Ut P5 (Product Tech.)

UT Product TechnologyUT Product Technology

Product TechnologySteel Production

Wrought Production

Extrusion

Forging

Rolling

Casting Welding

Defects Inherent

Processing

Service

Heat Treatment

2 Stage Process• Iron ore is reduced into pig iron assisted

by other materials.• Carbon content of Pig Iron is lowered by

reacting with oxygen• The molten metal is then cast into Ingots

or continuously cast• Ingots are rolled into Blooms, Billets or

Steel Production

1st Stage • Iron ore is reduced into pig iron assisted by

other materials.

• Raw materials Hematite (Fe2O3)orMagnetite(Fe3O4) +CokeLimestone Air

Steel Production

1st Stage

Blast furnace reactions

Steel Production

• Fe2O3 + 3CO = 2Fe + 3CO2

• Fe2O3 + 3C = 2Fe + 3CO

• SiO2 + 2Cao = 2CaOSiO2

Lime from limestone combines with impurities (mainly silica) in the ore to form fluid slag

Blast Furnace

Charge• Ore 4000• Limestone 800• Coke 1800• Air

Steel Production

Products• Pig Iron 2000• Slag 1600• Dust 200• Furnace gas

Blast FurnaceSteel Production

Product of Blast Furnace - Pig iron (>3% carbon)

Steel Production

• Pig iron converted to steel by blowing molten metal with oxygen or oxygen rich gases

• Oxygen reacts with excess carbon

• C + 2 O CO2

• C + O CO

• CO + O CO2

Steel Production• Bessemer

• Open hearth process

• Basic oxygen process

Steel Production• Basic oxygen process

Solid scrap

Molten Pig Iron

Oxygen lance

Steel ProductionMolten steel poured into large molds (ingots)

Ingots are used for further processing

Hot top

Steel Production

Molten steel poured into large molds (ingots)

Ingots are used for further processing

2 types of mould - Narrow end up, Wide end up

Steel Production• Metal solidifies from outside inwards

3 types of crystal formed

• Chill or fine exui-axed• Columnar

• Large equi-axed

Smelting Defects

• Pipes

• Shrinkage

Primary pipe/sink

Secondary pipe

Smelting Defects

• Non-metallic inclusions

Smelting Defects

• Segregation of metals

Steel Production• Alternative to ingots is Continuous casting

Tundish

Mold forming slab

Water spray chamber

Rollers

Steel Production

Advantages of Continuous casting

• Faster : 300 tons of steel in 45 mins compared to 12 hours

• No piping problems

• Cheaper :No ingot molds, handling

Product Technology

Casting

Casting Process

• Liquid metal is caused to fill a cavity and solidify into a useful shape

• All materials used in metal manufacture cast at some time

Casting Process

• Stage 1 : A pattern of the finished item slightly over sized

• Stage 2 : Mould constructed from the pattern

• Stage 3 : Liquid metal poured through the channels to fill the mould

CastingRiserPouring

Runner

Casting

Chaplets Chills

Casting• Casting involves the solidification from liquid to solid

• Solidification proceeds from outside to centre

• Solidification involves shrinkage

Grain Growth

Casting Methods• Sand casting

Sand Casting

Casting Methods

• Sand casting

• Die casting / Injection moulding

Die Casting

Injection piston

Casting cavity

Die Fixed platenMoving platen

Casting Methods

• Sand casting

• Die casting / Injection moulding

• Investment casting / Lost wax process

Investment Casting

Wax Pattern

Investment Casting

Coat with refractory slurry

Investment Casting

Reinforce with plaster backing (Investment)

Investment Casting

Oven dry to liquify or vaporise pattern and dry mould

Investment Casting

Pour metal

Investment Casting

Remove investment material

Choice of Casting Method

Dimensional Accuracy• Investment casting• Die casting• Sand casting

Cost• Sand casting• Die casting• Investment casting

Casting Defects

• Shrinkage cavities

• Sinks

Primary pipe/sink

Secondary pipe

Casting DefectsBlowholes and porosityBlowholes and porosity

Cross-sectional changes /corners

Casting Defects

• Inclusions

• Scabs

• Fins

Casting DefectsShrinkageShrinkage

Casting DefectsScabsScabs

Casting DefectsScabs- Scabs- part of mould stuck to the castingpart of mould stuck to the casting

Casting DefectsFinsFins

Casting DefectsFins- Fins- excess metal of castingexcess metal of casting

Casting Defects

• Hot tears The larger section cools slower than the

smaller section

The grain are different between the sections

Hot Tears

Chills are used for:

1. Directional grain growth

2. Uniform cooling rate

Casting Defects

• Segregation

Product Technology

Wrought Production Methods

Wrought Production

• Forging

• Extrusion

• Rolling

Wrought Production

Forging• Metal confined under

pressure to cause plastic flow

Extrusion• Metal forced through

a die under a large load

Rolling• Thickness reduction

through compression

Rolling

Two-High Reversing Mill

Ingots, slabs and billets rolled to produce long length products with uniform cross section

