University Press Scholarship Online The Arts, Emotion ......spent for the sake of art. In this...

The Arts, Emotion, and Evolution

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AestheticsandtheSciencesofMindGregCurrie,MatthewKieran,AaronMeskin,andJonRobson

Printpublicationdate:2014PrintISBN-13:9780199669639PublishedtoOxfordScholarshipOnline:September2014DOI:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199669639.001.0001

TheArts,Emotion,andEvolution

NoëlCarroll

DOI:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199669639.003.0009

AbstractandKeywords

Inthischapter,Carrollattemptstodefendtheviewthatartisanadaptationonthatgroundsthatbymeansofprovokingcontagiousemotionsitpromotesfellowfeelingandtherebyabetssocialcohesion.

Keywords:artandemotion,evolution,emotionalcontagion,LeoTolstoy,functionofart,groupselection,originofart

8.1IntroductionIntheopeningchaptersofWhatisArt?,Tolstoycommentsatlength—andoftensatirically—onthevastinvestmentofresourcesandlabourthatwentintotheproductionoftheartofhisday.Hewrites:

Fortheproductionofeveryballet,circus,opera,operetta,exhibition,picture,concertorprintedbook,theintenseandunwillinglaborofthousandsofpeopleis

neededatwhatisoftenharmfulandhumiliatingwork.Itwerewelliftheartistsmadealltheyrequirethemselves,but,asitis,theyallneedthehelpofworkmennotonlytoproduceart,but,asitis,fortheirownusuallyluxuriousmaintenance.Andonewayoranothertheygetit,eitherthroughpaymentsofrichpeopleorthroughsubsidiesgiventhroughthegovernment(inRussia,forinstance,ingrantsofmillionsofrublestoconservatories,andacademies).Thismoneyiscollectedfromthepeople,someofwhomhavetoselltheironlycowtopaythetaxandnevergetthepleasuresartgives.1

Suchacommitmentintermsofbloodandtreasure,Tolstoybelieves,callsforjustification.However,Tolstoyisnotconvincedthatthemostinfluentialjustificationavailableatthetimeissufficient.Hesays:

Itissaidthatallisdoneforthesakeofart,andthatartisaveryimportantthing.Butisittruethatartissoimportantthatsuchsacrificesshouldbemadeforitssake?Thisquestionisespeciallyurgentbecauseart,forthesakeofwhichthelaborofmillions,thelivesofmen,and,aboveall,lovebetweenmenisbeingsacrificed—thisveryartisbecomingmoreandmorevagueanduncertaintohumanperception.2

Becauseheissostruckbyhowmuchartcostsasociety,Tolstoymakesitadesideratumofanyacceptabletheoryofartthatitcharacterizeartinsuchawaythatitsimportanceforhumanlifeismadeexplicitenoughsoastojustifythesacrificesmadeonitsbehalf.Thatis,Tolstoydemandsofadefinitionofartthatitnotonlysaywhatartis,butthatit(p.160) dosoinawaythatexplainswhyitisworthalltheeffort.Tolstoy’sanswerstohisownquestionsarehighlyrevisionist,rejectingmuchofthecontemporaryartofhiscultureaswellassignificantpartsofthecanon.Hisdefinitionofartundoubtedlyhasapolemicalfunction.Itisaformofperiod-specificsocialcriticism.ItisnotonlyacriticismoftheartthatcaterstothearistocracyofTsaristRussia;itispatentlyacriticismofthetotalityofthatsocialsystem.

Nevertheless,theissuethatTolstoyinsistsuponraisingisofmorethanlocalhistoricalinterest.For,throughouthumanhistory,arthasrequiredasubstantialexpenditureofresources.Putatively,everyhumansocietyhaspossessedsomepracticesorbehavioursthatwewouldcallart,includingsocietiesinwhichmaterialnecessitiesweredearandtimeswerestressful.Sothequestionarises:whyarepeoples,includingthoseinstraitenedconditions,willingtopaythecoststhatartexacts?Whatbenefitsexplainthesacrificesculturesarepreparedtoexpendontheproductionofart?

Tolstoythoughtitwasincumbentuponthetheoristofarttojustifyart.Forcontemporarytheorists,itisnotsomuchaquestionofjustificationasitisoneofexplanation.Whyweremedievaltownsreadytodevoteinsomecasesnearlyacenturyoftoilandmaterialwealthtotheconstructionoftheircathedrals?WhydopeopleinBalispendsomuchoftheirdaycreatingitemsofaestheticdelectation,suchasthearrangementsofflowers,fruits,andotherfoodswhicharecalledofferingsandthatareplaceddailyattheentrancesofdwellingplaces?WeneednotbeoutragedsocialcriticslikeTolstoytoseek

answerstoquestionslikethese.Weneedonlyacknowledgethatformuchofhumanliferesourceshavebeenscarceandyetvastamountsofenergyandsupplieshavebeenspentforthesakeofart.

Inthischapter,Iwouldliketospeculate—andIemphasizethewordspeculatehere—aboutanexplanationofwhytheartshavewarrantedtheplacetheyoccupyinhumanhistory,despitethefactthatonthesurfacetheyappeartocontributeaboutasmuchtosociety—toquotethenotableevolutionarypsychologistStevenPinker—ascheesecakedoes.

8.2TheArtsandtheEmotionsOnecluetowardanexplanationoftheplaceofartinsocietyisinthewritingoftheancients,sincetheywereexpresslyconcernedwithidentifyingthefunctionofart,whereunderstandingthefunctionofart,ofcourse,providedakeyforthemforascertainingitssocialvalue.PlatoandAristotle,alongwiththerasatheoristsoftheHindutradition,allregardtheartsasinvolvedwiththearousalofemotion.AlthoughinBookTenofhisRepublic,Platoadvisesbanishingthepoetsfromtheidealstatepreciselybecausetheytrafficintheemotions,atotherjuncturesinhiswriting—includingBooksTwoandThreeoftheRepublicandhisLaws—Platoadoptsamoremeasuredviewofthearts,applaudingthestoriesthatbywayofemotionallyaffecting,goodrolemodelspromotesociallydesirablebehaviouraswellasrecommending,astheConfucian(p.161) traditionalsodoes,whichmusicalmodesarebestforemotionallymouldingcharacter.Inmostofhiswriting,Platoisforregulatingart,ratherthanexilingitentirely.Poemspresentingbadrolemodelsshouldbecensored;theyshouldbekeptfromimpressionableyouthswhoonceinfectedbyinappropriateemotions—likethefearofdeath—willemulatethem.

Moreover,evenwhenPlatothreatenstoostracizethepoets,heleavesopenaloophole:ifthepoetsortheirfriendscanshowthewayinwhichtheundeniablepleasureaffordedbypoetrybenefitsthecommonwealth,thepoetsmaybereadmittedintothepolis.However,sincePlatohaslinkedpoetryandtheartsingeneralsocloselywiththeemotions,iftheartsaretobebeneficialtosociety,itwillbeinvirtueoftheirconnectiontotheemotions.

Aristotle,asusuallyunderstood,implicitlytakesupPlato’schallengeinhisPoetics,inwhichhearguesthattheprimaryfunctionoftragedyistoraisetheemotionsofpityandfearforthepurposeofsubjectingthemtotheprocessofcatharsis.ItisveryinterestingthatAristotlesinglesouttheemotionsofpityandfear,becausethoseareamongtheonesthatmosttroubledPlato.Platoworriedthatportrayinggods,demigods,andheroeswhoevincedpityforthemselvesandothers,aswellasfearofdeath,wouldbetheworstsortofrolemodelsfortheyoungguardians-to-beofhisRepublicsince,amongotherthings,theguardiansweresoldiersandtheemotionsofpityandfeararenotwhatyouwouldwishtoinstillinthetroops.

AristotlethusmeetsPlatohead-on,grantingthatalthoughdramaengenderspityandfear,itdoessomethingtothesepsychologicalstates—ittransformsthemsomehow.Howexactly?Thisiswherethenotionofcatharsisenters,butunfortunately,itisfarfromclearwhatAristotlehasinmindhere,sincehedoesnotdefineitpreciselyinthePoeticsor,for

thatmatter,elsewhere.InthePolitics,heappliesittowhatissufferedbythecelebrantsofcertainEleusinianrites,butitisnotevidentthathewantsustothinkofthesedentaryaudiencesofdramasasanalogoustothedancingparticipantsinecstaticceremonies.

Catharsiscanmeantopurify,topurge,ortoperfect.MyownviewofwhatAristotlehasinmindisthatdramapurifiestheemotionsofpityandfear—amongothers—byclarifyingthem.3Thatis,wereadinAristotle’sNicomacheanEthicsthattheemotionsneedtobedirectedattherightobjects,fortherightreasons,attherighttime,andatthesuitablelevelofintensity.Drama,itseemstome,helpsviewerscalibratetheiremotionsbyprovidingthemwithopportunitiestotraintheirfeelingswithrespecttosituationsdesignedtodrawforththeappropriateemotionalresponses.And,byhoningtheemotionsofthecitizenry—bycultivatingthemintherightdirection—poetry,pacePlato,performsabeneficialfunctionforsociety.Indeed,poetrybecomesaninstrumentofsoulcraft.

