalofthemall.
LARRYROHTERinGuatemalaCity
StrategiesofDiscourseComprehesion
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Strategies ofDiscourse Comprehension
Teun A. van DijkDepartment of General Literary StudiesSection of Discourse StudiesUniversity of AmsterdamAmsterdam, The Netherlands
Walter KihtschDepartment of PsychologyUnivcrsity of ColoradoBoulder, Colorado
1983
ACADEMIC PRESSA Subsidiary of Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Publishers
New York LondonParis San Diego San Francisco Sao Paulo Svdnev Tokyo Toronto
COPYRIGHT 1983, BY ACADEMIC PRESS, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.NO PART OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE REPRODUCED OR TRANSMITTEDIN ANY FORM OR BY ANY MEANS, ELECTRONIC OR MECHANICAL,INCLUDING PHOTOCOPY, RECORDING, OR ANY INFORMATION STORAGE
AND RETRIEVAL SYSTEM, WITHOUT PERMISSION IN WRITING FROM THEPUBLISHER.
ACADEMIC PRESS, INC.111 Fifth Avenue, New York, New York 10003
United Kingdom Edition published by
ACADEMIC PRESS, INC. (LONDON) LTD.24/28 Oval Road, London NWl 7DX
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Dijk. Teun Adrianus van, DateStrategies of discourse comprehension.
Bibliography: p.
Includes index,1 . Discourse analysis--Psychological aspects.
2. Comprehension. 1. Kintsch, Walter, 1932-II. Title.P302.D472 1983 401.41 82-22671ISBN 0--12--712050 --5
PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
83 84 85 86 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
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Contents
Prefaceix
Chapter1TowardaModelofStrategicDiscourseProcessing
1.1.THESTUDYOFDISCOURSE11.2.BASICASSUMPTIONS41.3.ANOVERVIEWOFTHEMODEL101.4.CONCLUSIONS19
Chapter2
ObservationsontheStatusofExperimental
ResearchonDiscourseComprehension
2.1.PERCEPTUALPROCESSES:LETTERANDWORDIDENTIFICATION212.2.SYNTACTIC-SEMANTICPARSING272.3.AMBIGUITY332.4.SEMANTICUNITS:PROPOSITIONS372.5.COHERENCE432.6.KNOWLEDGESTRUCTURES462.7.INFERENCES492.8.SCHEMATICSUPERSTRUCTURES522.9.OUTLOOK59
Chapter3
TheNotionofStrategyinLanguageandDiscourseUnderstanding
3.1INTRODUCTION61
3.2THENOTIONOFSTRATEGY623.3COGNITIVESTRATEGIES683.4LANGUAJESTRATEGIES703.5GRAMMATICALSTRATEGIES73
3.6DISCOURSESTRATEGIES783.7THEREPRESENTATIONOFSTRATEGIES953.8ASAMPLEANALYSIS:THENESWSWEEKTEXT98
Chapter4
PropositionalStrategies
4.1.PROPOSITIONS1094.2.COMPLEXPROPOSITIONS1194.3.PROPOSITIONSASCOGNITIVEUNITSANDASSTRATEGIES1244.4.ASAMPLEANALYSISOFTHENEWSWEEKTEXT1344.5.EXPERIMENT1:PROPOSITIONFUSION144
Chapter5
LocalCoherenceStrategies
5.1.LOCALCOHERENCE149
5.2.UNDERSTANDINGSENTENCES1515.3.LOCALCOHERENCESTRATEGIES1545.4.TOPICALITYANDSTRATEGICPRONOUNUNDERSTANDING1605.5.EXPERIMENT2:PRONOUNIDENTIFICATION1725.6.ANALYSISOFTHENEWSWEEKTEXT182
Chapter6
Macrostrategies
6.1.THENOTIONOFMACROSTRUCTURE1896.2.MACROSTRUCTURESANDDISCOURSEUNDERSTANDING191 6.3.CONTEXTUALMACROSTRATEGIES196