PRIMARY ROLLING PROCESS / COGGING

Rolling

PRIMARY ROLLING PROCESS

Secondary piping

Rolling

Three-High Reversing Mill

SECONDARY ROLLING PROCESS

Lamination

Rolling

Non-metallic inclusion

Rolling

Stringers

Rolling

Segregation of metals

Rolling

Banding

Cold Rolling• Initial rolling hot

• Finishing by cold working

Cluster mill 4 High mill

Rolling

• Bloom - Square c/s 150x150mm minimum• Slab - Rectangular c/s area greater than 14400 mm2 • Billet - Square 50x50 up to 120 x 120mm

• Primary rolling- ingot to blooms and slabs• Secondary rolling - blooms and slabs to plates ,

sheets etc

Forging

Hammer

Blacksmith

Forging

6 basic actions

• Upsetting

• Swaging

• Bending

• Welding

• Punching

• Cutting out

Forging

Hammer

Blacksmith / Open die forging

Forging• Pressure forging

Forging• Closed die

Extrusion

• Direct

• Indirect

• Impact

• High loads used to shape ferrous and non-ferrous alloys

• Items produced are of uniform cross section

Direct Extrusion

Billet Ram

Indirect Extrusion

Extruded item

Billet

Impact Extrusion

Extrusion Defects

• Oxide films (‘Extrusion’ defect)

• Surface cracks

• Grain structure variation

Impact Extrusion

Wrought Production Defects

• Cracks

• Laps

• Seams

• Stringers

• Slugs

• Bursts

• Laminations

Wrought Production Defects• Banding• Excessive flash• Lack of fill• Mismatch• Internal cracking• Mechanical marks

Other Wrought Processes

Drawing

• Material is reduced or changed in profile by pulling through a die

Wire or rod Force

Other Wrought Processes

Drawing

• Material is reduced or changed in profile by pulling through a die

Tube ForceMandrel

Product Technology

Welding

A Weld : Definitions• A union between

pieces of metal at faces rendered plastic or liquid by heat,pressure or both.

BS 499

• A continuous defect surrounded by parent material

Welds• An ideal weld must give a strong bond between

materials with the interfaces disappearing

To achieve this

• Smooth,flat or matching surfaces

• Surfaces shall be free from contaminants

• Metals shall be free from impurities

• Metals shall have identical crystalline structures

Welding• A union between pieces of metal at faces rendered

plastic or liquid by heat,pressure or both.

BS 499

• Ultrasonics• Electron beam• Friction• Electric resistance• Electric arc

Possible energy sources

Electric Arc Welding

Power supply

Work piece

Electrode

Clamp(Earth)

Electric Arc Welding• Electric discharge produced between cathode and

anode by a potential difference (40 to 60 volts)

• Discharge ionises air and produces -ve electrons and +ve ions

• Electrons impact upon anode, ions upon cathode

• Impact of particles converts kinetic energy to heat (7000o C) and light

• Amperage controls number of ions and electrons, Voltage controls their velocity

Electric Arc WeldingArc Welding Processes• Manual metal arc• Tungsten Inert Gas• Metal Inert Gas• Submerged Arc

Differences between them• Methods of shielding the arc• Consumable or Non-consumable electrode• Degree of automation

Zones in Fusion Welds

• Fusion Zone

• Heat Affected Zone

• Fusion Zone

• Heat Affected Zone

• Parent Material or Base Metal

Joint Design

Butt Weld

Joint Design

Butt Weld

Lap Joint

Joint Design

Butt Weld

Corner Joint

Lap Joint

Joint Design

Butt Weld

Corner Joint

Lap Joint

Edge Weld

Joint Design

Butt Weld

Corner Joint

Lap Joint

T JointEdge Weld

Manual Metal Arc (MMA)Consumable electrode

Flux coating

Core wire

Evolved gas shield

Parent metal

Weld metal

Manual Metal Arc Welding

• Shielding provided by decomposition of flux covering

• Electrode consumable• Manual process

Welder controls• Arc length• Angle of electrode• Speed of travel• Amperage settings

Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG)

Non-consumable tungsten electrode

Parent metal

Weld metal

Gas shield

Filler wire

Gas nozzle

Metal Inert Gas (MIG)

Consumable electrode(filler wire)

Parent metal

Weld metal

Gas shield

Gas nozzle Reel feed

Submerged Arc

Consumable electrode

Reel feed

Flux feed

Flux retrieval

Parent metal

Weld metal

Electroslag

Filler wire

Molten flux

Weld metal

Water cooled copper shoes

Welding Defects

4 Crack Types

• Solidification cracks

• Hydrogen induced cracks

• Lamellar tearing

• Reheat cracks

CracksCracks

Welding Defects

Classified by Shape

• Longitudinal

• Transverse

• Branched

• Chevron

CracksCracksClassified by Position

• HAZ

• Centreline

• Crater

• Fusion zone

• Parent metal

Welding Defects

Solidification

• Occurs during weld solidification process

• Steels with high sulphur content (low ductility at elevated temperature)