(p.162) Onthisview,tragedyisameansofeducatingtheemotions.ThisisacontroversialinterpretationofhowAristotlemeansustounderstandcatharsis,althoughIthinkthatitiseminentlydefensible,sinceitfitssonicelywithhisoveralldefenceofpoetryaseducative.ButwhetherIhavenailedAristotle’smeaninghereisnotimportant.AllIneedforwhatIwishtoargueisthatarousingtheemotionsisafunctionofart—indeed,averybasicfunction—asacknowledgedbyPlatoandAristotleattheverydawnofthephilosophyofart.Consequently,ifwecansaymoreaboutwhyarousingtheemotionsinthemanneroftheartscontributestothewell-beingofsociety,thenwemaybeonourwaytoexplainingthemysteryofwhysocietieslavishsuchenergyonsupportoftheartsdespitetheirapparentlackofreturnonsociety’sinvestment.

However,beforeIdiscusswhatIthinkarethemostpertinentbonusesthatthearousaloftheemotionsbytheartsdelivertosociety,letmeemphasizewhatIamnotsaying.Iamnotsayingthattheoneandonlyfunctionoftheartsistoexpressorarousetheemotions.Iamnot,inotherwords,endorsingwhatisoftencalledanexpressiontheoryofart.Igrantimmediatelythatthereismuchartthatmayhavenothingtodowithprovokingtheemotions.Theremaybereflexive,modernistartthat,forexample,aimsonlyatinducingcognitiveinsightintotheconditionsofthepossibilityofpainting.Nevertheless,somucharthasbeendevotedtothetaskofarousingtheemotionsthatifwecanidentifywhyarousingtheemotionsinthewayoftheartsissociallyvaluable,wewillbeabletospeculateonwhymuchart—indeed,perhapsmostart—andthustheongoingpracticesofarthavedeservedthesupportofthesocietiesinwhichtheyhaveemergedandflourished.4

Butinadvanceofaddressingthequestionofwhytheartisticarousaloftheemotionsissociallyvaluable,itisusefultoremindourselveswhytheemotionsthemselvesarevitaltosociety.Lifeinacultureinvolvesaconstantprocessofjudgingandbeingjudged;weareconstantlyappraisingsituationsincludingsocialsituations;atthesametime,wearesubjecttothejudgementsofothers.5Sometimesthesejudgementsaredeliberate—weandtheotherswhojudgeusarefrequentlyawarethatweareinvolvedinaprocessofassessingthisorthat.Ithinkaboutthestudent’sexcuseaboutherproblemsathome

beforeIdecidethatsheneedstobecutsomeslack.

(p.163) However,agreatmanyofthejudgementsthatwemake,includingmoraljudgements,areissuedautomatically.And,thisiswheretheemotionscomein.Fortheemotionsarebiologicallyendowedmechanismsformakingrapidappraisals,oftensansdeliberation.Whenonesensessomethingmovingswiftlyandlowtotheground,oneisgrippedbyfear.Or,foramoresocialexample,whensomeonejumpsaheadofyouinline,youfeelangerautomatically.Youdon’thavetothinkaboutit.

Obviously,thecapabilityformakingsuchspeedyappraisalswasanadvantageforourearlyforebearswhereasnapjudgementcouldmeanthedifferencebetweenevadingapredatororrespondingtoanenemyandextinction.Theemotionswerewaysofsolvingtheframeproblemforcreatureslikeus.Thatis,givingawealthofstimulation,humansneedthemeanstoassesswhatisimportanttothem—whatwilladvanceorimpedetheirvitalinterests.Theemotionsenableustopickoutthedetailsofthearraysthatconfrontusintermsofwhatweneedtoavoidortoexploit.Fear,forexample,zeroesinondanger,andprimesustofight,flee,orfreeze.Moreover,onceanemotiontakescommand,itsendsfeedbacktoourperceptualsystem,disposingustoscopeoutthesituationintermsoftheelementsbeforeuswhicharerelevanttoadvancingorthreateningourvitalinterests.Whereinthefirstinstance,fearalertsustothepresenceofapproachingthugs,inthesecondinstance,itpromptsustosearchtheenvironmentforanavenueofescape.

Manyofthesituationsofhumanlifethatarepertinenttoourvitalinterestsarerecurrent.Consequently,therearecertainbasicemotions—includingfear,anger,jealousy,anddisgust—thatappeartobenearlyuniversaland,giventherootednessoftheemotionsinthebodywheretheyengenderphysiologicalresponses,theseemotionsseemtobegroundedbiologically.Nevertheless,althoughtheemotionshaveabiologicalbasis,thatbasisisaplatformuponwhichdifferentculturescalibratevariousemotionsinlightoftheparticularcircumstancesthatbesetthem.Eveniffearisabasicemotion,feelingterroruponthesightofasummonsfromtheIRSisuniquetoourculture.

Societydependsuponitsmembers’abilitiestomakeconvergingjudgementsinorderforsocialcoordinationtoobtain.Sinceasubstantialamountofthejudgementswemakeareemotionalappraisals—indeed,itislikelythatmostofourjudgementsaresuch—theemotionsareessentialingredientsinthecontinualrenewalandreproductionofsociallife.However,fortheemotionstoperformthisrolethereneedstobesomeagreementoruniformityacrossthepopulationofacultureinthemodesandcriteriaofthereigningemotions.Andforthattooccur,therawemotionshavetobetrainedoreducated.

Thatis,forasocietytopersist,certainhabitsofjudgementmustbepassedfromonegenerationtothenext,andforemostamongthosepatternsofjudgementaretheemotions.Thecitizenryofasocietymustlearntheemotionalrepertoireoftheirsociety.Inordertofunctioninthegroup,peopleneedtopossesstheemotionalknowledgeofthegroup—theymustlearnthroughhabituationtheconditionsunderwhichsuchandsuchanemotionisappropriateaswellaswhatbehaviourstheemotionisapttomotivatein

others.Weneedtopossessthisknowledgenotonlytojudgeourconspecifics(p.164)buttobeabletopredicthowwewillbejudgedand,inconsequence,betreatedbythem.Werequireknowledgeofwhattodoandfeel,wherefeelinganddoingareintimatelyrelated,andweneedknowledgeofhowothersarelikelytofeeltowardusasaclueastowhattheywilldo.

Thisiswhytheemotionsareimportantforsociety.Thearts,then,areimportantbecausetheyrepresentoneoftheprimarywaysinwhichtheemotionsareeducated.Thatis,thekindofemotionalknowledgerequisiteforsociallifeinlargemeasureistransmittedbyexamplesportrayedinimages—visualandverbal,includingpicture,sculpture,poetry,andsong—andinmythsandnarrativesaswellasbytherhythmsofmusicandtheordersofourconstructedenvironment—itsarchitecture,gardens,parks,sculptedlandscapes,andsoforth.6Inshort,byarousingtheemotions,theartscontributecruciallytothesortofeducationoftheemotionsuponwhichtheexistenceofsocietiesdepends.

Oneespeciallysignificantfeatureoftheemotionswhichisparticularlypertinenttotheeducativeroleoftheartsisthehumancapacitytoshareaffectivestates,aphenomenonsometimescalledemotionalcontagion.7Whenwespeakwithourinterlocutors,weoftentakeontheirfacialdispositions.Theyfrownandfurrowtheirbrows;wefrownandfurrowourbrow.Theysmileandnodinassent;sodowe.Theconfigurationofourfacialmusclesthensendssignalstoourautonomicnervoussystemandwefeelsomethinglikewhatourinterlocutorsfeel,therebygarneringforusaglimmeroftheirinnerstates.Undoubtedlythiscapacitytopenetratethementalstatesofothersbeginsininfancywheresomuchlearning,includingemotionallearning,occursonourcare-giver’skneewhereweimitateeverythingfromherglancetohergiggles.

Theemotionsystemisnotsimplyamechanismformobilizingactionintheindividual;itisalsoamediumofcommunication,awayoflettingourconspecificsknowwhatisgoingoninsideusintermsofthatwhichwearefeeling.Ourimitationofthefacialdisplaysofothersiscruciallyimportantinthisregard.Itenablesustomind-readothersbywayofimitatingtheirfacialexpressions.Thelookoffearetcheduponthevisageofanotheralertsustothefactthatsheperceivestheretobedangerinthevicinity;bymirroringthelookonherfaceanaffectivealarmthengoesoffinus—notjustinme,butineveryonenearbyinthesurroundingenvironment.(Thisisaneffect,bytheway,exploitedespeciallybymanyartisticdevices,suchasthemotionpictureclose-up.)

