Post on 05-Oct-2021
UNITED KINGDOM DEFENCE POLICY IN DEFEATING
ISLAMIC STATES OF IRAQ AND THE LEVANT (ISIL) IN
IRAQ AND SYRIA UNDER DAVID CAMERON
PREMIERSHIP 2014 - 2016
By
AKILA PARAVATHI PILIHANTO
ID No. 016201400008
A thesis presented to the Faculty of Humanities
President University in Partial fulfilment of the
requirements for Bachelor's Degree in International
Relations Concentration of Defence Studies
2019
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ABSTRACT
Akila Paravathi Pilihanto, International Relations 2014, President University Title : “United Kingdom Defence Policy in Defeating Islamic States of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) in Iraq and Syria under David Cameron Premiership 2014 – 2016” Advisers : Prof. Anak Agung Banyu Perwita, Ph.D. and I Gusti Bagus Dharma Agastia, M.Sc Terrorism has become one of the most challenging thing that is seen to be a threat to the national security. Starting with the formation of a group of terrorism under the leadership of Osama Bin Laden, namely Al-Qaeda, the world of terrorism is growing, especially with the advent of ISIL. United Kingdom saw this as a threat to the country, especially after several of its citizens who joined the terrorism group. Therefore, the United Kingdom formed an operation named Operation Shader under Royal Air Force. A wide range of defence policy and missions have been undertaken by the operation on the territory of Iraq and Syria. Therefore, this thesis will explain about what is already done by the operation. Keywords : United Kingdom, ISIL, Al-Qaeda, Operation Shader, UK Defence Policy, David Cameron
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ABSTRAK
Akila Paravathi Pilihanto, International Relations 2014, President University Judul Penelitian : “United Kingdom Defence Policy in Defeating Islamic States of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) in Iraq and Syria under David Cameron Premiership 2014 – 2016” Pembimbing : Prof. Anak Agung Banyu Perwita, Ph.D. and I Gusti Bagus Dharma Agastia, M.Sc Terorisme sudah menjadi salah satu ancaman yang paling sulit ditangani untuk menjada keamanan nasional. Dimulai dengan terbentuknya grup terorisme dibawah pimpinan Osama Bin Laden, yaitu Al-Qaeda, dunia terorisme semakin berkembang, terlebih lagi dengan munculnya ISIL. Inggris melihat ini sebagai ancaman bagi negaranya, terlebih lagi setelah terdapat beberapa warga negaranya yang bergabung dengan grup terorisme tersebut. Karenanya, Inggris membentuk sebuah operasi yang bernama Operation Shader dibawah naungan Royal Air Force. Berbagai kebijakan pertahanan dan misi telah dilakukan oleh operasi ini di wilayah Iraq dan Syria. Oleh karena itu tesis ini akan menjelaskan tentang langkah apa saja yang sudah dilakukan oleh operasi tersebut. Keywords : United Kingdom, ISIL, Al-Qaeda, Operation Shader, Kebijakan Pertahanan Inggris, David Cameron
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ACKNOWLEDGMENT
“In the Name of Allah SWT, the Most Gracious and the Most Merciful”
In this wonderful moment, I put my gratitude to God who leads me to the
beautiful things in life including this whole university life. This special page is
dedicated to all actors that involved during my university life and thesis writing
process. By completing my thesis, I learned a lot about many things from many
people around me.
First of all I would like thank my beloved parents Mr. Dwiana Pilihanto
and Mrs. Nita Satharina Kumala for being such an amazing parents that I can
never imagine. Thank you for always supporting me and be there for me when I
needed. For the endless love that you always give to me, through every happy and
dark moments you always stay with me. My little brother, Dharmatama
Dhanendra Pilihanto who will always understand me in any situations and always
share his joy and laughter with me. And special thanks for my personal “Tim
Hore”, my Auntie Vista, and her sons, Naufal and Dastan who always support me
in any way. I love you, you guys are the love of my life.
Secondly, thank you or my thesis advisors Prof. Anak Agung Banyu,
Ph.D. and Sir I Gusti Bagus Dharma Agastia, M.Sc. for the guidance and patience
for helping me finishing this thesis, I am very grateful to have you as my advisors.
I thank you for all the hard work that you give to help me.
My university life was wonderful because of my real best friends since the
first year. You guys have proved me that time reveals your true friends, who
always be there for the happiest day to the saddest day of my university life. So,
my warmest hugs for my one call away, my personal chef Nisrini Khairani, eating
partner Novia Sinta Tesalonika, my very first roommate Nur Ulfani Lukman, my
Japanese master Hevi Rahmania, the one who always listen to my worries Ivena
Ersandi, my personal bodyguard Muhammad Haekal Umri, the one who always
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pick up my phone in the midnight Regina Chandra Puspita, who always remind
me to pray and be a better person, and support me in ups and downs. To my
Defense Squad, especially Sri Ariani who always remind me to graduate this year,
Tania who always remind me to study, and Syifa Afiah the one who always
remind me to refresh myself, thank you for being amazing to me since the 5th
Semester, I never thought that our friendship is getting closer and I am grateful for
that. Let’s organize another trip! Not to forget my Journalism ‘Wacana’ Babies
Naufal Ahaddin Caesarialdy, Tirza Lidya Susanti, Esther Lasut, and Imanuella
Ruth Rayyani. The last but not least, Ventika Aurora, thank you for
accompanying me on the day of defense.
Finally, I would like to thank everybody who has become an important
part of my life journey. I always pray for your success, health, and happiness. Do
not forget to keep in touch!
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TABLE OF CONTENT
THESIS ADVISER RECOMMENDATION LETTER ........................................................ ii
DECLARATION OF ORIGINALITY .............................................................................. iii
PANEL OF EXAMINER APPROVAL SHEET ................................................................. iv
ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................v
ABSTRAK .................................................................................................................. vi
ACKNOWLEDGMENT .............................................................................................. vii
TABLE OF CONTENT ................................................................................................. ix
CHAPTER I ................................................................................................................ 1
INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................... 1
I.1 Background of Study ...................................................................................... 1
I.2. Problem Identification .................................................................................. 9
I.3 Statement of Problem .................................................................................. 10
I.4 Research Objectives ..................................................................................... 11
I.5 Significance of Study .................................................................................... 11
I.6 Theoretical Framework ................................................................................ 11
I.6.1 Neoclassical Realism ............................................................................. 11
I.6.2 Defence Policy ....................................................................................... 14
I.7 Research Methodology ................................................................................ 17
I.8 Scope and Limitation of Study ..................................................................... 17
I.9 Thesis Structure ............................................................................................ 18
I.9.1 Chapter I – Introduction .................................................................. 18
I.9.2 Chapter II – Religious Terrorism and the Islamic State of Iraq and Levant 18
I.9.3 Chapter III – United Kingdom Defense Policy and Interest in Iraq and Syria ........................................................................................................ 19
I.9.4 Chapter IV - The Implementation of United Kingdom Defense Policy against Islamic State of Iraq and Levant in Iraq and Syria 2014 - 2016 ........ 19
I.9.4 Chapter V – Conclusion ................................................................... 19
CHAPTER II ............................................................................................................. 20
RELIGIOUS TERRORISM AND THE ISLAMIC STATE OF IRAQ AND LEVANT ............ 20
II.1. The Development of Islamic State of Iraq and Levant between the year of 2014-2016 ..................................................................................................... 20
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II.1.1. Development of ISIL Operations between the year of 2014-2016 ..... 21
II.1.2. ISIL Forces Development and their Weaponry Capabilities in 2014-2016 26
II.2. Islamic State of Iraq and Levant Territorial Claim in Iraq and Syria between the year of 2014-2016. ...................................................................... 32
CHAPTER III ............................................................................................................ 38
THE UNITED KINGDOM DEFENSE POLICY ON ISIL ................................................. 38
III.1. THE UNITED KINGDOM DEFENSE WHITE PAPER 2015 ............................. 38
III.2.1. The UK National Security Objectives based on the Defense White Paper 2015 .................................................................................................... 40
III.2. ISIL AS THE THREAT ASSESSMENT TOWARDS UK ..................................... 43
III.1.1. UNITED KINGDOM MILITARY OPERATION IN IRAQ AND SYRIA ......... 45
CHAPTER IV ........................................................................................................... 51
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF UK DEFENSE WHITE PAPER 2015 .............................. 51
IV.1. United Kingdom Counter Terrorism Report 2015 .................................... 51
IV.1.1. The Use of UK Counter Terrorism Powers ......................................... 52
IV.2. The UK Operation Shader to Combat the ISIL .......................................... 57
IV.2.1. The United Kingdom Royal Air Force to Defeat ISIL .......................... 59
IV.2.2. The United Kingdom Army to Defeat ISIL .......................................... 60
IV.2.3. The United Kingdom Royal Navy to Defeat ISIL ................................. 61
CHAPTER V ............................................................................................................ 62
CONCLUSION ......................................................................................................... 62
REFERENCES .......................................................................................................... 64
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CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
I.1 Background of Study
In the contemporary international relations, security threats are not only
exist in traditional way which normally possessed by countries to gain power over
one another, but also non-traditional threats created by the emerging non-state and
transnational actors with international relations.1 Terrorism, piracy, drugs
trafficking, intra-state conflicts or civil war, has been assumed as a new-age
threats to the contemporary states.2 Such things possess a threat as it has the
tendency to jeopardize the stability of both region and state, their survival and
development, including the human kind as a whole.3
Terrorism has become one of the most challenging thing that is seen to be
a threat to the national security. Even though there is no universal definition of
terrorism, according to Virginia Fortna, on its broadest sense, the term terrorism
that refers to:
“the use of intentionally indiscriminate violence as a means to create terror among masses of people; or fear to achieve a financial, political, religious or ideological aim”.4
Meanwhile in 2004, the United Nation Security council was condemning
the act of terrorism that refers to:
1Srikanth, D. (2014). Non-traditional Security Threats in the 21st Century: A Review. International Journal Of Development And Conflict, 60-68. Retrieved from http://www.ijdc.org.in/uploads/1/7/5/7/17570463/2014junearticle4.pdf 2Ibid., 3Chaudhuri, S. Defining Non-traditional Security Threat. Retrieved from http://www.globalindiafoundation.org/nontraditionalsecurity.html 4Page Fortna, V. (2015). Do Terrorists Win? Rebels' Use of Terrorism and Civil War Outcomes. doi: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0020818315000089
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“criminal acts, including against civilians, committed with the intent to cause death or serious bodily injury, or taking of hostages, with the purpose to provoke a state of terror in the general public or in a group of persons or particular persons, intimidate a population or compel a government or an international organization to do or to abstain from doing any act, which constitute offences within the scope of and as defined in the international conventions and protocols relating to terrorism, are under no circumstances justifiable by considerations of a political, philosophical, ideological, racial, ethnic, religious or other similar nature”.5
There is also no clear root of when and where terrorism start to exist.