6.4.TEXTUALMACROSTRATEGIES2016.5.MACROSTRATEGIESINACTION:SOMEEXAMPLES2066.6.EXPERIMENT3:INTERESTANDLEVELOFDESCRIPTION
ASMACROSTRUCTURECUES222
6.7.EXPERIMENT4:PRIMINGMACROPROPOSITIONS226
Chapter7
SchematicStrategies
7.1.SUPERSTRUCTURES235
7.2.SCHEMATICSTRATEGIES2377.3.SCHEMATICANALYSISOFTHENEWSWEEKTEXT242
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7.4. PREDICTIONS AND IMPLICATIOS OF THE THEORY OFSCHEMATIC SUPERSTRUCTURES 251
7.5. EXPERIMENT 5: THE ROLE OF RHETORICAL STRUCTURE INDESCRIPTIVE TEXT 253
Chapter 8
Production Strategies
8.1. PROBLEMS OF A PRODUCTION MODEL POR DISCOURSE 2618.2. INTERACTIVE AND PROGRAMATIC PRODUCTION STRATEGIES 2648.3. SEMANTIC PRODUCTIONS STRATEGIES 2728.4. STRATEGIES FOR ESTABLISHING LOCAL COHERENCE 2788.5. PROPOSITIONAL PRODUCTION STRATEGIES 2808.6. SOME CONSEQUENCES FOR SENTENCE PRODUCTION STRATEGIES 2838.7. SOME PRODUCTION STRATEGIES FOR THE NEWSWEEK TEXT 2868.8. TOWARD A PROCESS MODEL OF DISCOURSE PRODUCTION 293
Chapter 9
Strategies for the Use of Knowledge
9.1. KNOWLEDGE SYSTEMS 3049. 2. KNOWLEDGE USE IN METAP HOR COMP REHENSION 3129.3. REDINTEGRATION, REMINDING, AND PARTIAL MATCHES 3159. 4. STRATE GIES FOR KNOWLEDGE USE IN DIS COURSE 3179.5. KNOWLEDGE USE IN THE NEWSWEEKTEXT 3199. 6. EXP ERIMENT 6: GLOB AL BIASES IN KNOWLEDGE 324
APPENDIX: TEXTS USED IN EXPERIMENT 6A 331
Chapter 10The Cognitive Model
10.1. FROM THE TEXT REPRESENTATION TO THE SITUATION MODEL 33610.2. A FRAMEWORK FOR A PROCESS MODEL 34610.3. SHORT-TERM MEMORY USE IN DISCOURSE PROCESSING 35210.4. RETRIEVAL FROM EPISODIC TEXT MEMORY 35610.5. A PROCESSING MODEL FOR UNDERSTANDING AND SOLVING WORD
ARITHMETIC PROBLEMS 36410.6. EPILOGUE 383
References 387
Author Index 405Subject Index 413
Contents
Preface ix
Chapter 1
Toward a Model of Strategic Discourse Processing
1.1.1.2.1.3.1.4.
THE STUDY OF DISCOURSEBASIC ASSUMPTIONSAN OVERVIEW OF THE MODELCONCLUSIONS
14
1019
Chapter 2
Observations on the Status of Experimental Research
on Discourse Comprehension
2.1. PERCEPTUAL PROCESSES: LETTER AND WORD IDENTIFICATION 212.2. SYNTACTIC-SEMANTIC PARSING 27
2.3. AMBIGUITY 33
2.4. SEMANTIC UNITS: PROPOSITIONS 37
2.5. COHERENCE 43
2.6. KNOWLEDGE STRUCTURES 46
2.7. INFERENCES 49
2.8. MACROSTRUCTURES 52
2.9. SCHEMATIC SUPERSTRUCTURES 54
2.10. OUTLOOK 59
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denotedbypictorialexpressions,denoting(maybe)anindistinctpolitical
situationandasituationofmarkedcontrastoropposition.Strictlyspeaking
S1isungrammatical:theSubordinateclauseshouldspecifyacomparison
forthesubjectinthemainclause,namelyGuatemala,andthatwould
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137138
Figure4.4.PropositionalstructureofS1ofNewsweektext.
withanimplicitagent,namely,we,I,orNewsweek,denotingtheauthorof
thetext.Wehaveidentifiedthisimplicitagentwiththeconstantx0.Inother
words,thisfirstclausecanbeinterpretedasaconditional,forexample,Ifwecompare....