Moreover,itisnotmerelythefacesofothersthatwetendtomimicwhenweinteractwiththem.Wewillalsoapetheirstance,gestures,andeventheirmovements.Whenourconfederateleansforwardtoconfidesomethingtous,wemirrorherstanceconspiratorially.Onepersonfoldshisarmsacrosshischest,andhiscompanionveryfrequentlydoeslikewise.Agroupofstudentswalksdownthecorridorandtheyallfall(p.165) intostep.Callthisbehaviouramatterofmirrorreflexes.8Itispervasivethroughoutsociallife.Amongotherthings,itisawayofspreadingfellowfeelingamongstthegroupwhichmaybemotivatedbyourunderlyingdesiretobelikeourgroupmatesandtobelikedbyourgroupmates.9

Indeed,evenincaseswherewearenotabletomoveinconcertwithothers—aswhenseatedinthecrowdedbleachersobservingasportingevent—wemayfeelatuginthemusclesofourarmthatechoesthoseoftheoutfielderstrainingforacatch.Or,watchspectatorsataboxingeventastheirrhymingblockingmovementsmimicthoseofthefighterbeingpummelled.Recallhowmanyactionsequencesinmovingpictureshaveussquirminginourseatsastheprotagonistsassaythisorthatfeat.Why?Infact,thereisevidencethatpre-motorpathwaysofthecortexareactivatedpertinenttotheperformanceofacertainactionwhenwitnessingtheactionsofotherswhoareperformingsaidactions.Thus,asinthecaseoffacialexpression,itappearsthatwehavethecapacitytodetectwhatourconspecificsarefeelingbyundergoingsimilarorconvergingfeelingsinownbodiesasaresultofimitatingthebodilydispositionsofothers.

Theartsexploitthesebiologicaltendenciesinvariousways.Inordertogetatsomeofthese,itisusefultomakeaveryprovisionaldichotomybetweenwhatwemaycalltheobservationalartsandtheparticipatoryarts.Byobservationalarts,Ihaveinmindarts—suchasthetraditionalartsoftheatreandtheatredance—wherethereisamarkeddistinctionbetweentheaudienceandtheperformers.Perhapsthiskindofartdeveloped,asaresultofadivisionoflabour,fromearlierartformsinwhichthecommunityasawholeperformed—whereeveryonesanganddanced,thatis,whereeveryoneparticipated,possiblyintheprocessofenactingsomereligiousritual.

Butbethatasitmay,itseemsfairtosupposethatboththeobservationalartsandtheparticipatoryartsengagethepossibilitiesaffordedbyemotionalcontagion.Withobservationalart,theaudienceasawholemodelsitselfontheactors,dancers,andotherperformers,includingthegesticulatingmusiciansandconductors.Atthesametime,whilewatchingtheperformancefromtheirvantagepointsintheauditorium,theaudiencememberinthepresenceofobservationalartalsohastherestoftheaudience,engulfedastheyareinemotion,tomirror.Thatis,whileweeachinturnarebeingguidedviamimesisbytheperformerstowardthesameaffectivestate,thatfeelingisreinforcedbythefactthatourfellowviewersarefeelinglikewiseinawaythatadditionallytriggersourmirrorreflexesinresponsetotheirs.Thuswemaylaughandcryalltheharderforbeinginagroup.

Intheparticipatingarts,ontheotherhand,wemayonlyhaveeachothertoimitate;however,thefactthat,whensinginganddancingtogether,forexample,wecanmirroreachother’sbehaviourmorerobustlyandalongmoredimensionsthanwecanasmereviewersmaymorethanmakeupforthelackofcuingbyspecializedactorsordancers.(p.166) Thatis,withrespecttotheparticipatoryartsweareallprimarilymirror-stimulatingeachotherratherthanmodellingcertaindesignatedfociofattention,likeagroupofactors.Yetbecauseweareimmersedintheimitationsofullyandalongsomanyaspectsofimitation,thetransmissionofaffectneedbenolesspotentthaninthecaseoftheobservationalarts.Indeed,insomecasestheemotionalcontagiousnessoftheparticipatoryartsmaybemorepowerfulthanthatofmanyinstancesofobservationalart.

Musicalsohasthecapacitytopromoteconvergingfellowfeelingamongstlisteners,andnotonlythroughourmirroringofthegesturesofthemusiciansandtheconductors.This

possibilityrestsonthefactthathumanshaveanimmenselystrongtendencytohearmusicasmoving—movingintimeandinacertaindirection,suchasupordown,andatacertainvelocityandwithacertainweightorgravity.Inotherwords,musiccanimparttheimpressionofmovingtowardacertaindestinationatacertaincadence.Infact,itisarguablytheveryfactthatwecanhearmusicalnoiseasmovinginthiswaythatleadsustodistinguishmusicfromotherkindsofnoise.

Invirtueofitspotentialtosuggestmovement,music,includingpureorchestralmusic,canimitatehumanmovementand,tosomedegree,thebroademotivequalitiessuggestedbythatmovement.AsStephenDaviesputsit,‘musicisexpressiveinrecallingthegait,attitude,air,carriage,posture,andcomportmentofthehumanbody.Justassomeonewhoisstoopedover,dragging,faltering,subduedandslowinhisorhermovementcutsasadfigure,somusicthatisslow,withheavyorthickharmonicbasstextures,withunderlyingpatternsoftension,withdarktimbres,andarecurrentlydownwardimpetussoundssad.Justassomeonewhoskipsandleapsquicklyandlightly,makesexpansivegestures,andsoon,hasahappybearing,somusicwithsimilarvivacityandexuberanceishappysounding.’10

Thatis,musicappearscapableofimitatinghumanmovement,atleastinaglobalway,bysuggestingmovement.Andmusicalmovement,echoinghumanmovement,inturn,caninsinuatehumanemotiveorexpressivequalities—again,atleast,broadly.Forexample,themovementinthemusicmayhaveconnotationsofeuphoriaordysphoria.Andthis,then,canarousecognatefeelingsinthebodiesoflistenersasavariantofthephenomenonofemotionalcontagion.

Undoubtedlythisisareasonthatmusicistraditionallycorrelatedwithdance;danceallowsthelistenerstoarticulatephysicallythefeelingofmovementthattheydetectinthemusic.Ifmusicimitateshumanmovement,thenbywayofdancing,listenersimitatetheimpressionofmovementthattheyintuitinthemusic.Moreover,wherewearedancingwithapartnerorinalargergroup,emotionalcontagiondoesnotonlymovefromthemusictothedancersbutbetwixtthedancersaswell.

Yetevenwherewedonotdancetothemusic,thereisevidencethatsomethingishappeninginourbodiesthatislikeimitation.Namely,itappearsthatmusicstimulates(p.167) certainofthemotorpathwaysinourbrain,asifwewerepreparingtomove.So,justastheactorprovokesemotionalcontagionbyinvitingus,perhapssomewhatcoercively,toimitatethebodilyconditionassociatedwiththeaffectivestateheintendstoengender,sotoodoesmusicencourageaformofemotionalcontagionamongstlistenersbypromptingustotranslatetheimpressionofmovementwehearinthemusicintobodilymovementimpulseswithcorrespondingaffectivestates.Ofcourse,thesourceofemotionalcontagioninpureorchestralmusicisnotanotherperson,butthemusic,arrangedinsuchawaythatviatheimpressionofmovement,itsuggestsanemotivestate.11

Admittedly,theemotivestatesprojectedbypureorchestralmusicmaynotbeveryprecise.Themusicmayconnotegenericanxietyratherthanfearofsomethingparticular,

likeamountainlionoraplague,suchasMadCowDisease.Inthisway,pureorchestralmusicismood-likeratherthanemotion-like.However,itisstillcontagious.Upbeatmusicwillabetajoyousmood,eventhoughthekindofjoyatissuemaybehardtopindown.Moreover,whenthemood-likestimulusofthemusicisweddedtoatext,asong,adance,aritual,aprogramme,and/oranarrative,thatjoycanbecomeveryspecific;withregardtothe1812Overture,forexample,themoodofjoyisidentifiedasoneofvictorythroughthemusic’sprogramme,andthetriumphalismofthemusic-cum-programmeinfectstheaudience.

SofarIhavebeenbrieflyreviewingtheartsinordertoremindourselvesofthedegreetowhichtheytrafficinemotionalcontagion.Ihavedonesoinordertomakeacaseforthesocialimportanceofthearts.Forinvirtueofignitingemotionalcontagion,thearts,attheveryleast,performthefunctionofbindingtogetherthemembersofagroupbyfacilitatingthesharingoffellowfeelings.Sharingemotionsandattitudes,ofcourse,isawayofsociallybondingbyexpandingcommonground.12Inthisway,theartsassistinunifyingasocialgroupbyimbuingitsmemberswithconvergingfeelings.Moreover,sincetheseemotionscanmotivateactions,therelevantartscanenlisttheemotionsinthegroupthatarerequisitefortheperformanceofcertainactions.Inthepast,practiceslikewardancesandworksongs(likeTheVolgaBoatmanorFifteenYearsontheErieCanal)coordinatedgroupactionsbyinvestingtheindividualsinthegroupwiththesortofemotiveinclinationsnecessarytogetthosejobsdonewhichpresupposegroupactionasaconditionforsuccess.