Many believed that terrorism start to appear at least on the 1st century AD6 while
some also believed the history of terrorism started from the French Revolution.7
As time goes by terrorism has also developed and exist in different types, such as
state-sponsored terrorism, dissent terrorism, terrorist of the left and right, criminal
terrorism, and religious terrorism.8 Mark Juergensmeyer refers what is called as
religious terrorism as consisting acts that means to terrify, accompanied by
religious motivation, justification, organization, or world view.9 The acts of
terrorism through history have been done in religious ground with the aims of
spreading and enforcing some particular system of belief, opinion, or viewpoint.10
The September 11 terrorist attacks or infamously known as 911 that took
place in the United States on 2001 was believed to be the remarkable start of the
rise of religious terrorism in the modern era. The attacks were carried out by Al-
Qaeda, an Islamic terrorist group that hijacked two American airline’s airplane
and crashed it to two tower buildings and resulted casualties of the death of 2,996
5Security Council Acts Unanimously to Adopt Resolution Strongly Condemning Terrorism as One of Most Serious Threats to Peace | Meetings Coverage and Press Releases. (2004). Retrieved from https://www.un.org/press/en/2004/sc8214.doc.htm 6Page Fortna, V. (2015). Do Terrorists Win? Rebels' Use of Terrorism and Civil War Outcomes. doi: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0020818315000089 7Definition, History, and Types of Terrorism | Homeland Security Degree Online. Retrieved from https://hlsonline.eku.edu/hls-101-terrorism 8Ibid., 9Juergensmeyer, M. (2003). Terror in the Mind of God: The Global Rise of Religious Violence (3rd ed.). The Regents of The University of California. 10I. Rose, P. (2003). Disciples of religious terrorism share one faith. Retrieved from https://www.csmonitor.com/2003/0828/p15s02-bogn.html/(page)/2
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lives and 6,000 people getting injured. 11 On a report of Global Terrorism Index
published by University of Maryland, religious extremism has become the main
driver of terrorist attack around the world. The report also stated that as of 2013,
death caused by terrorist acts was rising to 60% from last year and reached the
number of 18,000 death.12 Up to 66% of all the deaths were attributable to four
terrorist groups, namely the Islamic State of Iraq and Levant that exists in Iraq and
Syria, Boko Haram in Nigeria, Taliban in Afghanistan, and Al-Qaeda.13
The Islamic State of Iraq and Levant or also known as ISIL and Daesh, has
become one of the most active terrorist group, acknowledge by United Nations as
well as many countries all around the world. Since the occupation of United
States in Iraq on 2003, the Middle East region has experience conflicts following
by a chaotic change of regime.14 The group participated on the Iraqi insurgency
and pledged to Al-Qaeda before, before rebranding their name and standing
independently out of Al-Qaeda two years later and operates in Iraq and Syria and
started to have networks all over the world.15 The group was infamous for its
human rights abuses videos, such as videos of people from various countries such
as soldiers, civilians, journalist, aid workers, who were getting beheaded.16 The
group also uploaded the other videos to social media such as the destruction of
cultural heritage.17 The United Nations has stated that the group is responsible for
not only human rights abuses, but also war crimes.
11J. Morgan, M. (2009). The Impact of 9/11 on Politics and War: The Day that Changed Everything?. Springer. 12 Arnett, G. (2014). Religious extremism main cause of terrorism, according to report. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2014/nov/18/religious-extremism-main-cause-of-terrorism-according-to-report 13Ibid., 14 The rise and fall of ISIL explained. (2017). Retrieved from https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2017/06/rise-fall-isil-explained-170607085701484.html 15Allen Greene, R., & Thompson, N. (2016). ISIS: Everything you need to know. Retrieved from https://edition.cnn.com/2015/01/14/world/isis-everything-you-need-to-know/index.html 16 Allen Greene, R., & Thompson, N. (2016). ISIS: Everything you need to know. Retrieved from https://edition.cnn.com/2015/01/14/world/isis-everything-you-need-to-know/index.html 17 Ibid.,
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Figure 1. ISIL territorial claims in Iraq and Syria 2014
Source: https://www.businessinsider.sg/maps-of-isis-territory-2014-2017-
10/?r=US&IR=T
As of October 2014, ISIL has reached its peak on territorial claims, by
claiming several major cities in Iraq and Syria like Raqqa, Mosul, Falujjah, and
Tikrit.18 By the end of 2015, ISIL has covered landlocked territory on the west of
Iraq and east of Syria, with estimated population up to 2,8 million until eight
million of people.19 ISIL has also successfully leveraged its territorial claims to
other countries, such as establishing an official province in several Arab countries
like Egypt, Yemen, Libya, Afghanistan, 20 Both the human rights abuses and the
territorial claims of ISIL had been condemned by countries all around the world.
The existence of ISIL itself is seen as security threat and countries began to put
effort in defeating the group.
18 Kranz, M., & Gould, S. (2017). These maps show how drastically ISIS territory has shrunk since its peak. Retrieved from https://www.businessinsider.sg/maps-of-isis-territory-2014-2017-10/?r=US&IR=T 19 Birke, S. (2015). How ISIS Rules. Retrieved from http://www.nybooks.com/articles/2015/02/05/how-isis-rules/ 20 Kranz, M., & Gould, S. (2017). These maps show how drastically ISIS territory has shrunk since its peak. Retrieved from https://www.businessinsider.sg/maps-of-isis-territory-2014-2017-10/?r=US&IR=T
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In 2014, Gen Marin Depsey, the United States military commander
confirmed that the Iraq government has requested air power from the United
States.21 President Barack Obama then ordered and sent the United States forces
to Iraq to start the American-led Intervention in Iraq to fight against ISIL in 15
June 2014.22 Not only the United States, many countries were also started to
intervene to fight against ISIL such as French, Russia, and Muslim countries
around the region.
Another country that has an urge to defeat ISIL and start to take further
action is the United Kingdom (UK). UK has become one of the countries at the
forefront of global effort to fight against terrorism. The UK government has
claimed that ISIL has poses national threat to threat to the country as well as its
international partners.23 The suppression of their extreme ideology is seen to be
vital for the country’s national security. The government of UK itself has claimed
ISIL as a terrorist group, saying that
“ISIL is a brutal Sunni Islamist terrorist group active in Iraq and Syria. The group adheres to a global jihadist ideology, following an extreme interpretation of Islam, which is anti-Western and promotes sectarian violence. ISIL aims to establish an Islamic State governed by Shari'a law in the region and impose their rule on people using violence and extortion”.24
In a speech of oral statement to parliament, UK Former Prime Minister
David Cameron stated that “ISIL is not some remote problem thousands of miles
away. It is a direct threat to our security at home and abroad”.25 The threat that
ISIL has been posing to the Iraqi government has also meaning to plot terror on
21 Iraq formally seeks US air strikes. (2014). Retrieved from https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-27905849 22 Pike, J. (2014). Iraq Operations in 2014. Retrieved from https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/ops/iraq-2014.htm 23UK action to combat Daesh. Retrieved from https://www.gov.uk/government/topical-events/daesh/about\ 24Home Office. Proscribed Terrorist Organizations [Ebook]. Retrieved from http://www.refworld.org/pdfid/55375ed24.pdf 25PM statement on National Security Strategy and Strategic Defence and Security Review 2015. (2015). Retrieved from https://www.gov.uk/government/speeches/pm-statement-on-national-security-strategy-and-strategic-defence-and-security-review-2015
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attack on the UK.26 As of June 2014, The British Foreign Secretary William
Hague, stated that there are estimated of 400 British citizens fighting in Syria, and
some are for the ISIL.27 Therefore UK cannot ignore the security threat it faced
coming from the existence such extremist jihadist like ISIL.28
Thus, the government will take ‘full-spectrum’ approach to tackle such
threat, including using the country’s armed forces, counter-terrorism strategy,
international aid and diplomacy, as well as work together with allies in dealing
with the common threats.29 UK itself has become one of the members of the
Global Coalition, an international coalition containing 74 member states that
dedicate themselves to fight and defeat ISIL.30 All members of the coalition are
committed to combat ISIL’s ambition and dismantle their networks through; a.)
providing essential military support for the local forces b.) stifling ISIL’s
infrastructure of finance and economy c.) preventing the flow of foreign terrorist
fighter across border for ISIL d.) supporting the effort of stabilization in areas that
have been liberated from ISIL and e.) exposing ISIL’s religious narrative that is
delusional and false through counter messaging.31
The UK also joined the American-led intervention in Iraq as well as in
Syrian Civil War to fight against ISIL. One of the military action and contribution
of UK towards the military intervention against ISIL is known with the official
code named ‘Operation Shader’. The operation began in late September 2014
following the request of Iraq government for a formal assistance in defeating
ISIL.32 As of October 2014 the operation has also been extended to Syria with UK
26 ISIS militants threaten UK - Cameron. (2014). Retrieved from https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-27898724 27 Wintour, P., & Watt, N. (2014). Up to 400 British citizens may be fighting in Syria, says William Hague. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2014/jun/16/400-uk-citizens-fighting-syria-isis-iraq-william-hague 28 Ibid., 29 PM statement on National Security Strategy and Strategic Defence and Security Review 2015. (2015). Retrieved from https://www.gov.uk/government/speeches/pm-statement-on-national-security-strategy-and-strategic-defence-and-security-review-2015 30 Ibid., 31 Ibid., 32Operation Shader: Britain’s War in Iraq and Syria. (2017). Retrieved from http://www.warfare.today/2017/04/04/operation-shader-britains-war-in-iraq-and-syria/
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Reaper and Rivet Joint aircraft to fly surveillance missions in Syria.33 The
Operation Shader is the British contribution as a member of Global Coalition to
defeat ISIL in Iraq and Syria, that operates a military element named Combined
Join Task Force – Operation Inherent Resolve.34
Figure 2 Map of UK forces committed to Operation Shader
Source: https://www.gov.uk/government/news/update-air-strikes-against-daesh
As of 2017, the Ministry Defence of UK has revealed that more than one
thousands British personnel had engaged in the operations, with the Royal Air
Force had conducted more than 900 strikes,35 held 2,200 missions,36 and killed
more than 300 ISIL fighters.37 The British Army had also actively train the Iraqi
forces, as of 2016 the Defence Secretary Michael Fallon has stated that the British
33 Surveillance missions over Syria confirmed. (2014). Retrieved from https://www.gov.uk/government/news/surveillance-missions-over-syria-confirmed 34 Ibid., 35 UK sending 250 more troops to Iraq. (2016). Retrieved from https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-36670789 36 UK to increase training to Iraqi forces. (2016). Retrieved from https://www.gov.uk/government/news/uk-to-increase-training-to-iraqi-forces 37 RAF 'has killed 3,000 IS fighters'. (2017). Retrieved from https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-41336973
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Army had helped more than 6,500 Iraqi personnel.38 The legal basis of the UK
military operations in Iraq has been in the request of the Iraqi government.