Atheoreticalproblemalsoexistsforexpressionswithagenitive,suchshadesofgray,whichwetakeasacomplexobject,describedbyaconjunctionofatomicpropositions,inwhichshadesofisabinarypredicate.Wemightalso
takethislatteratomicpropositionasamodifierofgray.
Notealsothatthelocativeparticipant-namely,ElSalvador-isoneoftheparticipantsdependentonthepredicatecompare:ItisaboutgrayinEl
Salvador,andnotthecomparingwhichtakesplaceinElSalvador,whichwould
placethelocationinthehigherlevelcircumstancecategory,alongwithtime.We
seethatforallcomplexpropositionsthiscircumstancecategoryfeaturesatime
categorywhichhasbeenfilledwiththepragmaticallydefinedconcept(now),
denotingthetimeofspeaking/writing,expressedbythepresenttensesinthe
sentence.IfweinspectTable4.1andFigure4.4,weseethattheon-linestrategic
analysisofthefirstsentenceisratherunsuccessful,mainlybecauseofthe
unresolvedinterpretationotthemetaphor:Areaderdoesnotknowyetwhattheauthoristryingtoconvey.Whatthereaderdoesunderstandisthattwocountries
arecompared,orratherthe(political)situationinthesetwocountries,
denotedbypictorialexpressionsdenoting(maybe)anindistinctpolitical
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whitein(S1)asmarkedcontrast.Theexpectationgeneratedfrom
knowledgeonthebasisofontheleftissatisfiedbyextremeMarxist-
Leninistwhichindeedisapoliticalpropertyofsomegroupsontheleft.
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141142
*Prettymodifiesapredicate,notanargument.
Figure4.5.PropositionalstructurcofS1ofNewsweektext.
mentofmeaningandreferencemayhavetowaituntiltheendofthesentenceor
evenuntiltheinterpretationofthenextsentence.Itisinthisreferencecolumn
thatweindicatetheindividualobjectsorpropertiesreferredto,whichmayin
latersentencesbecoreferredwith,eitherimplicitly(bypresupposition)or
explicitly.Thenextsentence,S2,islessvague(Table4.2,Figure4.5):
(S2)OntheleftisacollectionofextremeMarxist-Leninistgroupsledbywhatonediplomatcallsaprettyfacelessbunchofpeople.
Theprevioussentencehadintroducedtwocountriesandcomparedthem,
presumablywithrespecttotheirpoliticalsituation.Thus,apoliticsframewas
activatedwhichturnsouttobecrucialfortheinterpretationofthesecond
sentence.Thus,firstwehavetoknowthatontheleftisnotjustaconcretelocationidentification,butapoliticalqualificationofapositioninthepolitical
spectrum.Theassociatedknowledgeissomethinglikeprogressive,liberal,
orsocialist.Andtheexpectationisthattherightwillalsobementioned.
Thisisparticularlythecaseafterthepoliticalinterpretationofbluckand
hiti(S1)kdttThttitdf
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211
Table 6.2
Macrostrategies in the Comprehension of the NewsweekText
Propositional inputas
Provisionalmacro-operation
A. Provisionalmacroproposition(s)
Specific mucrocu
Title: ZERO (SELECTION) There are no (political) Title/Headline
212
Table 6.2(Continued)
Prupositional inputas
Provisionalmacro-operation
A. Provisionalmacroproposition(s)
Spccific macroc
S7 DELETION G. regime first wclcomed History and
irrelelection of Reagan (6) Referent: Rcaga
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ZERO (SELECTION) There are no (political) Title/Headline
NO CHOICES choices in G. (I) First positionThere is no solution to the Bold, large type
problems in G.