Ofcourse,thesortofemotionalcontagionthattheartscanpromoteisnotonlyameansforstirringupthefellowfeelingsusefulforaccomplishinglocalprojects,suchasrevvingupthewarriorstomarchacrosstheriverinordertodobattle.Theartsmayalsofostermoreoverarchingorlong-livedformsofemotionalcontagion,suchas(p.168)patriotism,bymeansofthingslikeanthems.Invirtueoftheircapabilitytostokeemotionalcontagion,theartscancontributetothemaintenanceofconformity—bothattheleveloflocalprojectsandenduringcommitments—sincethesharedemotionstheyinspireinparticipantsand/orviewers,listenersand/orreadersalsobringintheirtrailconvergingmotivestoact.Thus,story,song,music,dance,andotherformsofenactmenthaveanimportantroleintheorchestrationofthebehaviourofsocialgroups.13

Needlesstosay,throughoutmuchofhistory,theartsoperatedintandemwithreligion,oftenintheserviceofritualswhichthemselvesmightbethoughtofasproto-theatricalevents.Movement—includingdancing,marching,andprocessions—repletewithmusic,song,narrative,andgesturalsymbolism,sometimesledbypriests,and/orsometimesincorporatingtheentirecommunity,suppliedcelebrantswithmultiplechannelsorconduitsofemotionalcontagion.Moreover,thiscontagioncrossedtheboundariesofkinship,therebymakingpossibletheconstructionofsocialgroupsonthebasisofsomethingmoreextensivethanbloodlines.

Thatis,largerandlargersocialgroupswereenabledtocohere—beyondthefamilyandtheclan—bymeansofemotionalcontagion,abettedtoasignificantdegreebythewayinwhichtheartsstimulateconvergingaffectamongstcreators,participants,observers,

and/orparticipant-observersalike.Furthermore,ifitisvirtuallyaxiomaticthatlargersocialunitsreplacesmalleronesinthecompetitionforscarceresources,thenartisticbehaviourasaleverofsocialcohesion—whichisindependentofmembershipinanintimatelyrelatedgenepool—functionsasawaytobindgroupsemotivelyintoanUsintermsofanaffectivecurrentofsharedfellowfeelings.14

Likecontemporarysportingeventsthatconstructfancommunitiesofsentimentaroundthisorthatteam,theartsareabletocontributetobindingtogethercommunitiesbymeansofemotionalcontagion.Whenspectatorsatabasketballgamerisetotheirfeettoapplaudabrilliantmanoeuvre,theyexperienceacommunal‘whoosh’ofpleasure,asBertDreyfusputsit,becomingunitedinamomentarysocietyoffeeling.15Somethingsimilarhappenswhentheaudiencedeliversastandingovationafteranopera,aballet,oraplay.Butthecommunitiesbondedbytheartsaregenerallywider(p.169) thanthosebondedbysports.Fortheartsdonotmerelybindcommunitiesaffectivelytoparticularartworksorperformances.Theycontributetoforginglargersocialalliances,andtheynurturetheemotionalintelligenceuponwhichathrivingculturedepends.Indeed,theyparticipateintheconstructionofsaidcultures.

Theartsaccomplishthisinpartbyrefiningandshapingtheemotionstheyevoketypicallybyprovidingsaidfeelingswiththeappropriateobjects.Whentheartswereinseparablefromreligion,thesongs,myths,symbols,narratives,andritualenactmentsfixedwhatitwasfittingtoworship,fear,love,hate,andsoon.

Speakingoftheaesthetico-religiousritualsoftraditionalsocieties,PatriciaChurchlandnotesthatthey‘canbeoccasionsforgroupbondingaroundcertainmoralissuessuchasdefensefromattackers,celebrationofanewleader,orsurvivalduringaharshwinteranddistributionofscarceresources.Religiousritualsareimportantinreaffirmingsocialhierarchiesandinsolidifyingsocialconditionsandsomereligiouspracticesarestructuredtoincreasecompassion,kindness,harmonyandlove.Aswell,ritualsofaffiliationcanignitecontagiousenthusiasmforagroup’sundertakingandcanbehelpfulinsolvingkindsofsocialproblems,suchasdefenseagainstattack....’16Thatis,insuchcases,theartsinconcertwithreligionnotonlyengenderedconvergingfeelingamongstthemembersofthegroup;theyshapedthosefeelingsbyattachingthemtothesociallycorrectobjectsandbehaviours,therebycalibratingthoseemotionssothattheautomaticjudgementsorappraisalsthatwererenderedaffectivelywouldbemoreorlessreliablerelativetothecultureinquestion.

Songsofheroesandtheiradversariescarriedsocialinformationaboutthevirtuesandvicesthatpertainedtotherelevantsocietyandmadethepertinentcriteriaofjudgementavailablevirtuallyautomaticallyviatheemotions.Thearts—includingnarratives,songs,pictures,andthelike—areamongtheleadingdevicesfordevelopingtheemotionalintelligenceofasocialgroup,beginningwiththeearlieststoriesthatchildrenaretoldintheircare-giver’slap.Notonlydotheartssucceedin,toacertainextent,standardizingthefeelingsofagroupviaemotionalcontagion,buttheydosoinsuchawaythatthefellowfeelingsthathavebeenengenderedareconnectedtotherightobjects.Inshort,theartseducateourcapacitytoissueemotivejudgementsorappraisalsintheways

requiredtoassuresocialcohesion,conformity,andcontinuation.

Moreover,theartsareparticularlyeffectivemeansforeducatingtheemotionsduetothewaysinwhichtheyaretypicallysuitedtoengaginghumanpsychology.Itiscommonlyobservedthatnotionsofvirtueandvicearemorememorablycommunicatedbystories,myths,andsongsthanbysermonsenunciatingabstractprinciples.Bettertorecountatale—perhapsaidedbyastainedglasswindowthatillustratesit—aboutamoralexemplardemonstratingthevirtueinaparablethantodefinethevirtueby(p.170) meansofanabstractformula.Vianarratives—visual,verbal,orsometimesboth—theartsmakethevaluesofthecultureaccessibleandreadilyretrievablebymemory.

Furthermore,ifcognitivepsychologistsarecorrectandcategorizationtypicallyproceedsbyprototypesratherthanbymeansofabstractconcepts,thenarrativeartsprovideamoreuser-friendlymethodforacquiringthemeansrequisiteformakingjudgementsorappraisalsofboththedeliberativeandtheemotionalvarieties.Thus,viewingdramas,liveonesandmotionpictures,readingnovels,andlisteningtotheself-narrativesinpopularsongsarewaysoftrainingup,exercising,andsharpeningthecapacityforemotionaljudgementthatenablesasocietytofunction.

Theartsofpoetry,music,song,anddanceallpossessstrongrhythmicelements,asdothevisualartsandarchitecture,althoughatadifferentlevelofvisceralintensity.Rhythmisausefuleducationaldevice,ofcourse;itisawayofmakingthingssalient.Onewill,forexample,payspecialattentiontothewordsthatfallintoaregularrhymeschemeinapoemorasong.Butrhythmisalsoaverypowerfulmnemonicdevice.Itiseasiertocalltomindinformationthatisrhythmicallyorganized;evenpatientswhosememoriesareotherwiseutterlycompromisedbytraumassuchascerebralstrokesordiseaseslikeAlzheimer’scanoftenrememberthesongsthattheylearntinchildhood.Thus,byemployingrhythm,theartsaddressusinwaysthatareparticularlymemorable,reinforcingthelessonstheyconveyinaparticularlydeepandenduringmanner.

Speakingofepics,BrianBoydwrites:

Theconcentratedpatternsofrhythmandrhymecanaidinthetransmissionoflongertexts,especiallythoseofmyths,legend,andreligiousorotherloreorritualfelttobepassedalongmoreorlessexactly....Themnemonicadvantagesofthetransmissionofsociallysharedinformationmaywellhavebeenadaptiveforgroupselection,bolsteringsocialcohesionthroughthereliablerehearsalofnarrativesincorporatingsharedknowledgeandvalues.

Similarprinciplesoperateinritualchantorsongs(psalms,hymns,thesongsofAfricanpraise-singers).Therhythmicpatternsofversecanallowforemotionalattunementandphysicalentrainment.Emotionalattunementmattersforanysocialspecies,especiallyforultrasocialhumans....17

Thisisespeciallytruewheretheartsinquestionareparticipatory—wherewesing,clap,drum,anddancetogether.Suchpracticescanmakethesocialinformationsoarticulated

virtuallyunforgettable,imprintingtheethosofthecultureinthedeepestlevelsofthebeingofitsmembers.Moreover,oralperformancesofthecanonicalstoriesofvariouscultures,suchasepics,arealsorhythmicallyorganizednotsimplyinordertoaidthememoryofthesingerofthetale,butalsotoinserttheseprototypesprofoundlyintothememoriesofthelisteners.Rhythm,inotherwords,isapowerfulformofinception—tohijackthetitleofarecentpopularmovie.

Throughdeviceslikenarrativeandrhythm,theartsviscerallydisseminatethenormsofagivencultureindeliblyintheheartsandmindsofitspeople,facilitatedbythekind(p.171) ofemotionalcontagiondiscussedearlier.Theartsarenotonlyaprimarymeansforeducatingtheirviewers,listeners,and/orreaderswiththevaluesoftheirsociety,buttheydosoinwaysthatmakethosevalueseminentlyaccessibleandretrievable.Theyaffectivelybindtheaudiencearoundabodyofjudgementsorappraisalsandthecriteriathatunderwritethem.Theartsunifyandinculcateatthesametime,providingthemembersofeverysocietythewherewithaltomakethejudgementsbywhichtheylive.