Meanwhile for the military operations in Syria, former UK Prime Minister David
Cameron stated that the legal justification of both UK military airstrikes in Iraq
and Syria was for the self-defence of Iraq and UK’s individual self-defence.39
Prime Minister David Cameron was also referring to the United Nations
Security Council resolution number 2249 as the legal justification of the use of
force in defeating ISIL in both Iraq and Syria. The resolution has determined ISIL
as “constitutes a global and unprecedented threat to international peace and
security”.40 The resolution represents the urge of taking actions towards defeating
ISIL, and stated that states is permitted to use all necessary measures for the
actions against ISIL.41 The Prime Minister also argued that the campaign that has
been done by ISIL against UK and its allies can be referred to have reached the
level of ‘armed attack’ against them. Then, relating it to the Article 51 of the UN
charter that contained the right to self-defence, that the act of self-defence is
necessary and proportionate if it meets the criteria whereas the threat attack is
imminent.42 In terms of the attack that proposed by non-state armed groups, it is
necessary for the state where the armed group exist, is unable to prevent that
group to attack other countries.43
38 UK to increase training to Iraqi forces. (2016). Retrieved from https://www.gov.uk/government/news/uk-to-increase-training-to-iraqi-forces 39 Moynihan, H. (2015). Assessing the Legal Basis for UK Military Action in Syria. Retrieved from https://www.chathamhouse.org/expert/comment/assessing-legal-basis-uk-military-action-syria 40 Security Council Acts Unanimously to Adopt Resolution Strongly Condemning Terrorism as One of Most Serious Threats to Peace | Meetings Coverage and Press Releases. (2004). Retrieved from https://www.un.org/press/en/2004/sc8214.doc.htm 41 Moynihan, H. (2015). Assessing the Legal Basis for UK Military Action in Syria. Retrieved from https://www.chathamhouse.org/expert/comment/assessing-legal-basis-uk-military-action-syria 42 Ibid., 43 Moynihan, H. (2015). Assessing the Legal Basis for UK Military Action in Syria. Retrieved from https://www.chathamhouse.org/expert/comment/assessing-legal-basis-uk-military-action-syria
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Figure 3 Map of Daesh losses and gains in Iraq and Syria since September 2014-
2018
Source: https://www.gov.uk/government/news/update-air-strikes-against-daesh
Prime Minister David Cameron, has stated that the reign of terror done by
ISIL in Iraq, Syria, and Libya is posing a threat to the people of UK.44 He also
stated that the bottom line of the UK National Security Strategy should be the
willingness and capability to use force when necessary, and believed that the UK
armed forces have the capabilities to defeat ISIL.45
I.2. Problem Identification
The presence of terrorism has become a threat to both the world’s security
and national security. The fact that some cases of terrorism happened cross
boundaries, gave the urge of collective actions by states. The Islamic States of
44 Syria air strikes 'will make us safer'. (2015). Retrieved from https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-34927939 45 PM statement on National Security Strategy and Strategic Defence and Security Review 2015. (2015). Retrieved from https://www.gov.uk/government/speeches/pm-statement-on-national-security-strategy-and-strategic-defence-and-security-review-2015
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Iraq and Levant or infamously known as ISIL, not only possess a threat through
its barbaric actions of human right abuses and territorial claims, but also through
its aims to spread the extremist ideology globally.
The United Kingdom (UK) is in the forefront of global efforts to fight
against ISIL. The government has officially acknowledged the group as a terrorist
group owning a global jihadist ideology and followed extreme interpretation of
Islam, and promotes violence.46 The Former UK Prime Minister, David Cameron,
has stated that ISIL poses a threat to UK national security.47
Aware of the presence of ISIL that poses a threat to UK and its allies, UK
has been taking a serious effort to defeat the group. Together with other countries,
UK continuously put efforts in defeating ISIL through various ways. The country
plays a leading role in the Global Coalitions consist of 74 partners that works
together to defeat ISIL.48 One of the ways is through military actions. The
contribution of UK to international military operations against ISIL is through an
operation code-named Operation Shader, that has started from September 2014,
operating in Iraq and Syria to defeat ISIL.49 UK believed defeating ISIL with the
use of force through military operations is needed.50
I.3 Statement of Problem
The research question of this study is:
How did United Kingdom conduct Operation Shader to combat ISIL under the
premiership of David Cameron?
46Home Office. Proscribed Terrorist Organizations [Ebook]. Retrieved from http://www.refworld.org/pdfid/55375ed24.pdf 47 PM statement on National Security Strategy and Strategic Defence and Security Review 2015. (2015). Retrieved from https://www.gov.uk/government/speeches/pm-statement-on-national-security-strategy-and-strategic-defence-and-security-review-2015 48 UK action to combat Daesh. Retrieved from https://www.gov.uk/government/topical-events/daesh/about\ 49Operation Shader: Britain’s War in Iraq and Syria. (2017). Retrieved from http://www.warfare.today/2017/04/04/operation-shader-britains-war-in-iraq-and-syria/ 50 PM statement on National Security Strategy and Strategic Defence and Security Review 2015. (2015). Retrieved from https://www.gov.uk/government/speeches/pm-statement-on-national-security-strategy-and-strategic-defence-and-security-review-2015
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I.4 Research Objectives
The objective of this research is to analyze how was the implementation of
United Kingdom defense policy to defeat Islamic States of Iraq and Levant during
the second premiership of David Cameron, which is from the year 2010 – 2016.
I.5 Significance of Study
The significance of this study is to understand the implementation of UK’s
defence policy in defeating ISIL.
I.6 Theoretical Framework
I.6.1 Neoclassical Realism
Neoclassical realism is one theoretical approach rooted in realist theory. In
the realist theory we know that the theory is based on international conflict that is
being or has been happened by focusing on power and conflictual relations among
states.51 Realism has many sources and explanation of conflict and war, such as;
human nature, the dynamic of national politics or major characteristic of the
international area. In contrast, neoclassical realism has the purpose to explain the
foreign policy of a country with reference to the international and domestic
levels.52
Neoclassical realism stated that the actions of the state in the international
system can be explained by intervening variable systemic distribution of power
capability between countries, as well as cognitive variable perceptions and
misperceptions systemic pressure, the intentions of other countries, or threats and
domestic variable as well as state institutions, elite, and societal actors within
society that could affect the power and freedom of action of the decision makers
51 Dawood, L. (2019). Neoclassical Realism - Political Science - Oxford Bibliographies - obo. Retrieved from https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199756223/obo-9780199756223-0187.xml 52 Ibid
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in foreign policy. Supporters of neoclassical realism believes that this theory
could fill the gap found in other version of realism.5354
The theory of Neoclassical Realism is used as an approach to analyze
foreign policy, combining other theories such as classical realism, neo-realism,
and defensive realism. The theory was coined by Gideon Rose in 1998 World
Politics review article. Rose argued that neoclassical realism refers:
“Explicitly incorporates both external and internal variables, updating and systematizing certain insights drawn from classical realist thought. Its adherents argue that the scope and ambition of a country’s foreign policy is driven first and foremost by its place in the international system and specifically by its relative material power capabilities. This is why they are realist. They argue further, however, that the impact of such power capabilities on foreign policy is indirect and complex, because systemic pressures must be translated through intervening variables at the unit level. This is why they are neoclassical.”55
53 Lobell, S., Ripsman, N., & Taliaferro, J. (2010). Neoclassical realism, the state, and foreign policy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 54 Rose, G. (1998). Neoclassical Realism and Theories of Foreign Policy. World Politics, 51(1), 144-172. doi: 10.1017/s0043887100007814 55 Rose, G. (1998). Review: Neoclassical Realism and Theories of Foreign Policy. World Politics, 51(1). Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/25054068
cognitive variables:
intentions of other states,
misconception, and threat
domestic variables: states
institutions, elites, actors of
the states,
Foreign Policy
13
Neoclassical realist believed that a state’s foreign policy, which will turn
out to be action, can be explained through several factors. Which are states’
distribution of power, the cognitive variables, such as the intention of other states,
misconceptions, and threat, and the domestic variables, such as the institutions of
the states, actors in society, and elites of the states, that are all can affect the
foreign policy’s decision makers.56 Randal Schweller stated that
“Domestic processes act as transmission belts that channel, mediate, and (re)direct policy outputs in response to external forces”.57
In short, it can be assumed that neoclassical realism take into account both
the internal and external variables to be the model of analysing a state’s foreign
policy.58 The more dynamic shift in international system made threats can come
from both regional and domestic environments, making states launch an actions
internationally for domestic reasons, or on the opposite, domestically for
international reasons.59
What makes neoclassical realism different from any other kind of realism-
based theories is, it gives more space for the idea of non-state actors that
somehow contribute to the making of foreign policy.60 Based on the basic
principle of neoclassical realism that take into account the factors of both
domestic and international that can gives pressure to the making of foreign policy
of a state, sees the non-state actors, with their own particular capabilities, can
gives effect to influence the foreign policy decision makers.
Relating the theory to the topic of this thesis, neoclassical realism is a
suitable theory to explain the actions done by a state, which is based on its foreign
policy, towards non-state actors. The decisions of United Kingdom to conduct
Operation Shader in order to combat ISIL is rooted from the threat ISIL has poses
to UK and its allies. First, the fact that the Iraqi government as an ally of UK has
56 E. Lobell, S. (2009). Threat assessment, the state, and foreign policy: a neoclassical realist model. doi: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511811869.002 57 Ibid., 58 E. Lobell, S. (2009). Threat assessment, the state, and foreign policy: a neoclassical realist model. doi: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511811869.002 59 Ibid., 60 Ibid.,
14
requested the country to give help in combating ISIL is an external factors that
trigger UK’s foreign policy to help Iraq. Second, the involvement of some British
citizens in the terrorist group and the British citizen who became the victim of
ISIL has also triggered the UK government to immediately take actions to put an
end to ISIL.
I.6.2 Defence Policy
A defence policy, can be perceived as a tool for a state to achieve their
national security interest through the use of political-military adversaries.61
However, since different countries have different kind of security interest, the
making of their defense policy, the output, and how they implement it are
different from one another. Security itself remains a crucial thing for a state, as it
plays a major role in the survival of the country.
When it comes to defense policy, there are a few things that should be
firstly prepared before the making of defense policy. Those are, knowing the idea
of what it is that we are seeking to defend, and what it is that we are wishing to
defend.62 As countries have different interest from one another, those questions
should be answered based on the country’s national interest. Then, the defense
policy can be formulated.
There are a few aspects that should be concerned on in the making of
defense policy in a peacetime. First is threat assessment that aims to identify the
challenges, risk, threats, and strength, to determine the factors that can influence
the security of the state in national, regional, and international level.63 Second is
the political consequences and defense choices. Third, the balance between
military and non-military when addressing a threat. Fourth, the sources for
61 Prof. Anak Agung Banyu Perwita, Ph.D, “Defense Policy: Theory and Practice.” 2016. 62 Cleary, Laura R. “Political direction: The essence of democratic, civil and civilian control.” Routledge, 2006. Page 36. 63 Cleary, Laura R. “Political direction: The essence of democratic, civil and civilian control.” Routledge, 2006. Page 36.