(Overall macroproposition)
S, GENERALIZATION (Metaphorical interpr. )
or ZERO The political situation in G. First sentenceis more extreme than in Mention of impoES (2) referents (G.,ES)
DELETION There are unorganized com Opinion diplomGENERALIZATION munists on the left (3) irrelevant
S, DELETION On the right is an elite who History and spcc
has the power and who names are irr.
was helped by US (4)S; DELETION Political center has been Specifics irr. (30
GENERALIZATION murdered by regime in victims)G.. but still exists in ES
(5)
SS ZERO (2) ()pinion diploma
DELETION mcleNarit
s6 ZERO w and (1) REPETITION
I .ml o( paratr,t
election of Reagan (6) Referent: RcagaNew paragraph (
SH DELETION Gs regime had counted on Names and detail
CONSTRUCTION Rs administrations help(7)
SM
ZERO Gs regime now disappointed
about R.s adm. (8)
General predicate(con-
clusion about actual
17.
135: Ufavors
more moGENERALIZATIO Gs regime does not like dc- 18 =B17
mands from US for politi
cal moderation (8)
DELETION US has no influence in G. Opinion diplomat irr. 19 BI: if a
(10) country,
of millGENERALIZATIO Gs regime acts negatively New paragraph 20. B15: Cong
C ONSTRUC TION towards US represent. Head(11)
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213
SISCONSTRUCTION=(II)DELETIONGsregimethinkstheyOpinionirr.
aUSwaralone(13)
S17DELETION/ZEROGsregimewillfight
withoutUShelp(l2)SIXDELETION=(12)REPETITION
NewparagrapSlvCONSTRUCTIONGsreimeacuiredAfterSls(=S1-
frommanycountriestInitialsentenararah
CONSTRUCTION,or=(13)SELECTIONAlsoIsraelhels14bulrincial
CONSlRUCTION_(S14)Detailsofw
Isr.
SzCONSTRUCTION(S14Otherdetailaid
S,CONSTRUCTIONG.usesUSmilitaryResultof
DELETIONmcnt(14b)
Sza1.[:RO(,ccA9)
IitficultrclationStill(v,reimeandRadmNcuararahIIS~
214
Table6.2(continued)
PrupositionalinputasProvisionalA.ProvisionalB.Knowledge,
beliefs
expressedbysentencesmacro-operationmacropropo;ition(s)Specific
macrocucsopinions.attitudes
(secn5):
Gsregimecommitsmassmurders(16)
Reintrod.RcaFirstsentencenewparagraph
SGENERALIZATION(16)Specification
CONSTRUCTION(16)Detailofmurd
(conscqucncc)media
S-~CONSTRUCTION(16)Agcntsofmur
(componentacts)
S,HCONSTRUCTION(16)Victimsalso
S,yCONSTRUCTION(16)Innocentvicti
CONSTRUCTION(Ib)Murderersbla
opponcntsSCONSTRUCTION(16)Detailsirr.
UF?LF:TI()N
S,,Z.I:RO(16)Repetition
SZER0IDFI_ETION(16)doesnotdauntNewparagrap
opponents(17)Head:HvdruChanecofLIumrilla
215
Sm OI.NLKAI I/.-\I1( N (uriill,i inm ~wiiicalor CONSTRUCTION (18)
S;s CONSTRUCTION (17) Dctails of fi,-,ht
(component acts)S ~6 CONSTRUCTION Guerrilla backed by
or GENERALIZATION nist countries (19
216
Table 6.3
Higher Level Macrostrategies for the Newsweek TextIis,t levelr~ iu:
Provisionalmacro-operations
M, ZERO n9i
M: ZERO M;
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CONSTRUCTION (19) Detalla of aid
CONSTRUCTION (19) rr,ults
S) CONSTRUCTION (19) I [,[Its results
S4 ZERO (1) Ncw pal. TITLE
Rc(crent: l S5ai GENERALIZATION (2) No ccntrist Solution. Rcf,cicnt: centri
in FS 20
S4, GF.NERAI,IZATION Also political center i, Dctail,, uf r or CONSTRICTION sacred (?I)
S41 CONSTRUCTION (21) Details ofinurde
Sai CONSTRUCTION t211 Reaction to (2 1
Sa; CONSTRUCTION 1I ) help,, left (22) Conclusion
Sa6 GfNER.4l_IZAhIUN Will Us help Gs le-- Final Scntcl l,C1? winch i hrutal f1TI l?:
;
llEI.ET]ON/ZGKO M;
zl:xo M2
M5 DELETION MS
DF[_ETIUN G
r)l l l HON cj
i~i i i io)^.