Thus,myanswertoTolstoy’squestion—reformulatedasarequestforanexplanationfortheexistenceoftheartsratherthanasajustification—insomewayssoundslikeTolstoy’sown.Theartsengenderfellowfeelingwhichservestobindpeopletogether.However,IdonotunderstandthisbondinginthenarrowlyChristianmannerthatTolstoyprefers.Ithinkthattheartshavebeenandcontinuetobeameansforunitingapeople,butthisdoesnotentailthattheyareaconduitforunitingallpeoples,asTolstoyappearstohope.Often—perhapsmostoften—theartshaveservedtounitesomepeopleagainstotherpeople.Thatis,frequently—maybeevenusually—theartscontributetotheformationofanUsasopposedtoaThem.18Onmyview,theexplanationforthearts,inthefaceofthesocialcoststheyexact,isthattheyfacilitatetheevolutionofsocietiesoflargerandlargerscales,byunitingandinculcatingatargetpopulacewhere,allthingsbeingequal,societiesthatarelargerareadvantagedagainstsmalleronesinthecompetitionforresources.

Ofcourse,Idonotthinkthatthisistheonlykindofadvantagethattheartsafford.Theartsmayheightentheacuityofourperceptionsbothintermsofourdiscriminatoryabilitiesandourpowersofpatterndetection.Theymaykeepthemindactive,exercisingourmentalcapacitiesandstavingoffboredom.And,theartsmayalsoplayaroleinsexualselection.Iwouldnotwanttodenythattheartspromiseareturnonourinvestmentinalloftheseways.Nevertheless,Ithinkthattheprimaryadvantagethattheartsprovideinvolvestheadvantagetheybestowupongroupsinvirtueofthewaysinwhichtheyunifypeopleintosocioculturalwholes.

Thishypothesis,ofcourse,advancesatleasttwoverycontroversialclaims.First,thatartisticbehaviourisitselfadaptive,ratherthanaby-productofsomethingelsethatisadaptive.Andsecond,thatifartisanadaptation,thenitisprimarilyamatterofgroupselectionratherthansexualselection.ItistotheseissuesthatInowturn.

8.3IsArtAdaptive?SofarIhavebeentreatingartasanadaptivebehaviour.Specifically,Ihavebeensuggesting,ratherstrongly,thatartbestowsevolutionaryadvantagesupongroupsinso

(p.172) farasartcontributesimmenselytoforgingsocialcohesionamongthemembersofagroupbothbyengenderingfelloworconvergingfeelingsamongstthemandbyeducatingthosefeelingsinthewayofthegroup’spresidingculturebyconnectingthosefeelingsinaparticularlyperspicuousmannertotheobjectsoftherelevantaffectivestates.

Groupsthatcultivateartisticbehaviourwillbemorefitthangroupsthatdonotinasmuchasgroupsthatadoptartisticbehavioursarelikelytosustaingreaternumbersofmembersandgreatersocialcomplexitythanthosethatdonot.Andgreatersizeespeciallyisacrucialfactoringroupsuccess.

Largergroupsareclearlyadvantagedoversmallergroupswhensuchgroupsareincompetitionforscarceresourcesinlimitedareasbothintermsofbeingabletoexploitthevicinitymorethoroughlyand,withrespecttosuperiorbruteforce,intermsofopenwarfarewiththesmallercommunity.Inconsequence,thelargergroupswillhavemoreoffspringthansmallergroupswhichwillcontinuetoredoundtotheadvantageofthelargergroups.Thus,exhypothesi,naturalselectionwillpickoutindividualswhoaredisposedtowardtheartisticbehavioursthatareconnectedtoemotionalcontagionandeducation.

Ofcourse,forartisticbehaviourtohavehadthisevolutionaryadvantage,itmusthaveperformedsomethinglikethisfunctiondeepinourancestralpast.AndIbelievethattheremaybeevidencethatitdid.

Artisticbehaviouristhoughttohavebeenmanifestatleastaround30,000yearsagoduringtheperiodoftendesignatedastheUpperPaleolithicAge—theperiodinwhichHomosapiensormodernorCro-MagnonmanisbelievedtohavesecureddominanceinEurope.19

Cro-Magnonspossessedart—or,perhapsmoreaccurately,weshouldsaythattheypossessedvariousarts.TheycreatedthegreatcavepaintingsatLascauxandotherlocations.Theyalsosculpted.Andthereisevidencethattheyproducedmusicalinstruments.Hollowedboneswithcraftedholeshavebeendiscoveredthatappeartohaveenabledtheplayingofdifferentpitches.20Scientistshavealsouneartheddeviceswenowcall‘bull-roarers’—stringswithbonesorantlersattachedtotheirendswhichwhentwirledaroundtheheademitapowerfulgrowlingsound.21Similarly,someofthepertinentPaleolithiccaves,suchasRéseauClastresintheFrenchPyrenees,contain(p.173) stalactitesthatappeartohavebeenrepeatedlypounded,perhapsfunctioninglikepercussioninstrumentsinthehighlyacousticallyresonantcavesoftheCro-Magnons.22

Moreover,wherethereismusic,thereisalmostinevitablysinginganddance.23

Thus,itisnotunreasonabletoimagineourCro-Magnonancestorsdrumming,singing,andclappingincommunalritualsstagedintheentrancewaysofcaveslikeLascauxandGabillonwherethepicturesonthecavewallsthemselvesmayhaveillustratedthesame

religioussymbolismthatwasbeingrehearsedintheongoingceremony.24Presumably,thesegatheringsinvolvedstorytelling,embodyingculturalnormsandprojectswhichwerepossiblyreinforcedbytheiconographyonthewalls,whichimageswerealsoprobablyrelevanttotheperformanceofhuntingritualsandperhapsdeeperreligiousallegories.25

Oftheserituals,extrapolatingfromwhatisknownofcontemporaryhunter-gathers,EdwardO.Wilsonwrites:

OfspecialimportancetothemeaningofgameanimalsinthePaleolithiccaveartofEurope,thesongsanddancesofthemoderntribesaremostlyabouthunting.Theyspeakofvariousprey;theyempowerthehuntingweapons,includingthedogs;theyappeasetheanimalstheyhavekilledorareabouttokill;andtheyofferhomagetothelandonwhichtheyhunt.Theyrecallandcelebratesuccessfulhuntsofthepast.Theyhonorthedeadandaskthefavorofthespiritswhoruletheirfate.Itisself-evidentthatthesongsanddancesofcontemporaryhunter-gatherersserveboththeindividualandthegrouplevels.Theydrawtribalmemberstogether,creatingcommonknowledgeandpurpose.Theyexcitepassionforaction;theyaremnemonic,stirringandaddingtothememoryofinformationthatservesthetribalpurpose.26

Ifourancestral,hunter-gathererforebearshadaccesstotheseartisticbehaviours,thentheycouldtakeadvantageofthemobilizationofemotionalcontagionfortheconstructionoflargerandmoreculturallycomplexgroupsthantheirneighbours,theNeanderthals,whoappeartohavelackedarttoanyappreciabledegree.27Moreover,weknowfromthefossilrecordthattheHomosapienswereabletoformlargercommunitiesthantheNeanderthalsandthatovertimetheycametodominatethepertinentdomainsofEuropetotheextentthattheNeanderthalsbecameextinct.28

(p.174) Undoubtedly,theHomosapienshadmanyadvantagesovertheNeanderthals,including,itappears,language.And,clearly,certainoftheseadvantages,likelanguage,facilitatedtheconstructionofmoreextensiveandcoordinatedcommunitiesthantheirNeanderthalcompetitorswereabletofield.Nevertheless,Ithinkitisdifficulttodenythatartisticbehaviour,asitabetsemotionalcontagion,wasanimportantcontributingfactortothecohesionofthelargerCro-Magnongroups.29Therefore,itseemsthattheresourcesdevotedtotheartswaybackwhenwerenotwastedbyourancestralforebearswho,asindividuals,benefittedbybelongingtogroupsthat,acrossdimensionslikescale,were,inthemain,morefitthancontrastinggroupsatlargeduringthesametimeframe.

However,somecommentatorspersistinmaintainingthatartisticbehavioursarenotadaptivebutareratherwhatarecalled‘spandrels’,thatis,by-productsofgenuineadaptationswhichby-productswerenotthemselvessubjecttoselectivepressures.30Forexample,thatthecolourofhumanbloodisredwhenexposedtooxygenisaspandrel.Itisaconsequenceofthechemicalconstitutionofourbloodand,althoughthechemicalconstitutionofourbloodisadaptive,thatitturnsredwhenoxidizedhasno

adaptivevalueofitsown.Itisjustaselectivelyneutralby-productofotherbiologicalfeaturesthatareadaptive.So,eventhoughtherednessisauniversalfeatureofhumans,itisnotadaptive,butisonlysomethingthatisconnectedtosomethingelsewhichisadaptive.