15
defense and security which can be seen from the growth of the country’s economy
and security. The last, the utilization of armed force for non-military purpose.64
Foreign policy might not always works best solely with diplomacy and
soft power tool as it instruments, but also through military force, as it can help on
creating secure environment in order to pursue a more lasting economic and
political solutions.65 How military instruments is used in supporting the foreign
policy of a nation can be in two scenarios. First, it is in preventive intervention
where preventive use of force is conducted as a response of developing threats.66
Preventive strikes would likely have targets like terrorist capabilities and central
facility of the development of unnatural weapons.67 The second one is internal
interventions that give direct military involvement to another states’ international
affairs which are mainly have some purposes such as humanitarian, nation-
building, and peacekeeping.68
The National Security Strategy and Strategic Defence and Security
Review 2015 was published by British government outlining the country’s
defence strategy until the year of 2025 by identifying key threats and UK
capabilities to address them, where one of UK main top priority is combatting
terrorism.69 Written on the National Security Strategy and Strategic Defence and
Security Review 2015, British defence policy sets the country’s Armed Forces to
eight missions, one of it is:
“Defend and contribute to the security and resilience of the UK and Overseas Territories. This includes deterring attacks; defending our airspace, territorial waters and cyber space, countering terrorism at home and abroad, supporting the UK civil authorities in strengthening resilience, and protecting our people overseas”.70
64 Ibid., 65 Shelton, H. (2017). From the Chairman: The US Military and Foreign Policy | Harvard International Review. Retrieved from http://hir.harvard.edu/article/?a=14423 66 Haas, R. (1994). Military Force: A User's Guide. Retrieved from https://foreignpolicy.com/1994/10/16/military-force-a-users-guide/ 67 Ibid., 68 Ibid., 69 Brooke-Holland, L. (2015). The 2015 SDSR: A Primer [Ebook]. House of Common Library. Retrieved from https://researchbriefings.parliament.uk/ResearchBriefing/Summary/CBP-7235 70 Government of United Kingdom. (2015). National Security Strategy and Strategic Defence and Security Review 2015 [Ebook]. Retrieved from https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/555607/2015_Strategic_Defence_and_Security_Review.pdf
16
As counter terrorism becomes a crucial point for the nation’s security, the
British government build a counter terrorism strategy known as CONTEST,
updated by New National Security Council committee on Counter-Terrorism and
chaired by Prime Minister.71 CONTEST has outlined UK military action as a part
of countering terrorism. For example, as a response of growing terrorist attack,
precisely ISIL, the House of Commons has approved a motion that supported Her
Majesty’s Government conduct of military airstrikes in Syria.72
Referring to UN Security Council Resolution 2249, ISIL has been
described as “constitutes a global and unprecedented threat to international
peace and security…” and thus calling for “all necessary measures... to prevent
and suppress terrorist acts committed specifically by ISIL... and to eradicate the
safe haven they have established over significant parts of Iraq and Syria”.73
The British government decision on doing military action against ISIL in
Iraq and Syria is not only based by the reasons stated above, but also right of self-
defence as recognized in Article 51 of UN Charter.74 The military action taken by
British government is not only as a collective self-defence of Iraq, as the Iraqi
government has requested for formal assistance in defeating ISIL.75 But also for
UK individual self-defence against an actual or imminent armed attack where
force is necessarily used to proportionate the threat.76
71 Ibid., 72 Government of United Kingdom. (2016). CONTEST The United Kingdom’s Strategy for Countering Terrorism: Annual Report for 2015 [Ebook]. Retrieved from https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/539683/55469_Cm_9310_Web_Accessible_v0.11.pdf 73 Memorandum to the Foreign Affairs Select Committee Prime Minister’s Response to the Foreign Affairs Select Committee’s Second Report of Session 2015-16: The Extension of Offensive British Military Operations to Syr. (2015). [Ebook]. Retrieved from https://www.parliament.uk/documents/commons-committees/foreign-affairs/PM-Response-to-FAC-Report-Extension-of-Offensive-British-Military-Operations-to-Syria.pdf 74 Ibid., 75Operation Shader: Britain’s War in Iraq and Syria. (2017). Retrieved from http://www.warfare.today/2017/04/04/operation-shader-britains-war-in-iraq-and-syria/ 76 Memorandum to the Foreign Affairs Select Committee Prime Minister’s Response to the Foreign Affairs Select Committee’s Second Report of Session 2015-16: The Extension of Offensive British Military Operations to Syr. (2015). [Ebook]. Retrieved from https://www.parliament.uk/documents/commons-committees/foreign-affairs/PM-Response-to-FAC-Report-Extension-of-Offensive-British-Military-Operations-to-Syria.pdf
17
I.7 Research Methodology
The research methodology that will be used in this study is the qualitative
research methodology. According to Taylor, Bodgan, and DeVault, qualitative
research methodology refers to a methodology with descriptive data output that
will be based oral or written words of the object that is getting observed.77 This
research will also be a Descriptive-Analytical research that will analyze about
issues in the chosen topic, and the problems behind the issue, followed by relevant
arguments.78 In finishing the research, the writer will look up to reliable sources
such as official publications and report published by British Government and
reliable institutions.
I.8 Scope and Limitation of Study
This research will be about the implementation of UK defense policy in
defeating ISIL, as a terrorist group whose presence is seen as a threat not only in
the countries it operates, but also to the UK and its allies. ISIL as a terrorist group
separated from Al-Qaeda, has been operating and claims territory in various
countries such as Iraq, Syria, Libya, Algeria, Egypt, Yemen, West Africa, and
Southeast Asia. However, this study will only discuss the UK defense policy in
defeating ISIL at its first presence territory, which are in Iraq and Syria.
The UK government has an urge to put military force in defeating ISIL
and put the group to an end. The Former Prime Minister David Cameron had
encouraged that UK own one of the world’s best finest force, which should be
used to combat such threat of terrorism brought by ISIL. UK defense policy and
military operation that will be discussed on this thesis is the UK military
contribution to the global effort in defeating ISIL through United States-Led
Coalition and the Global Coalition through an operation codenamed Operation
Shader. The Military operations under UK defense policy that will be discussed is
limited to the time period of 2014 until 2016, as of where the military operation 77 J. Taylor, S., Bodgan, R., & DeVault, M. (2015). Introduction to Qualitative Research Methods: A Guidebook and Resource, 4th Edition (4th ed.). Willey. 78 What is the difference between descriptive, analytical, persuasive and critical writing?. Retrieved from http://sydney.edu.au/stuserv/learning_centre/help/analysing/an_distinguishTypes.shtml
18
started in 2014 and the end of David Cameron premiership in 2016. Thus, this
study will aim to see how UK conducted Operation Shader under the premiership
of David Cameron.
I.9 Thesis Structure
I.9.1 Chapter I – Introduction
In this chapter, the writer will discuss and explain about the main topic in
the background of study section, where the writer explain about various
threat exist in the contemporary international relations, including the non-
traditional threat such as terrorism. An explanation followed by examples
of terrorism threat and attack will be written in order to have a
comprehensive understanding about terrorism. The writer will also explain
the existence of ISIL as one of the most active terrorist group in the world,
followed by an explanation about what they have done and how they poses
threat to international world. An explanation about UK, as one of the
country that sees ISIL to poses a threat to their national security, and a
glance of what it has done through military way to defeat ISIL will also be
written. In the problem identification, the writer will narrowed the topic
and clearly explain the existence of ISIL which has been officially
acknowledge as terrorist group, and UK military effort and its contribution
to defeating the group. Statement of problem will stated the clear research
question of this study, followed by research objective, and significance of
study. Theoretical framework section will discuss about the theories used
by the writer to finish the study, followed by research methodology, scope
and limitation of study, and thesis structure.
I.9.2 Chapter II – Religious Terrorism and the Islamic State of Iraq and Levant
In this chapter the writer will discuss about the background of religious
terrorism that have been rapidly developing and become a serious threat to
19
the world. The writer will also discuss about the history and background of
ISIL, how it recruits its fighter and how it developed its armed and
operates. An explanation about ISIL barbaric actions of human rights
abuses and destruction of cultural heritage will also be written, followed
by ISIL territorial claims in several areas in various countries. This chapter
will also discuss narrower about the ISIL operation in Iraq and Syria.
I.9.3 Chapter III – United Kingdom Defense Policy and Interest in Iraq and Syria
In this chapter, the writer will firstly discuss about UK defense policy. The
defense policy that will be discussed will be specifically related to ISIL,
and how the UK armed forces are operating in Iraq and Syria. Aside of
that, this chapter will also discuss about the interest of UK in Iraq and
Syria to get a deeper understanding why UK sent its armed forces to
operates in both of Iraq and Syria.
I.9.4 Chapter IV - The Implementation of United Kingdom Defense Policy against Islamic State of Iraq and Levant in Iraq and Syria 2014 - 2016
In this chapter the writer will discuss about the UK decision to deploy the
use of force in their effort in defeating ISIL. This chapter will also discuss
about the legal basis used by the UK government to justify their decision
of using force and military efforts to defeat ISIL. An explanation about the
implementation of UK defense policy which can be seen from their
contribution to the global effort of defeating ISIL through United States-
led Coalition and Global Coalition against ISIL will also be written, which
then will be analyzed to answer the research question of this study.
I.9.4 Chapter V – Conclusion
In this chapter, the writer will write the conclusion that includes the brief
explanation about the chosen topic as well as the finding of the study.
20
CHAPTER II
RELIGIOUS TERRORISM AND THE ISLAMIC STATE OF IRAQ AND LEVANT
II.1. The Development of Islamic State of Iraq and Levant between the year of 2014-2016
This second chapter is going to be the supporting chapter of our analysis to
understand more on the development of the Islamic State of Iraq and Levant in the
timeline of 2014 until 2016. It was all started in 2004 when ISIL began to separate
themselves from one of the largest terrorist network in the world, known as Al-
Qaeda.79 ISIL was formed by Abu Musab Al-Zarqawi, whom also known as the
‘right hand’ of Osama bin Laden in the Al-Qaeda network.80
When Zarqawi was killed by the U.S. air strikes in 2006, the Al-Qaeda in
Iraq was then led by Abu Ayyub Al-Masri.81 Al-Masri, then changed the name of
Al-Qaeda into the Islamic State in Iraq, which then taken over by Abu Bakar Al-
Baghdadi in 2010 due to the death of Al-Masri under the U.S. Iraq operation.82
June 2014, was the day ISIL announced itself as an overall caliphate, where as a
caliphate, it could claims religious, political and military specialist over all
muslims in the world.83 Due to that matters, the government of Iraq as well all the
muslim pioneers in the world have dismissed the idea of ISIL becoming the
caliphate and using the name Islamic State for their action.84
7979 ISIS. (2018). Retrieved from https://www.history.com/topics/21st-century/isis 80 Ibid. 81 War in Iraq begins. (2018). Retrieved from https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/war-in-iraq-begins 82 Ibid. 83 Moore, J. (2018). Iraq Crisis: Senior Jordan Jihadist Slams Isis Caliphate. Retrieved from https://www.ibtimes.co.uk/iraq-crisis-senior-jordan-jihadist-slams-isis-caliphate-1455041 84 Muslim leaders reject Baghdadi's caliphate. (2018). Retrieved from https://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2014/07/muslim-leaders-reject-baghdadi-caliphate-20147744058773906.html
21
In June and July 2014, Jordan and Saudi Arabia have moved their troops
to Iraq due to the situation of Iraqi government has lost control and pulled back
from their key intersection focuses area because of ISIL.85 86 At the same time,
ISIL has enlisted in excess of 6,300 warriors, as indicated by the Syrian
Observatory for Human Rights, some of whom were thought to have already
battled for the Free Syrian Army.87 These days ISIL is one of the most influential
militant groups, which they are already controlling several areas in the Middle
East. ISIL is famous for their coercive way of movements as they murdered
civilians in the purpose to have a control over some significant areas in the region.
II.1.1. Development of ISIL Operations between the year of 2014-2016
The development of ISIL between the year of 2014 until 2016 covers on
two categories, which are the process of ISIL on recruiting members of the group
and how is the ISIL get the revenue.
II.1.1.1. The Recruitments of the ISIL Member
The recruitment of the ISIL is targeting the populaces of Western Muslims
who seen themselves underestimated and oppressed in their occupations, in this
manner is a chance to encounter a superior life.88 Joining oneself announced
caliphate and the mission to safeguard and grow it offered another feeling of
direction.89 Ending up some portion of IS enabled them to receive another
character and satisfy a young want for experience.90 Individuals living already
85 Arango, T., & Gordon, M. (2018). Iraqi Insurgents Secure Control of Border Posts. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/2014/06/24/world/middleeast/sunni-militants-seize-crossing-on-iraq-jordan-border.html 86 Spencer, R. (2018). Saudi Arabia sends 30,000 troops to Iraq border. Retrieved from https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/saudiarabia/10942680/Saudi-Arabia-sends-30000-troops-to-Iraq-border.html 87 Williams, L. (2018). Syrians adjust to life under ISIS rule. Retrieved from http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Middle-East/2014/Aug-30/269031-syrians-adjust-to-life-under-isis-rule.ashx 88 Meleagrou-Hitchens, A. (2018). Recruitment by the Islamic State. Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/topic/Recruitment-by-the-Islamic-State-2089162 89 Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant | History & Facts. (2018). Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/topic/Islamic-State-in-Iraq-and-the-Levant 90 Burke, J. (2018). Al-Qaida moves in to recruit from Islamic State and its affiliates. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/jan/19/al-qaida-recruit-from-islamic-state-affiliates-isis
22
unglamorous and unfulfilling lives who joined were presently "fighters of the
Caliphate," gallant lions of Islam who were partaking in a standout amongst the
most vital crossroads in the whole history of the religion.91
ISIL also found another way to spread its propaganda by using internet,
specifically social media.92 The Internet made the spread of ISIL purposeful
publicity in the West moderately direct. Through internet based life and
unregulated download destinations that hold the majority of the most recent ISIL
items, sympathizers of (and potential enlisted people to) the gathering in the West
could access such yield in a simple, generally safe way.93 As a major aspect of its
methodology, ISIL likewise took into account the decentralization of generation.94
Previously, jihadist bunches kept close control of their yield through
authority media focuses.95 While ISIL kept up its very own such elements, it
likewise urged its Western supporters to make and circulate their own master ISIL
materials, utilizing crude film of combat zone scenes, executions, and
comparative settings gave online by the gathering.96 This took into consideration
additionally fitting of IS messages to particular gatherings of people inside
different geographic areas. Moreover they are exceptionally dynamic via web-
based networking media; they post a huge number of Facebook messages and
twitter tweets. IS has made a twitter application that encourages them to send all
connections, hashtags, and pictures.