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260
herence, parsing, etc., as discussed in these chapters. A test for one level mayhave no bearing on another, as we have just shown in these experiments.Comprehension is just a convenient term for the aggregate of these processes; itis not to be reified. not to be tested for.
Results like the present ones (Kintsch & Yarbrough, 1982) and those ofMeyeret al. (1980) are less ambiguous with respect to the psychological role of
schematic superstructures than are the studies in the narrative domain. As wehave seen, the difficulty in the latter studies is to unconfound textual structurefrom the structure of the content itself. Stories are about actions and readersknow a lot about the structure of actions, inside or outside of stories. The contentin descriptive texts is much less constrained Temporal and causal relations play
Chapter 8
Production Strategies
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in descriptive texts is much less constrained. Temporal and causal relations playa decisive role in stories (see the discussion of Johnson & Mandler, 1980) but areabsent in some types of descriptive texts. This is not to say that content does notconstrain the form of an essay, but the constraints are certainly much weakerthan in the case of stories. Hence demonstrations that rhetorical superstructuresaffect comprehension and memory in these cases can be accepted with someconfidence.
8.1. PROBLEMS OF A PRODUCTION MODEL
FOR DISCOURSE
It is well known that most work done in psycholinguistics is about comprehen-sion. In this respect the psychology of discourse is no exception. Our earliermodel of discourse is also mainly about comprehension. Production was an issuelimited to some aspects of reproduction, mainly in the framework of recallexperiments. How language users go about producing a new discourse, eithermonological or as part of a dialogue, is a problem we know little about (but seeClark & Clark, 1977: Chapters 6 and 7; Butterworth, 1980; Gregg & Steinberg,1980). In this book we will not even attempt to supply an adequate answer to thisimportant question of language use, but will merely formulate a number ofspecific problems and some suggestions about the strategic aspects of discourse
production as they seem to emerge from the previous chapters oncomprehension.
A first observation in this respect is the restatement of an insight, which grewover at least 10 years of psycholinguistic research, that processes of production arenot simply the reverse of processes of comprehension (Hirsch, 1977; Olson, Mack,
& Duffy, 1981; Rubin, 1980). The application of early ideas from generativetransformational grammar suggested that the grammar was a model of linguisticcompetence, and that such a model was neutral regarding the production or com-
prehension processes of language use. Although this assumption may have somevalidity for the account of such abstract objects as sentential or textual structures assuch, it certainly does not hold for the cognitive model itself in which analysis and
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PERSET.Withitcometworequestsforsubsets,oneforeachofthejoint
owners.ThepreviouslyestablishedsetsS1andS2satisfytheserequestsandthe
roleofsubsetisassignedtothemintheproblemrepresentation,whichsetsthe
conditionforthearithmeticoperatorADD.
InCombine(2)asupersetisestablishedfirst,carryingwithitarequestfor
appropriatesubsets.SetsS2andS3canbeidentifiedassuchmerelyonthebasis
ofthespecificationslot.However,aslightrewordingofthesecondandthird
sentenceinCombine(2)couldprovideamoredirectlinguisticcuetotheirsubset
roles:Joehasthreeofthesewouldbetheconditionforaspecialsubsetoperator.
whichwoulddirectlyestablishthesubsetrolesofS2(andS3)andthereby
obviatethenecessityforaninference.Indeed,Rileyetal.reportthatsuchslightrewordingmakestheproblemsomewhateasiertosolve-presumablybecauseit
suppliedthechildrenwithanextralinguisticcuethatwasmissingintheoriginal
version.