• Requires high tensile stress

• Occur longitudinally down centre of weld

• eg Crater cracking

CracksCracks

Welding Defects

Hydrogen Induced• Requires susceptible grain structure, stress and

hydrogen • Hydrogen enters via welding arc• Hydrogen source - atmosphere or contamination of

preparation or electrode• Moisture diffuses out into parent metal on cooling• Most likely in HAZ

CracksCracks

Welding Defects

Lamellar Tearing• Step like appearance • Occurs in parent material or HAZ• Only in rolled direction of the parent material• Associated with restrained joints subjected to

through thickness stresses on corners, tees and fillets

• Requires high sulphur or non-metallic inclusions

CracksCracks

Welding Defects

Re-Heat Cracking• Occurs mainly in HAZ of low alloy steels during

post weld heat treatment or service at elevated temperatures

• Occurs in areas of high stress and existing defects• Prevented by toe grinding, elimination of poor

profile material selection and controlled post weld heat treatment

CracksCracks

Welding Defects• Incomplete root penetration

Causes• Too large or small a root gap• Arc too long• Wrong polarity• Electrode too large for joint preparation• Incorrect electrode angle• Too fast a speed of travel for current

Welding Defects• Root concavity

Causes• Root gap too large• Insufficient arc energy• Excessive back purge (TIG)

Welding Defects

• Lack of fusion

Causes• Contaminated weld preparation• Amperage too low• Amperage too high (welder increases speed of travel)

Welding Defects• Undercut

Causes• Excessive welding current• Welding speed too high• Incorrect electrode angle• Excessive weave• Electrode too large

Welding Defects

• Incompletely Filled Groove

Causes• Insufficient weld metal deposited• Improper welding technique

Welding Defects• Gas pores / Porosity

Causes• Excessive moisture in flux or preparation• Contaminated preparation• Low welding current• Arc length too long • Damaged electrode flux• Removal of gas shield

Welding Defects• Inclusions - Slag

Causes• Insufficient cleaning between passes• Contaminated weld preparation• Welding over irregular profile• Incorrect welding speed• Arc length too long

Welding Defects• Inclusions - Tungsten

Causes• Contamination of weld during TIG welding

process

Welding Defects• Burn Through

Causes• Excessive amperage during welding of root• Excessive root grinding• Improper welding technique

Welding Defects• Arc Strikes

Causes• Electrode straying onto parent

metal• Electrode holder with poor

insulation• Poor contact of earth clamp

• Spatter

Causes• Excessive arc energy• Excessive arc length• Damp electrodes• Arc blow

Steel MetallurgySteel- Iron and carbon alloyed with other elements

• Carbon- Strength, hardness, toughness, ductility• Manganese- Strength, hardenability• Silicon - Toughness• Molybdenum- Creep resistance, temper embrittlement• Chromium- Hardness, wear resistance, corrosion• Nickel - Ductility, strength, toughness

Steel MetallurgySteel- Iron and carbon alloyed with other elements

BCC FCC

Steel Metallurgy

Low Stress

Increased Stress

Elastic Deformation

Plastic Deformation

Heat Treatment

• Softening• Hardening• Tempering• Stress Relief

• Post heat treatment performed to improve specific metallurgical or mechanical properties or stress relief

Controlled by• Heating rate• Temperature attained• Time at the elevated temperature• Cooling rate

Heat Treatment900

Minutes to raise temperature by 10 C

Iron Carbide Diagram

.2 .4 .6 .8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2

Carbon %

Iron Carbide Diagram

.2 .4 .6 .8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2

Carbon %

Austenite

Ferrite and Pearlite Pearlite and Cementite

Austenite and Fe3 CAustenite and Ferrite

Heat Treatment

Hardening• Produce hard but

brittle material• Heat to above

transformation range• Cool very quickly

( quench ) in oil, water or brine

Heat Treatment Stress Relief• Relax stresses without significant changes in the metallurgical structure• Heat to 550-650 degrees C• Hold for 1 hour per 25mm thickness• Cool in air

Heat Treatment Full Annealing• Produces very soft low

hardness material for machining or cold work

• Heat to above 910 degrees C

• Hold • Cool very slowly in

furnace• Once reached 680 C ,

cool in air

Heat Treatment Sub Critical Annealing• Spheroidizing produces soft low hardness material cheaper than full anneal• Heat must not rise above 700 degrees C• Hold for recrystallisation to occur• Cool in air

Heat Treatment Normalising• Maintains and improves mechanical properties and modifies grain structure• Heat to above 910 degrees C• Hold • Cool in air

Nature and Origin of Defects

• Inherent

• Processing

• In Service

Heat Induced Defects

• Heat treatment cracks

• Grinding cracks

• Friction induced cracks

In Service Cracks

• Fatigue cracks

• Stress corrosion cracks

• Hydrogen induced cracks

Hydrogen

Cyclic stress

Fatique crack

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