II.1.1.2. The Money Funding of ISIL to Support their Movements
ISIL has controlled a territory of more than 70,000 km, with around 8
million inhabitants, which includes the huge tracts of the Syrian governorates of
Aleppo, Raqqa, Deir ez Zor, Homs, Hasakah and Damascus, as well the Iraqi 91 Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant | History & Facts. (2018). Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/topic/Islamic-State-in-Iraq-and-the-Levant 92 Meleagrou-Hitchens, A. (2018). Recruitment by the Islamic State. Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/topic/Recruitment-by-the-Islamic-State-2089162 93 Ibid 94 Why ISIS Is Winning the Social Media War—And How to Fight Back. (2018). Retrieved from https://www.wired.com/2016/03/isis-winning-social-media-war-heres-beat/ 95 Ibid 96 Tan, R. (2018). Russia wants to stop terrorists by banning their app of choice. Good luck. Retrieved from https://www.vox.com/world/2017/6/30/15886506/terrorism-isis-telegram-social-media-russia-pavel-durov-twitter
23
provinces of Saladin, Al-Anbar and Nineveh.97 ISIL then exerts their own
authority over the wide range of industrial and commercial activities, natural
resources and raw materials, from oil to agricultural products including the
minerals.98 The exploitation of those natural reserves constitutes one of its
primary sources of financing, the majority of its funds currently comes from the
widespread extortion from the population under the control, mainly in the form of
taxes, confiscations and fees. The resources are used to fund military actions,
administration of the group’s territories and its expansion abroad, particularly in
Libya.99
The ISIL territorial holdings are the one provide them a self sustaining and
diversified economic system. The ability to secure the internal resources without
dependence upon external funds explain the ISIL financial power to the
unprecedented political challenge with regard to combat the financing of
terrorism.100 ISIL then has lost control of 25% of their territory since January
2015, which resulted to their military setbacks, it is because of the logical
reduction in the access to their resources.101 In addition, ISIL has been able to
compensate the loss of revenue from the natural resources by increasing its
revenue from the criminal activities.102
97 ISIL Financing, 2015. Center for the Analysis of Terrorism. https://cat-int.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/ISIS-Financing-2015-Report.pdf 98 The region of Palmyra, which was under the ISIL control between May 2015 and March 2016, contains one of the country’s main phosphate deposits. 99 ISIL Financing, 2015. Center for the Analysis of Terrorism. https://cat-int.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/ISIS-Financing-2015-Report.pdf 100 Ibid. 101 The area under ISIS control totals 73,440 km but the far greater area of influence, according to C. Stark, “Islamic State loses 22% of the territory.” IHS Jane’s 360, March 15, 2016. 102 ISIL Financing, 2015. Center for the Analysis of Terrorism. https://cat-int.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/ISIS-Financing-2015-Report.pdf
24
Figure 1: The share of ISIL revenue of criminal origin.103
Based on the figure above, we could see that there are differences from the
ISIL revenue of funding. The increase in military setbacks suffered since the
autumn of 2015 and the resulting territorial losses are depriving ISIL of some of
the main sources of financing. In 2014, the most 82% of the funding is coming
from the presence of the natural resources, 16% from the criminal movements and
the rest of 2% is from the donations. But in 2015, there are differences in the
natural resources which are decreasing in 60%, but the resources for criminal
origin is increasing into the number of 38%, and the rest of donation is still 2%.
II.1.1.1.1. ISIL Resources of Funds
The basic resources of funds for the ISIL are particularly in hydrocarbons,
minerals and agricultural resources. The first element emerged by the ISIL was
the oil, which currently identified as a key element for the development of the
ISIL.
No Name of State Specific Region Number of Oil Fields
103 ISIL Financing, 2015. Center for the Analysis of Terrorism. https://cat-int.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/ISIS-Financing-2015-Report.pdf
25
1 Syria Deir Ez-Zor 15 Oil Fields
Raqqa
Hasakah
2 Iraq 10 Oil Fields
Figure 2: Number of oil fields owned by ISIL in Syria and Iraq.104
This group currently controls several numbers of oilfields in Syria and
Iraq. Which in 2015, the organization has around 15 oilfields in Syria, chiefly in
the region of Deir Ez-Zor, Raqqa and Hasakah and oilfields in Iraq. There are
around 40,000 bpd of oil as the production by ISIL in 2015.105 According to
consistent local reports, transactions are conducted at between $15 and $45 per
barrel, depending on the quality of the oil.106 Syria’s largest oilfields (al-Tanak
and al-Omar) yield the highest prices, at between $40 and $45 per barrel, and
these are barely affected by the fluctuations on the world market due to a
monopoly over the captive market within the combat areas to the north and east of
Syria.107
These barrels of oil are being sold based on the market constitutes as the
primary commercial outlet for oil. ISIL is able to maintain the high number of
prices in the market despite the slump in the international oil prices.108 The first
factor is based on the documents seized by the U.S. Army in May 2015, where
ISIL has followed the practice of the local black market vendors, which they sell
the oil to the highest bidder.109 The second factor is the monopoly system did by
ISIL, they principally in the rebel controlled areas in the northern Syria, which
104 Ibid. 105 Barrels per day. 106 Varies according to gravity, expressed in API (American Petroleum Institute) units. 107 ISIL Financing, 2015. Center for the Analysis of Terrorism. https://cat-int.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/ISIS-Financing-2015-Report.pdf 108 Ibid. 109 B. Faucon and M. Coker, “The Rise and Deadly Fall of Islamic State’s Oil Tycoon.”, Wall Street Journal, April 2016.
26
those in the East dominated by Syrian Kurdish militia, and within its own
territory.110
ISIL also sells most of their crude oil to independent traders at the oilfields
in order to avoid the risks associated with transportation.111 The crude oil is also
smuggled into bordering territories or countries with porous borders, less by ISIL
itself which focus on making profits immediately upon extraction than by Syrian
or Iraqi traders.112
The second significant ISIL resource of fund is the natural gas. In 2015,
ISIL exerted control over several natural gas fields. The capture of Palmyra in the
late May of the year led to the increasing of ISIL gas fields. The fields in the
region account for almost half os Syria’s entire natural gas production, which
allow ISIL to make up for the loss of the Ajil and Himreen fields in Iraq following
the retaking of Tikrit by the Iraqi army in the late March.113
II.1.2. ISIL Forces Development and their Weaponry Capabilities in 2014-
2016
ISIL strategy of survival is built around a millenarian vision which
executed with an uncompromising and merciless ideological approach, which
aimed at the establishment of an enduring caliphate. They believe that a
‘caliphate’ they said could be seen as a magnet to gain more people on joining
their group. They would need a massive number of followers to support their
paradox on their attempt to create a state with their own way of believing.114
110 E. Solomon, R. Kwong and S. Bernard, “Inside ISIS Inc: the journey of a barrel of oil”, Financial times, October 14, 2015. 111 Ibid. 112 Ibid. 113 Y. Sayigh, “The war over Syria’s Gas Fields,” Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, June 8, 2015. 114 The rise and fall of ISIS: from Evitability to Inevitability. The Hague Centre for Strategic Studies, StratMon 2016-2017. https://hcss.nl/sites/default/files/files/reports/The%20Rise%20and%20Fall%20of%20ISIS.pdf.
27
II.1.2.1. The Interpretations and Uses of Islam
Based on their purpose on creating their own state due their symbolic
significance and the proclamation of the Caliphate, ISIL used the interpretation of
how a Muslim should be as their strategy to recruit as many people as possible
worldwide.115 ISIL claims to be Islamic and they would implement the Sharia to
serve their instrumental purposes very well.
Since the last half of the 20th century, as the globalization also occurring,
the globalization of jihad has also occurred in religious thought and in armed
struggles. Based on the understanding of Islam, jihad is a Quranic aspects that
also mean as the struggle or the effort done by the human being to follow the
God’s path, as well to lead a good life which remains central to the Muslim
spiritually.116 But these days, the meaning of jihad has been used and misused by
the resistance group and liberation movements and hijacked and misused by the
extremist and terrorist organizations to legitimate, recruit and motivate their
followers.117 It has been used by them in their national even until their
transnational or the global agenda.
The ISIL followers are somehow mostly coming from the disenfranchised
Sunni youth in Iraq and Syria. Despite of that ISIL has also attracted an amount
number of foreign fighters from Arab and the Western Countries, including the
religious converts and criminals.118 After the withdrawal of the US troops in the
Iraq, ISIL became one of the military force to be reckoned with. Their army is
growing to the number of 30,000119, which include around 5,000 until 10,000
foreign fighters120. After all, as the Middle East expert Lina Khatib wrote,
115 Molly Jackson, “70,000 Indian Clerics Issue Fatwa against Terrorists.” Christian Science Monitor: Global News Blog. December 10, 2015. http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Global-News/2015/1210/70-000-Indian-clerics-issue-fatwa- against-terrorists. 116 Ibid 117 Ibid 118 Johannes Siebert, “Identifying and Structuring the Objectives of the “Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant and its Followers.”” August, 2015. http://teamcore.usc.edu/projects/security/Muri_publications/ISIL%20Paper%20Revision%20-%20Main%20Body%208-22-15.pdf. 119 Cockburn, 2014. 120 Altman 2014, Ackermann 2014, Lund 2013.
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“ideology is not the group’s purpose; it is a tool to acquire power and money.
The group continuously interprets sharia in ways that justify its actions.”121
II.1.2.2. Recruitment
ISIL characterized its long haul objective, giving its pioneer a twofold
power, both natural and otherworldly, to be the head of the Ummah
(comprehended both as a religious network and a political substance). In the short
and not all that here and now, be that as it may, ISIL point is to fortify its capacity
in the regions that it previously prevailed. This procedure can be accomplished
initially, through savagery, increasing military authenticity utilizing the
deliberately symmetric arrangement that Al Qaeda dependably needed, and
besides, through the likelihood of the securing of a worldwide character
dependent on the coordination of the fundamental highlights of a state.
The vast majority of ISIL activities are similarly as ruthless as those of Bin
Laden, Al Zawahiri or other fundamentalist Muslim gatherings, yet on a political
dimension, when contrasted and past fundamentalist Islamic movements, Al
Baghdadi's association went above and beyond. In this content the author attempt
to quickly feature the basic and most trademark highlights of ISIL, particularly
those components that are making ISIL personality move from that of a basic fear
based oppressor amass towards a condition more like that of a state. As of not
long ago, these couple of components are yet proposing an extremely slight move
towards a national model; the aftereffects of this on-going procedure can't at this
stage be characterized.