Compareproblems.InCompare(1)(Table10.14),tworolelesssetsareestab-lishedfirst.Thesearethenassignedrolesaswholeandmatchsetsonthebasisof
P,j(x,)S1Object:P3M
PztX2Role:Sec:PIPzP4-J&TP3MIuantit:PS--~8P4HAVE(xl&xz~superP58(REUEST:S,sub
St,sub
P6M(Y2)-S2Object:P6-MS,P,HAVE(x,yz)Spec:P7~J&,,
Pa3vzuantit:Ps-3STsubRole:sub
P9M(Y3)(_S3Object:P9~M~S21&T,superPtoHOWMANYSec:PII~TSZlsub
P1HAVEx3uantitPlo~*REUEST:Srn//LRole:subCALCULATE:Subtract
SIArs.iS21-nS3*
T.sub
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375
Table10.11
Change(5)
ACTIONSHORT-FERM
MEMORl
P,j(-r,)F_-S]Object:P,-NtFMc1P14
FHAVE.rSec:+.IFSOME(c1-~P16
uantit:P4PiRule:;P,-,start
PTHEN(F,Ph)Object:P,MS,
P(f(c-Sec:P,,PKJPMc-uantit:P-iP,GIVE(.r-.r,c=Role:Ps-R5(NzREUEST:S;,
S,-It PiNOW(P,-)_S,Object:P11M
PMcSec:P--J5PHAVI?rc3uantit:P?KREIEST:S.Pi8()-z)Role:P,-result
P,M(r4)MATCHS,onP16P17
PHOWMANYh,4FSiFHAVExzP,PAST(P16CALCULATE:Concert-subtract
376
Table10.12
Combine(1)
ACTION
P,Ax1)S,Object:Pz-+M
PzM(,Sec:P,P3-JP3HAVE(xluantit:P4-3P43(yl)Role:/sub/
P5t(X2)SzObject:P6-M
P6Mv2Sec:PSP~-~TPHAVExzzruantit:P8-5Ps5(yz)Role:/sub/
P9M(y3)~S3Object:Py-M
P,oHOWMANY(y3)Spec:P
P11HAVE(x,&xzy3)Quantity:P,o
SHORT-TERMMEMORYRole:~super
REQUEST:Sj,sb//ReinstateS,Sr,sub//
CALCULATE:Add
S~i.s.bS2,-n
Table10.13
Combine(2)
ACTIONSHORT-TERMMEMORY
P,j(x,)S1Object:P3-M
377
Table 10.14
Compare (1)
ACTION SHORT-TERM MENIORYPiP,P,P4
#X,) rObjcct: P, -M I-S,f o ) I Spec: P, P,--
MJ8/whole/
PS r(,v_)~ yS_, ~ Object: P, ---
M
P1, M(y,) i Spec: P; P,-- I
P, HAVE(.c, Quantity: PK--r 5
P;~ 5(v~)---~ ~Role: hnatch/
R) Mlcz) ~ S, -Object: l,,---y M
PM HOWMANY i S ec: P11- --- JP H.AVE(-c,yz) Quantity: P,-- I -
P11 MORE(yzr_) ~-Rolc: P,: rcnu,indcr
~Rh;QUES f: S,
S1v Rcinstute Si
378
Table 10.15
Compare (3)
ACTION
Pi 0 i) -Si
P= M6 1 S ec: P, -P,-+ JP, HAVE(.r, i uantit : P-t ~ 3P, 3(ry -Role: /match/
P; t(.r=) ~S- Object: P,, -- NI
W S ec: P P7-i f P~ HAVE (s= s-) Quantity: PK~ 5PH 5(~v Role: Pa rernainder
P) MORE(y, N*,) REQUEST. S,,,,,,
Piv M6 1) S~
P HOWMANY Ob ect: Pir --~ M I S cc: P,- ~ T uantit :Ill HAVE r- l
-Role: whole
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S1v -. Rcinstute SiCALCULATE: Subtract I F S,
their ownership when the remainder set is constructed. Note that what isinferered is entirely a conceptual structure belonging to the problemrepresentation-not a set of propositions in the textbase. The final two problems(Tables 10.15-l0.16) introduce no new devices, though the by now familiaroperators are combined here in novel ways. In all of the compare problems, thefinal outcome is a MORE-THAN pattern, with a whole set, a match set, and aremainder set, and a calculation goal assigned to one of these. We can eitherassume that these patterns are by themselves conditions for the appropriate
arithmetic operations, or that the whole- match-remainder pattern gets convertedinto a super-sub-sub pattern, the usual condition for addition and subtraction.