Suchby-productsarecalled‘spandrels’afterthephenomenonsonamedinarchitectureofthetaperingtriangulararchesformedbytheintersectionoftworoundedarchesatrightangles.Similarly,artissaidtobelikethecolourofblood—aby-productofsomeotherfeatureofthehumanorganismthatwasnaturallyselectedbecauseofitsadvantageousness,butwhichby-productwasnotitselfselectedfor.

Sometimesitseemsasthoughdefendersoftheart-as-spandrelviewpresupposethattheirpositionshouldbeacceptedonthegroundsthatitismethodologicallysuperiortotheart-as-adaptationapproach.Friendsofthespandrelhypothesissuspectthatinordertomotivatethepositionthatartisanadaptation,thedefenderofsuchahypothesiswillbeforcedtotellastoryabouttheoriginofartthatwillbesounconstrainedbyinformationabouttheancestralenvironmentsinwhichartemergedthatitwillbe(p.175) asfancifulasthechildren’sstories—whichKiplingcalledJustSoStories—aboutsuchthingsashowleopardsgottheirspots.Thatis,intheabsenceofknowledgeaboutconditionsonthegroundinthepertinentpast,thetheoristswillbefreetoconcoctwhatevergenealogiessuittheirpurposes.Toavoidsuchwool-gathering,thefriendsofthealternativespandrelaccountrecommendthinkingintermsofspandrelswhich,onthefaceofit,avoidstheembarrassmentofjust-sostories.

However,itisdifficulttounderstandwhythedefendersofthespandrelapproachthinkthattheycandodgetheproblemsthattheyseebesettingtheadaptationists.Forthespandrelhypothesisalsocallsforanaccountofwhythelayoutoftheancestralenvironmentrenderedartmerelyaspandrel.Thatis,friendsofthespandrellabourunderthesameepistemiclimitationsthattheadaptationistsdo.

Also,theproponentsofthespandrelapproachwillneedtotellustheadaptationfromwhichartisticbehaviourresultedasaby-product;andtheywillhavetodothiswithoutrevertingtotellinguswhattheythemselveswouldbepronetocalla‘just-so’story.Perhapsthiscanbedone.Myonlypointatthisjunctureisthatthereshouldbenoinitialpresumptioninfavourofthespandrelaccount,despitetheapparentbiasonbehalfofthespandrelapproachamongcommentators.Bothsidesofthedebatehavecomparableburdensofprooftoface;thespandrelpositiondoesnothaveanepistemicedgeovertheadaptationist.

Maybeitwillbearguedthatartisticbehaviourisobviouslyjustaby-productofthejumpinintelligenceobservableinHomosapiensintherelevanttimeperiod.However,thisstrikesmeasinsufferablyvague.Ofwhataspectofthatintelligence,onewantstoknow,isartisticbehaviouraby-product?Alikelycandidate,ofcourse,mightbeemotionalintelligence,ofwhichmindreadingwouldbeasignificantfeature.Onedimensionofmindreading,inturn,isemotionalcontagion,whichwehavehypothesizediscloselyconnectedtoartisticbehaviour.Soarewetosaythatartisticbehaviourisaby-productofemotional

contagionor,evenmorebroadly,mindreading?

Butthisseemswrongtome.Artisnotaby-productofemotionalcontagion;itisabehaviouralimplementationofemotionalcontagion;itisaninstanceofmindreading.Artistsusetheirownemotionalintelligencetoanticipatewhatformsandthemeswillmovetheirconspecificsintermsoftheirownsusceptibilitytoemotionalcontagion,whileaudiencesrespondtosuchartefactsbyundergoingemotionalcontagion.Artisnotaby-productofemotionalcontagionbutisaveryimportantinstanceoftheprocess.

Furthermore,friendsoftheart-as-spandrelconvictionappearsatisfiedthatifitcanbeshownthatartoriginatesasaspandrel,thenthatwillbetheendofthedebatewithadaptationists.Butthisstrikesmeasill-considered.Forevenifartisticbehaviouroriginatedasaspandrel,oneneednotdenythatsubsequentlyitwentontobecomeadaptive.Perhapswewillneverbeabletoestablishwhetherthefirstartwasaspandrelorwhetherartisticbehaviourwasnaturallyselectedbecauseofthefunctionitperformedabinitio.Nevertheless,evenifitbeganasaspandrel,itisperfectlyconsistenttoarguethatafteritsemergence,artisticbehaviourbecame(p.176) adaptive,possibly,asIhaveconjectured,bydischargingthefunctionoffacilitatingtheformationofcommunitiesofgreaterscaleand,therefore,greaterfitness,thanthecommunitiesthatprecededit.

Thatis,howsoeverthefirstartisticbehavioursfirstappeared,itseemsplausiblethatatsomepointtheybecameadaptivebycontributingtotheadvantageofHomosapiensvis-à-vistheirNeanderthalcompetitors.Moreover,itshouldbeaddedthatinaddressingafeatureofourancestralhistorythatcallsoutforexplanation—namely,thesurvivalofCro-MagnonhumansratherthantheNeanderthals—theart-as-adaptationhypothesisgoespartofthewaytoexoneratingitselfasnothingbutajust-sostory.

Isuspectonereasonthatmanyarequicktodenythatartisticbehaviourisadaptiveistheirviewthatartissimplypleasurableforitsownsakeandfornootherpurpose.Itis,toreturntoStevenPinker’smetaphor,cheesecake.

Butthenotionthatartisessentiallypleasurableforitsownsakeisaveryrecent—and,forthatmatter,verycontroversial—conceptionofart.Thus,itisarguablyhighlyanachronistictoprojectthisconceptionofartbackwardsintothepastinordertoexplaineithertheoriginofartoritspersistenceovermillennia.Thatis,whenwesetourselvestoexplainingtheoriginofartanditslongevity,weshouldnotlimitourselvestothinkingofartisticbehaviourasamediumofpleasureandnothingelse.

Ratherweshouldconstantlyberemindingourselvesthatformostofitsexistence,arthasbeenaboutstirringupandshapingtheemotionsinawaythatbindsandinculcatesthoseunderitsswayasparticipantsinaculture.ThetheorythatartistheenterpriseofengenderingpleasureforitsownsakearrivedintheeighteenthcenturyandisdisputedeventodayinWesternaesthetics,whereithashadthegreatestinfluence.Undoubtedly,ifartwasasthiseighteenth-centurydispensationwouldhaveit,itsoriginandpersistencemightbehardtoexplain.ButifweabandontheviewthatTolstoycalled‘artforart’ssake’andrealizethatartisticbehaviourhaslongbeenanengineofculturalconsolidation,the

propositionthatithasbeenselected-forduetotheadvantagesitaffordsgroups,thentheroadiscleartoexplainingthecontributionofarttohumansociallife.

NordoestheemphasisthatIhaveplacedonartisticbehaviourintheserviceofcultureinanywaygainsaytherelationofarttopleasure,sinceitisdemonstrablethatthearousaloftheemotions,especiallywhensharedwithothers,ispleasurable.However,ontheviewthatIamsupporting,thatpleasurehasnotattacheditselftoartisticbehaviourforitsownsake,butforthesakeofthesocialadvantagesitsustains,muchasnaturalselectionhasconnectedsexualpleasuretoprocreativebehaviour.

Althoughtheviewthatartisticbehaviourissustainedbynothingbutthepursuitofpleasureforitsownsakehardlysuitsmostofthehistoryofart,thereisperhapsthetemptationtothinkthatitdoescharacterizecurrentartwhich,inturn,iswhyourcontemporariesaretemptedtoprojectthisviewontoartofthepast.However,Iamnotevenconvincedthatthepleasureperspectivedoesagoodjobdealingwithagreatdealofcontemporaryart.ForIamconvincedthatmuchcontemporaryartisstillengagedinperformingtheculturalfunctionsIhaveattributedtoartimmemorial.Thatis,muchcontemporaryart—especiallywithregardtomassartformslikethe(p.177) motionpictures—stilltradesinemotionalcontagionwithrespecttohabituatingaudiencesregardingtheculturallyappropriateobjects.

Inordertoseethis,itiseasiertoconsiderworksfromtherecentpastratherthanworksoftheimmediatepresent,sinceweneedsomedistanceintimebeforewecanseeourselvesclearly.Butwiththatinmind,thinkbacktotheheydayoftheAmericanWesterninthe1950s.Therewefindrepeatedincowboymovieaftercowboymoviethefigureofthereluctantwarrior—aman,liketheretiredgunfighterShane—whorefusestoresorttoviolenceuntilthereisnootherviableoption.31Inthis,theseWesternscultivatedacertainculturallyvaluedidealofmanliness.Thesefilmswereundeniablyentertaining.Butintheprocessofbeingentertaining,they,likeartthroughouttheages,carriedoutindispensableculturalwork—inthiscasethatofengenderingtheemotionofadmirationtowardthevirtueofmanlyrestraint,andtherebyunitingtheaudiencebehindacommonnorm.Inalllikelihood,onceweachievesomedistanceonthepresent,wewillbeabletoseethewaysinwhichthemassartworksofthepresenthavebeenacquittingacomparablefunction.