ISIL quickly forced and afterward extended a genuine political control on
areas of both the Iraqi and the Syrian region, building up a circumstance
reviewing the imposing business model of physical pressure – regardless of
whether its level of authenticity, as expected by Weber, is still to be proved. It is
the first occasion when that a fear based oppressor bunch grabs hold of a logically
more tremendous and delimited region.
121 Lina Khatib, “The Islamic state’s strategy: Lasting and Expanding.” Carnegie Endowment for international peace, June 29, 2015. http://carnegieendowment.org/2015/06/29/islamic-state-s-strategy-lasting-and-expanding-pub-60511.
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One of the reason on why ISIL wants to sustain their strategy is the
recruitment of soldiers is the economic motives. One of the example is offering
much higher salaries than other jihadists outfits.122 The ISIL is also promising the
women of their member for young, single and economically marginalized men.123
ISIL has estimates about the total size of forces vary, the core force of the ISIL is
at least 30,000 strong, with 50,000 until 70,000 more split between local members
and auxiliary and part time forces.124 The number of foreign fighters among this
group was estimated to be 27,000 in December 2015.125 Of these 27,000, the
Hagues based international center for counter terrorism (ICCT) estimates that
some 6,000 hail from the Europe in April 2015.126 Of the 260 Dutch Jihadists who
went to Syria, some 180 are still there.127
II.1.2.3. ISIL Weaponry Capabilities
Accomplishments in involving Syrian and Iraqi army installations and
offices has given ISIL access to an extensive stock of military weapons and
hardware. The stock incorporates strategic gear, little arms furthermore, light
weapons, light strategic and utility vehicles, overwhelming machine/hostile to air
ship firearms, mounted guns, and heavily clad vehicles. This is disturbing
temporarily, be that as it may, it is yet to be checked whether ISIL can
appropriately keep up the gear and weapons and acquire save parts and ammo.
Preparing in legitimate utilize is additionally a basic obscure. Moreover, a tank
might scare in a city, however it likewise offers a bigger target. These
122 Khatib, “The Islamic State’s Strategy: Lasting and Expanding.” 123 The United Nations Security Council, “Security Council Uneuquivocally’ Condemns ISIL.” Terrorist attacks, unanimously adopting text that determines extremist group poses unprecedented threat. Meetings coverage and press release. 124 Sam Jones and Erika Solomon, ISIS Inc: Jihadis Fund War Machine but Squeeze Citizens. The financial times, December 15, 2015. https://www.ft.com/content/2ef519a6-a23d-11e5-bc70-7ff6d4fd203a#axzz4HTeB63Jg. 125 The United Nations Security Council, “Security Council ‘Unequivocally’ Condemns ISIL Terrorist Attacks, Unanimously Adopting Text That Determines Extremist Group Poses ‘Unprecedented’ Threat | Meetings Coverage and Press Releases.” 126 Alex P. Schmid and Judith Tinnes, “Foreign (Terrorist) Fighters with IS: A European Perspective” (ICCT The Hague, December 2015), https://icct.nl/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/ICCT-Schmid-Foreign-Terrorist-Fighters-with-IS-A- European-Perspective-December2015.pdf. 127 Eric Schmitt, “Caliphate in Peril, More ISIS Fighters May Take Mayhem to Europe,” The New York Times, September 17, 2016, http://www.nytimes.com/2016/09/18/us/politics/caliphate-in-peril-more-isis-fighters-may-take-mayhem-to- europe.html.
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contemplations don't totally wipe out the genuine idea of an association, for
example, ISIL getting an expansive armory of refined military weapons and
hardware, however may limit a few of the risk after some time.
The following table is representative but not inclusive of weapons and equipment
captured or acquired by ISIL:
Figure 4 : ISIL Weapons and Equipment128
Based on the data above we could see that ISIL has several armored
equipment which are the tanks include the T-55, T-72, T-62, HUMMWV and the
MRAP.
ISIL is estimated to have 30 T-55 tanks, which is also known as the series
of Soviet tank line that was produced from the end of World War II through the
1980s. The tanks feature a heavy armor, along with the 10 mm rifled gun and a
secondary 7.62 mm machine gun.129
128https://info.publicintellegence.net/ISArmy-TRISA-ISIL.pdf 129 Ibid
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Picture I : The T-55 Tanks.
Despite of the T-55 tanks, ISIL also happened to have the T-62 tanks
which has estimated 15 T-62 tanks, which also known as the main Soviet battle
tank that was developed to replace the T-55. This tank was heavily armored by the
115-mm tank gun along with the two secondary machine guns.130
Picture 2: The T-62 Tanks.
ISIL also have an estimated 5 to 10 T-72 tanks, these tanks are the Soviet
battle tanks which they first entered production in 1971 and they are still rolling
off the assembly line. This tank is heavily armored and feature a 125 mm main
gun, and also a secondary machine gun and an antiaircraft gun.
130 Jeremy Wilson, Jeremy Bender and Armin Rosen. “These are the weapons Islamic State fighters are using to terrify the Middle east.” January 17, 2016. https://www.businessinsider.com/isis-military-equipment-arsenal-2016/?IR=T/#t-55-tanks-1.
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Picture 3: The T-72 tanks.
Those are several tanks used by the ISIL on the mobilization in the Iraq
and Syria. Despite of that we could also see on the table above regarding on the
other weapons used by the ISIL on their movements. They have M79 Osha
Rocket Launcher, which could fires a 90 mm shell that is highly effective against
tanks and fortified position (this weapons are originated in Croatia before being
smuggled to Syrian rebels), the RPG 7s, SA 16 Manpads, etc.
II.2. Islamic State of Iraq and Levant Territorial Claim in Iraq
and Syria between the year of 2014-2016.
Since December 2013, continuous conflicts have happened all through
western Iraq between inborn civilian armies, Iraqi security powers, and ISIL.
Toward the beginning of January 2014, ISIL aggressors effectively caught the
urban communities of Fallujah and Hīt,131 bringing quite a bit of Anbar Province
under their control. In June 2014 ISIL controlled over the one of Iraq city, Mosul.
By December 2015, the Islamic State secured a huge landlocked region in western
Iraq and eastern Syria, with a populace gauge of 2.8 to 8 million people.132
131 Iraq's Fallujah falls to 'Qaeda-linked' militants. (2018). Retrieved from http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Middle-East/2014/Jan-04/243100-fallujah-outside-iraq-government-control-security-official.ashx 132 Ibid
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By June 2015, it had built up authority "regions" in Libya, Egypt (Sinai
Peninsula), Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Algeria, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Nigeria and the
North Caucasus.133 Since at that point, ISIL has kept on accepting promises of
devotion and distribute media discharges from gatherings in nations like
Somalia,134 Bangladesh135 and the Philippines,136 however it has not reported any
further official branches, rather recognizing new offshoots as essentially "warriors
of the caliphate".137 In this research, author main focuses are in Iraq and Syria
region.
133 Islamic State moves in on al-Qaeda turf. (2018). Retrieved from https://www.bbc.com/news/world-31064300 134 Roul, A. (2018). How Bangladesh Became Fertile Ground for al-Qa`ida and the Islamic State – Combating Terrorism Center at West Point. Retrieved from https://ctc.usma.edu/how-bangladesh-became-fertile-ground-for-al-qaida-and-the-islamic-state/ 135 Weiss, C. (2018). The Islamic State grows in the Philippines | FDD's Long War Journal. Retrieved from https://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2016/06/islamic-state-officially-creates-province-in-the-philippines.php 136 Weiss, C. (2018). Islamic State in Somalia claims capture of port town | FDD's Long War Journal. Retrieved from https://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2016/10/islamic-state-in-somalia-claims-capture-of-port-town.php 137 Winter, C. (2018). Has the Islamic State Abandoned Its Provincial Model in the Philippines?. Retrieved from https://warontherocks.com/2016/07/has-the-islamic-state-abandoned-its-provincial-model-in-the-philippines/
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Picture 1: Areas of ISIL Influence of Presence.138
In Syria, IS Fighter lost region in the upper east to a blend of Kurdish and
unified Arab powers upheld by alliance airpower and, north of Aleppo to hostile
to Assad powers supported by the Turkish military. IS powers have demonstrated
resurgent in focal Syria, where Syrian government and Russian military powers
had prevailing with regards to recovering Palmyra yet later pulled back in the
midst of star Assad powers' crusade against restriction held regions of Aleppo.
U.S.- and Turkish-supported nearby powers have separated the Islamic State's
residual access to the Turkish outskirt and expelled its contenders from a
significant part of the enclave of northwest Syria once alluded to by U.S.
authorities as the "Manbij take." U.S. which supported nearby powers
additionally have propelled southward on the east bank of the Euphrates waterway
as a major aspect of the battle to retake the IS-held city of Raqqah.
The threat from ISIS to the UK is one that still can't seem to emerge in any
generous frame, however echoes of the risk from the combat zone in Syria have
138 ISIL Areas of Influence. https://www.refworld.org/pdfid/5885d7434.pdf
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just begun to show themselves in the UK and somewhere else. Foreign fighters
give the most clear vector to a danger to return to the UK from Syria and Iraq, yet
all things considered, the neighborhood danger from the gathering to other
Levantine states is all the more instantly considerable. The ISIS story keeps on
reverberating unequivocally among a wide group of onlookers and this is far-
fetched to change until the contention in Syria and the longstanding pressures in
Iraq are wrapped up. Until some end to Syria's merciless common war is
seemingly within easy reach, it appears to be far-fetched that the risk from ISIS or
remote contenders will subside. It is going to keep on being the key distraction of
British what's more, European security administrations.
36
Figure : ISIL Territorial Claim Report
Source : The Rise and Fall of ISIS.pdf
In Iraq, IS fighter endured a progression of misfortunes to different Iraqi
powers in Tikrit, Baiji, Sinjar, Ramadi, Hit, Haditha, Rutbah, Fallujah, and
encompassing territories. Iraqi authorities pronounced the city of Fallujah in
Anbar Province freed in late June 2016, and in October Iraqi powers, with U.S.
what's more, alliance backing, propelled a crusade to retake Iraq's second biggest
city—Mosul. Toward the finish of 2016, Iraqi powers had confined Mosul and
37
were battling to recover the eastern portion of the city in the midst of savage IS
opposition. Iraqi powers reported they had retaken control of eastern Mosul in
January 2017, with Islamic State contenders responsible for the more crowded
western portion of the city what's more, disconnected zones of Salahuddin,
Ninawa, and Anbar Provinces.
ISIL built up a defense area of the Mosul Dam in August 2014. ISIL
protections coordinated urban regions, their staying regular citizen populace, and
synthetic structures into complex fight positions. ISIL disturbance powers went
from little strategic cells to bigger gatherings of agitators showing up as
paramilitary units with weapon frameworks caught from involved military offices.
Heavily clad vehicles and substantial weapons were incorporated into the territory
barriers in straightforward and complex fight positions. ISIL INFOWAR
concentrated on the message that foe powers would be pulverized on the off
chance that they entered the contention, and compromised a development of the
contention into their individual countries.
The group has been endeavoring to assume control parts of the Aleppo
Governorate, in any case, it has confronted a progression of obstacles there too. At
first, the Islamic State confronted opposition in the territory from Western-upheld
Syrian radical gatherings, in particular the Hazm Movement and the Syria
Revolutionaries' Front. Following the decay of these gatherings after assaults on
them by Jabhat al-Nusra in late 2014 and the ascent of Jaysh al-Fateh in the
north, the Islamic State has been confronting opposition from this new opponent
revolutionary alliance, and in addition proceeded with obstruction in northern
Aleppo from essentially Islamist bunches under the umbrella alliance called al
Jabhat al-Shamiya. The routine air strikes and barrel shelling are likewise making
it troublesome for the gathering to extend in Aleppo, in light of the fact that
expanding the domain it controls would require an uplifted military nearness,
which dangers uncovering the Islamic State to additionally strikes.