What these examples demonstrate is, first of all, that the model works as weclaimed it did. One can indeed specify comprehension strategies at various levelsthat result in the construction of a text representation and a situation model that aresuitable for the problem-solving task. As Kintsch and Greeno (1982) pointed out intheir original report on this work, such a demonstration has some interesting im-
plications. It tells us, for instance, why some problems are harder to solve thanothers. Different problem types require different knowledge structures and differentstrategies (or the application of that knowledge. Change problems, for instance,require that the child know about the TRANSFER schema, which is simple andconcrete and, apparently, is quite within the grasp of even the kindergarten chil-dren. The SUPERSET schema and especially the MORE-THAN schema are muchless available and might require some special training, both at the level of concrete
Table 10.16
Compare (5)
ACTION SHORT-TERM
Pi /O-1) Object: P, = M
P, M(y, ) Spec: P, P,~ ,lPz HAVE(-, , uantit : Pt ~ 8
P, 8(y1) - _Role: ;whole/PS M(c=) ~S_, Object: P;-~ M
Pr, HAVE(.r, c- S ec: Pf, ~ J
P, MORE ( c, 3 Role: PHPa r(.r-) PyPmPi i
Pio M(r, llP11
HAVE(s= y a) SPi- M(c4) S, Object: P - M S,P,zP,,, HAVE Spec: P,a -~ T S=, Quantity:
-Role: match REQUEST: S,-MATCH P,u=Pi-. P,,-P,,
CALCULATE: Subtract Si i.,n..,~
Szl
S=
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Chapter1
TowardaModelofStrategicDiscourseProcessing
1.1.
1.2.
1.3.1.4.
THESTUDYOFDISCOURSE
BASICASSUMPTIONS
ANOVERVIEWOFTHEMODELCONCLUSIONS
1
4
1019
Chapter2
ObservationsontheStatusofExperimentalResearch
onDiscourseComprehension
2.1.PERCEPTUALPROCESSES:LETTERANDWORDIDENTIFICATION212.2.SYNTACTIC-SEMANTICPARSING27
2.3.AMBIGUITY33
2.4.SEMANTICUNITS:PROPOSITIONS37
2.5.COHERENCE43
2.6.KNOWLEDGESTRUCTURES46
2.7.INFERENCES49
2.8.MACROSTRUCTURES52
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413
Yngve,V.H.Thedepthhypothesis.ProceedingsqJtheX/!SmpositimillApplied
Mathematics.Providence,R.L:AmericanMathematicalSociety,1961.
Yuille.J.C..&Paivio,A.Abstractnessandtherecallofconnecteddiscourse.
JournalofE_sporinuntctlPscchologc.1969,82,467-472.
7_ammuner.V.L.Speechproduction:Strategiesilldiscourseplanning:A
tlreorWirulandempiricalcnguir_c.Hamburg:BuskeVerlag.1981.