8.4GroupSelectionversusSexualSelectionInthespacethatremains,letmeaddressanissuethatmayhaveoccurredtosomeofyoualready.IhaveattemptedtoansweraversionofTolstoy’squestionaboutwhyartpersistsdespiteitsobviouscostsintermsoftheadvantagesitaffordstothegroup,includingtothegroupsofearlyHomosapienswho,onmyaccount,duetotheircapacityforartisticbehaviourscouldformlargergroupsthantheirneighbours,allowedthemtosecureterritorialdominance.Thisconjectureaboutthefitnessvalueofartreliesuponthenotionofgroupselection.Butnotalltheoristswhofavouranadaptationistperspectiveonart,however,aregroupselectionists.Many,possiblythemajorityoftheorists,includingmostrecentlyandperhapsmostnotablyDenisDutton,locatethesurvivalvalueofartinexplanationsintermsofsexualselection.32

Onthisview,artaroseandthrived,inotherwords,becauseoftheadvantagesitgrantscertainindividuals,namelyartists,whoseartistbehaviourmakesthemattractivetotheoppositesex.Thiswinsthemreproductivesuccess,resultinginlotsofchildrenwiththeirgenes,includingaproclivityforartisticbehaviour,which,inconsequence,generatesmoreofthesame.

Toelaboratefurther,thestorygoeslikethis.Artistsexpendagreatdealofenergyproducingartworksor,iftheyareperformingartists,inrehearsingtheskillsrequisiteforsinging,dancing,drumming,andsoforth.Thisisthentakenasasignoffitnessby(p.178)females,whoarethusattractedtosaidartistswhoare,asaresult,blessedwithplentifuloffspring.Theabidinganalogyhereistosomethinglikethephenomenonofthepeacock’stail.

Thepeacockdevelopsalargeandwondroustailwhichpeahensfindattractive.Why?BecauseifMrPeacockcaninvestalltheresourcesittakestogrowsuchasplendidlylargetailandyetsurvive,hemustbeaverysolidkindofguy.Thatis,tostillbeinthegamedespitethehandicapofhavingtoproducesuchafantastictailatanimpressivecostinphysicalresourcesisasignofhealthandwell-beingofthesortthatthepeahenisinvestedinbequeathingtoheroffspring.Soshegoesfortheguywiththebigtail.Artists,ratherthanhavingbeautifultails,havetheirartworksandperformancestoexhibit,which,beingexpensivetoproduce,likethepeacock’stail,aresignsoffitnesswhichwomenwillfindattractiveandhavefoundattractivefromthefirstCro-MagnonyodelerthroughFrankSinatraandJustinBieber.HowmanylittleMickJaggersthereare,wewillneverknow.

Thisisaverycomplexissue,ofcourse.SoletmeraisesomereservationsaboutthesexualselectionapproachwithoutpresumingthatwhatIhavetosayputsanendtothedebate.Asyoumightpredict,Iamsomewhatscepticalofthesexualselectionaccount;Iwouldn’twanttodismissitaltogether;nevertheless,Idonotthinkitcangiveusananswertothequestionwithwhichwebegan:namely,whyart,giventhevastcostsitcanentail?

ThefirstproblemwiththesexualselectionaccountthatIwouldliketobroachisthefactthatalthoughitisfrequentlyanalogizedtothecaseofthepeacock,thecomparisonisnotveryconvincing.Whatisimportantaboutthepeacockexampleisthatthepeacock’stailisahandicap.Thereasonforthisiscrucialtothesexualselectionapproach,towit:signsoffitnesscannotbecheap,otherwisetheywillbeeasytocounterfeit.Thepeahenneedsasignofmalephysicalfitnessthatitwouldbehardforlesserpeacockstofake.Soproducingthosemagnificenttailsmustcomedear.

However,itdoesnotseemprobabletomethattheartofourearlyhunter-gathererforebearswasuniformlyofacostlysort,analogoustothepeacock’stail.MuchoftheartoftheearlyHomosapiens,presumably,wasparticipatorycommunalart;artwhereeveryonesang,danced,andclapped.Itisfarfromcleartomethatartofthisvarietyinvolvedanyspecialcosts,eventothosewhoexcelledabovetherest.Likewise,expertiseinstorytellingdoesnotseemtoimplythesortofcoststhatmanifestfitnessthatthe

analogywiththepeacock’splumageinvites;contemporarystorytellers,likethoseofuswhotelljokes,don’tappeartoputourfitnessatrisk.Indeed,onewonderswhetherthesexualselectionmodelissuitableforcharacterizingtheearliestformsofartmaking,sinceitseemstopresupposetheexistenceofspecializedartistsinsocietieswherethedivisionoflabourwasprobablynotyetthathighlydeveloped.

Perhaps,cavepaintingfitstheanalogywiththepeacock’splumagebetterthantheparticipatoryperformingarts,butwithoutknowingwhodidthisandwhetheritinvolvedhardshipofsomesort,oneneedstohesitatebeforeextrapolatingacorrelationtothepeacock’stail.33

(p.179) Furthermore,inasmuchassexualselectionaccountsaretailoredtoindividuals,itisnotevidenthowtheyofferinsightintotheartisticinvestmentofwholegroups,notonlyinparticipatorygroupfestivals,butincommunalstructureslikeburialmoundsandtemples.

Needlesstosay,theseobservationsdonotsettletheissue.Theyareonlymeanttoindicatethat,despiteitspopularityamongtheorists,sexualselection,shallwesay,leavesmuchtobedesired.

However,itmaybeamistaketothinkthatthegroupselectionhypothesisandthesexualselectionhypothesisarelockedinazero-sumgame.34SomeevolutionarytheoristslikeEdwardO.WilsonandDavidSloanWilsonargueformulti-levelselection,arguingthatgroupselectionoperatesincompetitionbetweengroups,whileotherformsofselection,suchassexualselection,mayoperatewithingroups,affordingapictureofhumannatureofthesortKanthadinmindwhenhespokeofmankind’sunsociablesociability.

Thisseemsacceptabletome,sinceallIneedinordertosecuremycaseistheconcessionthatgroupselectionplaysaroleinevolution.35

8.5SummaryTosummarize:Ibeganwiththequestion,posedbyTolstoy,ofwhytheartsemergedandhavepersisteddespitethecoststheyhaveincurredthroughouthumanhistory,includingperiodsofmaterialscarcity.Myhypothesisisthattheexplanationliesinthewaysinwhichtheartsengagetheemotions,notablyintermsofhowtheartspossessthecapabilitytounitepeoplethroughphenomenalikeemotionalcontagionwhileatthesametimeeducatingusaffectivelybydirectingthosesharedfellowfeelingstowardstheculturallyappropriateobjects.

Thisconjecture,moreover,fitswithcertainfeaturesofwhatwenowbelieveaboutearlyhunter-gathererHomosapiens.ThattheysurvivedwheretheirNeanderthalcompetitorsperishedcanbeexplainedbytheirabilitytoformlargergroups,somethingthatmayinpartbeexplainedbytheirpossessionofartincontrasttotheartlessNeanderthalswhowentextinct.Thus,theoriginofart,aswellasitspersistence(especiallyinpopularartforms),isapttobeconnectedtotheadvantagestheartscontributetothefitnessofgroups.

AcknowledgementsThischapterhasbenefittedfrombeingpresentedtotheHumanitiesCenteratYaleUniversity,anAmericanSocietyforAestheticssessionattheCentralAPA,thePacificDivisionoftheAPA,andtheFrenchSocietyforAestheticsattheÉcolenormalesupérieurinParis.IwouldliketothankJonathanGilmore,JessePrinz,EvaDadlez,StephenDavies,TobynDeMarco,WilliamSeeley,AmyCoplan,JoanAcocella,AnjanChatterjee,CatherineTalonHugon,andalloftheotherlistenersandreaderswhohavecommentedonthispiece.

Notes:

(1)LeoTolstoy,WhatisArt?,trans.AylmerMaude(Indianapolis:Hackett,1996),15.

(2)Tolstoy,WhatisArt?,14.

(3)ThisviewisalsosharedbyMarthaNussbaumandStephenHalliwell.

(4)Isuspectthatsomucharthasbeendedicatedtoarousingtheemotionsthatthearousalofemotionsprovidesthebestexplanationfortheexistenceofthepracticesofart.However,itneednotbethecasethateveryinstanceofthepracticesofart—thatistosay,everyartwork—satisfiesthefunctionofthepracticetowhichitbelongs.Inotherwords,thereisnoinconsistencyinmaintainingthatalthoughthepracticeofartperseveresbecauseofitscapacitytoarouseemotions,thereareneverthelessartworkswithinthepracticethatdonotdischargethatfunction.Thus,evenifthepracticeofmotionpicturesthrivesbecauseittypicallyarousesemotions,thatisconsistentwiththerealsobeingstructuralistfilmsthatareprimarilyintellectualintheiraddress.Explainingwhywehavethepracticeorpracticesofartneednotanddoesnotaffordanexplanationofwhywehavethisorthatartwork.Inasimilarvein,evenifthefunctionofemotionalarousalexplainsthevaluesocietyplacesonthepracticesofart,thevalueofeveryartworkneednotbeexplainedintermsofthatfunction.Thus,itisnotincumbent,forexample,ontheNEAthatitfundonlyworksthatarouseemotionsinthewaysdiscussedinthischapter.