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CHAPTER III
THE UNITED KINGDOM DEFENSE POLICY ON ISIL
III.1. THE UNITED KINGDOM DEFENSE WHITE PAPER 2015
“This is vital at a time when the threats to our country is growing. This morning I was in Paris with President Hollande discussing how we can work together to defeat the evil of ISIL… It is a direct threat to our security at home and abroad… It has already taken the livers of British hostages.”-David Cameron, the Former Prime Minister of the United Kingdom.139
White paper could be used to describe the international security
environment facing individual countries at given moments in time and how they
could expect to counter and defeat national enemies if resort to military force
required. White paper is an important assessment by the government of the day on
their national and international security priorities and the financial measures they
are willing to take to meet their national interests.140 The white paper documents
are also cover the economic, diplomatic, environmental, financial, and
geopolitical factors influencing their ability or inability to achieve their
objectives.141
139 Oral statement to Parliament, “PM Statement on National Security Strategy and Strategic Defense and Security Review 2015.” David Cameron gave a statement in the House of Commons on the National Security Strategy and Strategic Defense and Security Review 2015. https://www.gov.uk/government/speeches/pm-statement-on-national-security-strategy-and-strategic-defence-and-security-review-2015. 140 Chapman, Bert (2016), “Geopolitics of the 2015 British Defense White Paper and Its Historical Predecessors,” Geopolitics, History, and International Relations 8(2): 42–63. 141 See Bert Chapman, Military Doctrine: A Reference Handbook (Santa Barbara: Praeger Security International, 2009); President of the United States, National Security Strategy (Washington, DC: The White House, 2015); https://www.whitehouse.gov/ sites/default/files/docs/2015_national_security_strategy.pdf; (accessed December 17, 2015); U.S. Department of Defense, Quadrennial Defense Review 2014 (Wash- ington, DC: Department of Defense, 2014); http://archive.defense.gov/pubs/2014_ Quadrennial_Defense_Review.pdf;
39
The United Kingdom itself has issued several defense white papers since
the World War II. It was called as the statement on defense and statement the
defense estimates which were issued from the 1946 until 1996.142 This document
stressed the nuclear deterrence as the keystone of the British defense policy
recommending the abolition of compulsory military service, greater allied burden
sharing with the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) conventional forces,
reducing overseas military forces and the number of the Royal Air Force (RAF)
fighters, and changing the Navy’s role in order to help them emphasize relying on
aircraft carriers to project power in peacetime emergencies and limited
hostilities.143
Based on the UK Defense White Paper in 2015, the vision of UK itself is
for a secure and prosperous United Kingdom, with global reach and influence. It
means that every single movement of the UK government in the UK as well
around the world is because of the determination to protect the UK people and
values, and ensure the country prospers. Through this white paper, the United
Kingdom next five years priorities is going to be about terrorism. It is going to be
tackling the terrorism at home and abroad in a tough and comprehensive way,
counter extremism and challenge their ideologies.144
In particular, for the next five years the UK government priorities is going
to be, tackling the terrorism head on at home and abroad in a tough and
(Accessed December 17, 2015); and U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff, The National Military Strategy of the United States of America: The United States Military’s Contribution to National Security (Washington, DC: JCS, 2015): http://www.jcs.mil/Portals/36/Documents/Publications/2015_National_ Military_Strategy.pdf 142 Nigel Walker and Claire Mills, A Brief Guide to Previous British Defence Reviews (London: House of Commons Library, 2015): 2; http://researchbriefings. files.parliament.uk/documents/CBP-7313/CBP-7313.pdf 143 Wyn Rees, “The 1957 Sandys White Paper: New Priorities in British De- fence Policy,” Journal of Strategic Studies 12(2)(1989): 215–229; DOI:10.1080/01 402398908437373; and Walker and Mills, 7–8; and North Atlantic Council, Reorganization of the United Kingdom Armed Forces (Brussels: North Atlantic 58 Council, February 14, 1957); http://archives.nato.int/uploads/r/null/2/8/28286/C- M_57_18_ENG.pdf; (accessed December 17, 2015).
144 Judge Peter Lane, Paul Taylor and Anna Chafer. “Between Chris Cole and The Information Commissioner and The Ministry of Defense.” 2017. http://www.statewatch.org/news/2017/sep/uk-drone-wars-v-ico-mod-armed-drones-transparency-judgment-8-17.pdf.
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comprehensive way, counter extremism and challenge the poisonous ideologies
that feed it. The purpose is to remain a world leader in cyber security, as well to
deter state based threats. Next, is to strengthen the rules based international order
and the institutions, encouraging reform to enable further participation of growing
powers. It is to reduce conflict, and to promote stability, good governance and
human rights.145
III.2.1. The UK National Security Objectives based on the Defense White
Paper 2015
Based on their defense white paper 2015, the UK realized that a rapid
changing and globalized world, would definitely affect the security of the UK
itself. The UK realized that they need policies and capabilities which can enable
them to tackle the immediate challenges like the threat of ISIL, in order to secure
their interests over the longer term, and to respond rapidly to the unexpected that
could be happening in the future. Thus, the UK government has organized their
National Security Strategy which could be seen from three high level, enduring
and mutually supporting the National Security Objectives.146
Table 3: The National Security Objectives of the United Kingdom.147
No UK National Security Objectives The Government Plan
1 Protect our People The UK government is going to protect
their people at home, their overseas and
abroad, as well to protect their territory,
economic security, infrastructure and way
of life.
145 Nigel Walker and Claire Mills, A Brief Guide to Previous British Defence Reviews (London: House of Commons Library, 2015): 2; http://researchbriefings. files.parliament.uk/documents/CBP-7313/CBP-7313.pdf 146 “National Security Strategy and Strategic Defense and Security Review 2015.” A Secure and Prosperous United Kingdom. https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/478933/52309_Cm_9161_NSS_SD_Review_web_only.pdf. 147 Ibid.
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No UK National Security Objectives The Government Plan
2 Protect our Global Influence The UK government is going to reduce the
likelihood of threats materializing and
affecting the UK, the national interests and
those of our allies and partners.
3 Promote our Prosperity This point means that seizing
opportunities, working innovatively and
supporting UK industry.
Based on the table above, we could see that the UK government really
concern on their people security as their national interests based on one of the
point in their defense white paper 2015. They need to protect their people, their
global influence and to promote the prosperity. They believe they need to protect
their people inside the UK region, as well overseas and abroad, in order to
maintain their state security among the international stage. Not only the people,
but also the sovereignty and their region, their territory, economic security and
infrastructure of the nation.148
In term of protecting their global influence, means that the United
Kingdom government is going to reduce the threat of materializing and trying to
protect their national interests of the nation. In this term, the UK government is
facing the existence of threat of the extremist and terrorism in the international
stage. At that moment, the UK terrorism threat level is Severe, which means that
the terrorist attack on the UK mainland is highly possible to happen, and since
2010, there are over 60 British nationals that have been killed by the terrorist
abroad (2015).149 The increasing number of threat in the UK and overseas,
notably with the emergence of the ISIL and its affiliates in addition to other
islamist terrorist groups like the Al-Qaeda. ISIL is radicalizing an amount number 148 “National Security Strategy and Strategic Defense and Security Review 2015.” A Secure and Prosperous United Kingdom. https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/478933/52309_Cm_9161_NSS_SD_Review_web_only.pdf. 149 Chapman, Bert (2016), “Geopolitics of the 2015 British Defense White Paper and Its Historical Predecessors,” Geopolitics, History, and International Relations 8(2): 42–63.
42
of people, which they also use the social media in order to inspire and direct their
target to conduct terrorist attacks in the West or to travel to Syria and Iraq.150
“We (the UK) will continues to take action to investigate, disrupt and whenever possible convict terrorist. We will continue to give law enforcement, security and intelligence agencies and our Armed Forces the capabilities to deal with attack planning in the UK and overseas and in particular the means to deal with terrorists (ISIL)….” UK Defense White Paper 2015.
The UK national security objectives on ISIL could be seen from the first
national security objectives in UK defense white paper 2015 (in chapter 4 of the
UK defense white paper 2015), where they stated that they need to prioritize the
fight against terrorism, radicalization and extremism at home and overseas.151 The
objectives could be seen from the first national security objectives of Protect our
People, on combating the extremism and terrorism at home and overseas. The
United Kingdom is going to tackle all threats to the UK people and interests, they
are going to resilient and a hostile environment for those whom intend to harm
them, whether they are state based or non state actors like terrorist and criminals,
they also going to coordinate all levers of national power thus the sum of their
effort is greater than the constituent parts.152
They felt threatened on the existence of ISIL where ISIL have used a wide
variety of methods on their attack, from a simple attacks to more complex plan
which involved the firearms and explosives at multiple locations. They believe
that ISIL might inspire other terrorists groups which could pose a direct threat to
UK security and their allies. Which could be seen from the example of the attack
in Paris, Middle East and North Africa.153 Te significant threat by the ISIL
150 “National Security Strategy and Strategic Defense and Security Review 2015.” A Secure and Prosperous United Kingdom. https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/478933/52309_Cm_9161_NSS_SD_Review_web_only.pdf. 151 Tim Street.“SDSR 2015: Continuity, Control and Crisis in UK Defense Policy. ” January 2016. https://www.oxfordresearchgroup.org.uk/sdsr-2015-continuity-control-and-crisis-in-uk-defence-policy. 152 Ibid. 153 Ibid.
43
terrorist group makes it all the more important to invest on tackling the issue head
on at home and abroad using the full spectrum of the UK capabilities.154
III.2. ISIL AS THE THREAT ASSESSMENT TOWARDS UK
“This is vital at a time when the threats to our country are growing, from the ISIL and greater instability in the Middle East…. Our priorities are to deter state-based threats, tackle terrorism, remain a world leader in cyber security and ensure we have the capability to respond rapidly to crises as they emerge.” - David Cameron, former Prime Minister of the United Kingdom.155
Based on the statement above, the United Kingdom has stated that ISIL
has become one of the threat assessment for their security of the state. They
believe that the United Kingdom is facing a significant threat from both
extremism and terrorism.156 The United Kingdom define the extremism as a vocal
or active opposition to their fundamental values, including democracy, the rule of
law, individual liberty and mutual respect and tolerance of different faiths and
beliefs.157 In term of terrorism, based on the United Kingdom Defense White
Paper 2015, the UK’s current terrorism threat level is Severe, which it means that
a terrorist attack on the United Kingdom mainland is highly likely to happen.158
Since the year of 2010, the volume and scale of threat in the United
Kingdom and overseas is increasing, and its nature has changed as the emergence
of ISIL and its affiliates in addition to other Islamist terrorist groups such as Al
154 “National Security Strategy and Strategic Defense and Security Review 2015.” A Secure and Prosperous United Kingdom. https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/478933/52309_Cm_9161_NSS_SD_Review_web_only.pdf. 155 “National Security Strategy and Strategic Defense and Security Review in 2015: A Secure and Prosperous United Kingdom.” Presented to Parliament by the Prime Minister by Command of Her Majesty. November 2015. https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/478933/52309_Cm_9161_NSS_SD_Review_web_only.pdf. 156 Ibid. 157 Chapman, Bert. “Geopolitics of the 2015 British Defense White Paper and Its Historical Predecessors.” https://docs.lib.purdue.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1135&context=lib_fsdocs. 158 “Securing Britain in an Age of Uncertainty: The Strategic Defense and Security Review.” Presented to Parliament by the Prime Minister by Command of Her Majesty. https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/62482/strategic-defence-security-review.pdf.