Cont
ents
Prefaceix
2.9. SCHEMATIC SUPERSTRUCTURES 54
2.10. OUTLOOK 59V
The Notion of Strategy in Language and Discourse Understanding
3.1. INTRODUCTION 61
3.2. THE NOTION OF STRATEGY 62
3.3. COGNITIVE STRATEGIES 68
3.4. LANGUAGE STRATEGIES 70
3.5. GRAMMATICAL STRATEGIES 73
3.6. DISCOURSE STRATEGIES 78
3.7. THE REPRESENTATION OF STRATEGIES 95
3.8. A SAMPLE ANALYSIS: THE NEWSWEEKTEXT 98
C
ha
pt
er4
Propositional Strategies
4.1. PROPOSITIONS 109
4.2. COMPLEX PROPOSITIONS 119
4.3. PROPOSITIONS AS COGNITIVE UNITS AND AS STRATEGIES 124
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4.4. A SAMPLE ANALYSIS OF THE NEWSWEEKTEXT 134
4.5. EXPERIMENT l: PROPOSITION FUSION 144
C
ha
pt
e
r5
Local Coherence Strategies
5.1. LOCAL COHERENCE 14
5.2. UNDERSTANDING SENTENCES 151
5.3. LOCAL COHERENCE STRATEGIES 15
5.6. ANALYSIS OF THENEWSWEEKTEXT 18
Cha
pt
er6
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9
StrategiesfortheUseof
Knowledge
9.1.KNOWLEDGESYSTEMS304
9.2.KNOWLEDGEUSEINMETAPHORCOMPREHENSION312
9.3.REDINTEGRATION,REMINDING,ANDPARTIALMATCHES315
9.4.STRATEGIESFORKNOWLEDGEUSEINDISCOURSE317
9.5.KNOWLEDGEUSEINTHENEWSWEEKTEXT319
9.6.EXPERIMENT6:GLOBALBIASESINKNOWLEDGEUTILIZATION324
APPENDIX:TEXTSUSEDINEXPERIMENT6A33i
C
hapt
er1
0
TheCognitiveModel
10.1.FROMTHETEXTREPRESENTATIONTOTHESITUATIONMODEL336
10.2.AFRAMEWORKFORAPROCESSMODEL346
10.3.SHORT-TERMMEMORYUSEINDISCOURSEPROCESSING352
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Macrostrategies
6.1.THENOTIONOFMACROSTRUCTURE1896.2.MACROSTRUCTURESANDDISCOURSEUNDERSTANDING1916.3.CONTEXTUALMACROSTRATEGIES196
6.4.TEXTUALMACROSTRATEGIES201
6.5.MACROSTRATEGIESINACTION:SOMEEXAMPLES206
6.6.EXPERIMENT3:INTERESTANDLEVELOFDESCRIPTION
ASMACROSTRUCTURECUES222
6.7.EXPERIMENT4:PRIMINGMACROPROPOSITIONS226
C
ha
pt
er7
SchematicStrategies
7.1.SUPERSTRUCTURES235
7.2.SCHEMATICSTRATEGIES237
7.3.SCHEMATICANALYSISOFTHENEWSWEEKTEXT242
7.4.PREDICTIONSANDIMPLICATIONSOFTHETHEORYOF
SCHEMATICSUPERSTRUCTURES251
7.5.EXPERIMENT5:THEROLEOFRHETORICALSTRUCTUREIN
DESCRIPTIVETEXTS253
Chapter8
ProductionStrategies
8.1.PROBLEMSOFAPRODUCTIONMODELFORDISCOURSE261
8.2.INTERACTIVEANDPRAGMATICPRODUCTIONSTRATEGIES264
8.3.SEMANTICPRODUCTIONSTRATEGIES272
8.4.STRATEGIESFORESTABLISHINGLOCALCOHERENCE278
8.5.PROPOSITIONALPRODUCTIONSTRATEGIES280
8.6.SOMECONSEQUENCESFORSENTENCEPRODUCTIONSTRATEGIES283
8.7.SOMEPRODUCTIONSTRATEGIESFORTHENEWSWEEKTEXT2868.8.TOWARDAPROCESSMODELOFDISCOURSEPRODUCTION293
Ch
apt
er
9
10.4. RETRIEVAL FROM EPISODIC TEXT MEMORY 356
10.5. A PROCESSING MODEL FOR UNDERSTANDING AND SOLVING WORD
ARITHMETIC PROBLEMS 364
10.6. EPILOGUE 383
Author Index 405Subject Index 413
References
387
,7
Figure 2.1. A few of the neighbors of the node tier the letter T in the first position in a word, and theirinterconnections. (From J. L. McClelland & D. F. Rumelhart, An interactive activation model of contexteffects in letter perception.Psychological Review,1981, ,48. 375-407. Copyright 1981 by the AmericanPsychological Association. Reprinted by permission of the author.)
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