(5)RogerScruton,CultureMatters(NewYork:EncounterBooks,2007).

(6)Scruton,CultureMatters.

(7)ElaineHatfield,JohnT.Cacioppo,andRichardL.Rapson,EmotionalContagion(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1994),esp.ch.2.

(8)NoëlCarroll,‘OnSomeAffectiveRelationsbetweenAudiencesandCharactersinPopularFictions’,inArtinThreeDimensions(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2010),329–52.

(9)MichaelTomasello,OriginsofHumanCommunication(Cambridge,MA:MITPress,2010),240.

(10)StephenDavies,‘ArtisticExpressionandtheHardCaseofMusic’,inMatthewKieran(ed.),ContemporaryDebatesinAestheticsandthePhilosophyofArt(Malden,MA:

BlackwellPublishers,2009),182.SeealsoStephenDavies,MusicalMeaningandExpression(Ithaca,NY:CornellUniversityPress,1994).

(11)DanielLevitan,theneuroscientist,hasnotedthetendencyofmusictoengendertheimpressionofmovementinourbodiesand,withtongueincheek,hassuggestedthatLincolnCenterwouldbewell-advisedtotearouttheseatsinitsconcerthallstoaffordtheaudiencetheopportunityandthespacetoenactthemovementimpulsestheyfeelinthemusic.SeeDanielLevitan,‘DancingintheirSeats’,TheNewYorkTimes,26October2007,availableonlineat<http://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/26/opinion/26levitin.html?_r=0>.

(12)Tomasello,OriginsofHumanCommunication,321.

(13)DavidSloanWilson,Darwin’sCathedral:Evolution,ReligionandtheEvolutionofSociety(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,2003),42.

(14)EllenDissanayakeinbookssuchasArtandIntimacy:HowtheArtsBegan(Seattle,WA:UniversityofWashingtonPress,2000)andWhatArtisFor(Seattle,WA:UniversityofWashingtonPress,1988)hasdefendedtheideathatartemergedandpersistsbecauseoftheroleitplaysinbindingpeoplestogether.AlthoughIdonotemphasizethenotionof‘makingspecial’asshedoes,Ihavebenefittedenormouslyfromherpioneeringworkinunderscoringtheroleofartinsocialbonding.

(15)HerbertDreyfusandSeanDorranceKelly,AllThingsShining(NewYork:FreePress,2011).SomelistenershavechargedthatIhavefailedtoexplainthesocialvalueofartifIattributetoitafunctionthatcanbealsofoundinotherpractices,suchassport.ButIdisagreeonthegroundsthatIthinkthatculturesareredundantasregardsachievingthatwhichisimportanttotheirpersistence.Cultures,thatis,willcultivatemultiplechannelsofaddressinordertoassurethatwhatneedstogetdonegetsdone.Sportandartbothfostersocialcohesionbecausethatissuchavital,indeed,indispensablefunction.Itpaystohaveinsuranceinsuchcases.Itislikewearingabeltandsuspenders.Attheveryleast,ifonefalters,theotheristhereasaback-up.Itistruethatwerewedefiningart,citingasacentralfeatureofartafeatureitsharedwithsportwouldrenderthedefinitioninsufficient.Butwearenotdefiningarthere,butexplainingit;anditseemsplausibletometosuspectthatoneoftheprimaryendsofart,socialcohesion,isasocialphenomenonthatisoverdetermined.

(16)PatriciaChurchland,Braintrust(Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress,2011),198–9.

(17)BrianBoyd,WhyLyricsLast(Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress,2012),19.

(18)Ofcourse,thissuggeststhedarksideofart.Artcanbeandhasbeenaninstrumentofaggressionbetweengroups.Butmytaskhereisexplanatory,notjustificatory.Unfortunately,thefactthatartcanbe,sotospeak,weaponized,duetoitscontributiontoconsolidatingUsgroupsagainstThemgroupsisoneofthereasonsithaspersisted,

althoughthishasadmittedlyofteninvolvedparticipationinwar,persecution,andotheriniquities.

(19)Onemightdatetheemergenceofartorproto-artearlierwiththeappearanceofbodilyadornment.Thefunctionofsuch‘art’isamatterofspeculation,given,amongotherthings,itsephemerality.However,arguablyacasecanbemadethatlikethesortsofpracticescitedabove,itspurposewassocialbinding,themarkingsonthefleshsignallingmembershipindifferentgroups.SeeKathrynCoe,TheAncestressHypothesis:VisualArtasAdaptation(NewBrunswick,NJ:RutgersUniversityPress,2003).

(20)DavidLewis-Williams,TheMindintheCave(London:ThamesandHudson,2002),224.Also,EdwardO.Wilson,Consilience(NewYork:Vintage,1999),248;andJohnNobleWilford,‘Flute’sRevisedAgesDatestheSoundofMusicEarlier’,TheNewYorkTimes,29May2012,availableonlineat<http://www.nytimes.com/2012/05/29/science/oldest-musical-instruments-are-even-older-than-first-thought.html>.

(21)Lewis-Williams,TheMindintheCave,224.

(23)BrianFagan,Cro-Magnon(NewYork:Bloomsbury,2010),16.Seealso,RobertN.Bellah,ReligioninHumanEvolution:FromthePaleolithictotheAxialAge(Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress,2011),92.

(25)Fagan,Cro-Magnon,142.

(26)EdwardO.Wilson,TheSocialConquestofEarth(NewYork:Liveright—AdivisionofW.W.Norton,2012),282–3.

(27)FrederickL.CoolidgeandThomasWynn,TheRiseofHomo-Sapiens(Malden,MA:Wiley-Blackwell,2009),200,202.

(28)Indeed,somearchaeologistshavesuggestedthatmusic‘couldhavecontributedtothemaintenanceoflargersocialnetworksandtherebyperhapshavehelpedtofacilitatethedemographicandterritorialexpansionofmodernhumans.’QuotedbyJohnNobleWilfordinhisarticle‘FlutesOfferCluestoStone-AgeMusic’,TheNewYorkTimes,24June2009,availableonlineat<http://www.nytimes.com/2009/06/25/science/25flute.html>.

(29)R.Dunbarwrites:‘Tryingtoholdtogetherthelargegroupsthattheemerginghumansneededfortheirsurvivalmusthavebeenatryingbusiness.Westillfinditdifficultevennow.Imaginetryingtoco-ordinatethelivesof150peopleaquarterofamillionyearsago...Here,songanddanceplayanimportantpart;theyrousetheemotionsandstimulatelikenothingelsetheproductionofopiatestobringaboutstatesofelationandeuphoria.’Andthisinturntranslatesintogroupsolidarity.SeeR.Dunbar,Grooming,GossipandtheEvolutionofLanguage(Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress,

1996),146.SeealsoBellah,ReligioninHumanEvolution,129.

(30)ThefollowingdiscussionofspandrelshasbeendeeplyinfluencedbyStephenDavies’excellentarticle‘WhyArtisNotaSpandrel’,TheBritishJournalofAesthetics,50(2010):333–41.SeealsoTheArtfulSpecies:Aesthetics,Art,andEvolutionbyStephenDavies(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2012).Thisbookrepresentsthemostrigorousandcomprehensiveexaminationoftherelationofartandevolutionfromtheviewpointofanalyticphilosophy.

(31)SeeJohnCalwelti,TheSix-GunMystique(BowlingGreen,OH:BowlingGreenUniversityPopularPress,1970).

(32)SeeDenisDutton,TheArtInstinct(NewYork:Bloomsbury,2009).IhavealsobeeninfluencedbyMohanMatthen’sexcellentcriticalreviewofthisbookwhichwasdeliveredattheCentralDivisionMeetingsoftheAmericanPhilosophicalAssociationinChicagoinFebruary2010.

(33)Nordoesthesexualselectionhypothesisfitagreatdealofthedataofthehistoryofart.WerethosemonkswhowereslavingawayilluminatingsacredtextsintheMiddleAgessignallingtoprospectivemates?Anddoesthesexualselectionhypothesishaveastorytotellaboutwomenartists?

(34)Ihavenotconsideredthequestionofwhetherartiswhatiscalledanexaptation.Isuspectthatifartisnotanadaptation,itisprobablyanexaptation,justbecausenearlyeverythingprobablyis.

(35)AccordingtoEdwardO.Wilson,‘Groupselectionisdifferentiallongevityandlifetimefertilityofthosegenesthatprescribetraitsofinteractionamongmembersofthegroup,havingarisenduringcompetitionwithothergroups.’Inthischapter,Ihaveidentifiedemotionalcontagionasahereditarypropensitythatpromotessocialcohesionthatisadvantageousincircumstancesofgroupcompetition.Theartsrepresentonechannelofsaidemotionalcontagion.Thus,individualswithaninheritedsusceptibilitytosuchemotionalcontagionwillhaveaselectiveadvantageincontextsofgroupcompetition.SeeWilson,TheSocialConquestofEarth,242.

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