44
Qaeda. Based on the White Paper, ISIL is radicalizing large numbers of people,
which they often use social media, and is seeking to inspire or direct them to
conduct terrorist attacks in the West or to travel to Syria and Iraq.159
Based on the UK perspective the danger from Islamist fear based
oppression remains the first and generally critical. In 2016 we restricted an
outrageous conservative fear based oppressor gathering, national action, out of the
blue. Northern Ireland related fear mongering remains a genuine risk, especially
in Northern Ireland itself.160
As of now, extremist in the UK is associated with Daesh. It happened as
the extremist believe system behind radicalization in the UK.161 For instance, Al
Muhajiroun is a banned extremist organization that progressed toward becoming
re-invigorated in the UK following Daesh's revelation of a "Caliphate" in Syria
and Iraq, distributing an online promise of devotion to Daesh and urging its
individuals to head out to Syria and Iraq. Al Qaeda keeps on endeavoring to pull
in and motivate UK nationals to act in help of their worldwide plan. English
nationals battling with Al Qaeda represent a particular risk because of their
linkages to the UK.
The worldwide setting, specifically the assertion of the "Caliphate", has
profoundly affected the danger to the UK. The 2015 National Security Risk
Assessment distinguished fear mongering as a level one hazard, and the Strategic
Defense and Security Review (SDSR) perceived that the volume and size of the
danger in the UK and abroad was expanding, and that its tendency had changed.
The volume and scale of the dangers that the administration confront, both
to the UK and their interests abroad, have expanded. UK government confronts a
progressing hazard associated with individuals who have headed out to Syria and
Iraq to join fear based oppressor gatherings, both from the individuals who have
159 Judge Peter Lane, Paul Taylor and Anna Chafer. “Between Chris Cole and The Information Commissioner and The Ministry of Defense.” 2017. http://www.statewatch.org/news/2017/sep/uk-drone-wars-v-ico-mod-armed-drones-transparency-judgment-8-17.pdf. 160 Ibid. 161 Ibid.
45
returned, and the individuals who stay in the area, where they can rouse and
coordinate assaults. UK government kept on investigating and fortify our reaction
to guarantee that law authorization organizations have the forces and capacities
they have to react successfully.162
III.1.1. UNITED KINGDOM MILITARY OPERATION IN IRAQ AND
SYRIA
In their attempt to fight ISIL, United Kingdom conduct a military
operation in Iraq and Syria, the military operation known as Operation Shader.
Operation Shader are made by the British as a contribution to the Global Coalition
to defeat ISIL. 65 countries, including Arab, Iraq, European countries and the
United States has joined to the coalition. The operation is made to defeat ISIL in
every aspect, such as military, financial, against ISIL ideology and provide
humanitarian assistance.163
The operation began following the threatening video that has been released
by ISIL on 2 September 2014. In the video, ISIL threatened to behead British
citizen David Haines. David Haines worked with United Nations in the Balkans.
Before he worked with UN, he worked in Royal Mail and the he joined Royal
Airforce.164 In the video that ISIL has been posted, they called beheading over
Haines’ is “a message to the allies of America”. David Cameron reacted,
“We will do everything in our power to hunt down these murderers and
ensure they face justice, however long it takes.”165
The UK movement in Syria and Iraq is based on the House of Commons
Defense Committee’s inquiry ‘UK military operations in Syria and Iraq’ report
162 Chapman, Bert. “Geopolitics of the 2015 British Defense White Paper and Its Historical Predecessors.” https://docs.lib.purdue.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1135&context=lib_fsdocs. 163 House of Commons Defense Committee, “UK Military Operations in Syria and Iraq: Government Response to the Committee’s Second Report.” Seventh Special Report of Session 2016-2017. https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201617/cmselect/cmdfence/1065/1065.pdf. 164 House of Commons Defense Committee, “UK Military Operations in Syria and Iraq: Government Response to the Committee’s Second Report.” Seventh Special Report of Session 2016-2017. https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201617/cmselect/cmdfence/1065/1065.pdf. 165 Ibid.
46
(HC 106), published in the 21 September 2016. What have been done by the UK
in that region are conducting more than 1,100 airstrikes across Iraq and Syria,
which is the second after the US. The UK itself has helped to train more than
30,000 Iraqi forces,
No Recommendation from House of Commons Defense Committee
The United Kingdom Government’s response
1 Global terrorism trends indicate that Al-Qaeda,
the pre-existing islamist organizations is going
to attach themselves to whichever militant
network appears to be in the ascendant at any
given time. (paragraph 30)
The Government agrees with the fact of
terrorism trends and that pre existing
organizations could attach themselves to other
militant networks which are perceived to be in
the ascendant.
2 The UK and Coalition’s strategy to counter ISIL
is predominately focused on Iraq and Syria.
(paragraph 31)
The Government agrees that UK and Global
Coalition strategy to defeat ISIL and its
affiliates needs to remain adaptable.
3 We recommend that government should set
out the strategy should be flexible enough to
cope with various possible outcomes. The
military action is successful but the overall
strategy does not adapt, than ISIL is going to
pose a threat to stability and safety across the
region. (paragraph 32)
In order to face the threat, the UK strategy has
3 pillars, which are,
1. Pillar 1 that support the efforts to disrupt to
UK mainland and interests by delivering the
UK’s counter-terrorism strategy.
2. Pillar 2 drives action to strategically defeat
ISIL as an organization.
3. Pillar 3 includes works to stabilize the
region.
The strategy is effects-based and draws on
multiple lines of effort:
1. Defeating ISIL militarily
2. Disrupting ISIL’s finances
3. Exposing ISIL’s true nature
4. Disrupting the flow of foreign fighters and
protecting the homeland
5. Providing stabilization and humanitarian
support.
47
as well the cross-government strategy in order to support the Iraqi
government which could deliver reforms and promote the political settlement in
Syria.166
The Committee has several recommendations for the government of the
United Kingdom, Table 1: The House of Commons Defense Committee
Recommendation in term of ISIL.167
Based on the data above, the United Kingdom has several Pillars which
focused on defeating the ISIL in the UK mainland, the Iraq and Syria as well on
the other region in the international stage. The first pillar is to always support any
strategy to defeat the existence of ISIL in the UK mainland, because once the
terrorists are able to make a chaotic situation, it would definitely influence the
stability of state security, which is also going to shake down the people’s safety
and welfare, as well the state politics, economy and military aspects of the United
Kingdom.168
The second pillar is the United Kingdom strategy to defeat ISIL. The UK
is basically a member of the Global Coalition, as the unified body of the 79
international partners which dedicated to degrading and defeating the ISIL. The
Global Coalition was formed in the September 2014 and is unique in its
166 Ibid. 167 Judge Peter Lane, Paul Taylor and Anna Chafer. “Between Chris Cole and The Information Commissioner and The Ministry of Defense.” 2017. http://www.statewatch.org/news/2017/sep/uk-drone-wars-v-ico-mod-armed-drones-transparency-judgment-8-17.pdf. 168 Ben Connable, Natasha Lander and Kimberly Jackson. “Beating the Islamic State: Selecting a New Strategy for Iraq and Syria.” https://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/research_reports/RR1500/RR1562/RAND_RR1562.pdf.
4 As a part of an explanation of how it is
countering the global threat from the ISIL, the
government should provide more details of the
military and capacity building operations which
are being undertaken to counter the ISIL
affiliates. (Paragraph 34)
Defeating ISIL in Iraq and Syria is the current
priority because that represents the immediate
threat. UK is building on existing military
relationships to contain ISIL’s threat by
strengthening global allies and partners. We
are targeting the military efforts where they can
best protect UK national interests from the
threat of ISIL branches and affiliates.
48
membership, scope and commitment. The members of Global Coalition have to
provide essential military support to local forces, stifling ISIL financing and
economic infrastructure, preventing the flow of foreign terrorist fighters across
borders, supporting stabilization efforts in areas liberated from the ISIL and
exposing the ISIL false religious narrative through the counter messaging.169
Table 2: The United Kingdom leading role to defeat ISIL.170
No The United Kingdom Role
1 Military The United Kingdom is going to provide their military
personnel to the Iraq and Syria, as the example is
through the royal air force and the British army soldiers.
2 Finance The UK recognizes the disruption of ISIL finances is the
essential to their defeat.
3 Foreign Terrorist Fighters The United Kingdom advises against all travel to Syria
and parts of Iraq.
4 Stabilization Stabilization is the process of rebuilding the essential
services and utilities for people to be able to return
home.
5 Strategic Communications The United Kingdom launched the Counter Daesh
(ISIL) Communications Cell.
The United Kingdom government is truly concern of the existence of ISIL
in the world, where based on the table above, they have created several strategies
in order to defeat the ISIL. Through the aspects of military, finance, the existence
of foreign terrorists fighters, stabilization and the strategic communications. The
United Kingdom has prepared their war against ISIL. In term of military, the
United Kingdom has prepared their troops in the Iraq and Syria to support the
169 “UK Action to Combat Daesh.” https://www.gov.uk/government/topical-events/daesh/about. 170 Ibid.
49
local forces, in term of the air forces and armies. They also provide the highly
advanced intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance to Coalition partners.171
In the term of finance, the UK has created a cooperation between the
public and private connection with the banking industry where they could ensured
the ISIL would always get a denied access on their financial system. It is also to
prevent the ISIL on profiting from the illegal trafficking of antiquities, which they
might have plundered from Iraq and Syria.172 The UK is also protecting their
mainland by advising their people to hopefully not traveling to Iraq and Syria due
to the reason which could put themselves in considerable danger. Not only the
safety of the people, but it is also about the chance of the traveled people to be
back to UK as a terrorist, for the worst possibilities.173
The strategic communications of UK, in this case means that through the
UK leadership, the Cell has changed the international narrative around the ISIL,
from one that highlights their atrocities to one which emphasizes their failures.
The UK launched Counter Daesh (ISIL) Communications Cell, is going to be very
vital for the UK to damaging the perception of the ISIL as well to reduce the ISIL
ability to recruit people for their terrorist group. The UK government also tried to
create the Global Coalition website, which the houses up to date information on
the Coalition progress, it would help the UK government to highlight the ISIL’s
lies and expose their inadequacies.174
Thus, the United Kingdom is basically going to invest in their capabilities
on protecting their people and the world against the terrorism. They are going to
build and strengthening their security capacity and their security capabilities in
order to reduce the risk of terrorism to the UK itself as well to the British
171 Ben Connable, Natasha Lander and Kimberly Jackson. “Beating the Islamic State: Selecting a New Strategy for Iraq and Syria.” https://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/research_reports/RR1500/RR1562/RAND_RR1562.pdf. 172 Ibid. 173 Ibid. 174 “UK Action to Combat Daesh.” https://www.gov.uk/government/topical-events/daesh/about.
50
interests. The implementation of their security capabilities is going to be
explained in the next chapter 4.
51
CHAPTER IV
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF UK DEFENSE WHITE
PAPER 2015
IV.1. United Kingdom Counter Terrorism Report 2015
The year 2015, has been the year of 11,774 terrorist attacks in the 92 state
nations.175 Meanwhile in the United Kingdom, the level of terrorism threat has
remained in the SEVERE status, which it means that the terrorism attack is highly
likely.176 There were also around 280 terrorism related arrests in the Great Britain
in 2015.177 The UK has been terrorized due to the attack on tourists (June 2015) in
Sousse, Tunisia, where there are around 30 (thirty) deaths of the British people.
As well the attack that occurred in Paris has resulted the around 130 people killed
that also include the British people as the victim.178
In order to reduce the terrorism risk to the United Kingdom and their
interests in the international stage from terrorism, which the purpose is to
maintain the freedom of people in the world. The UK government deals with
terrorism with four strands, pursue means the investigation and the disruption of
the terrorist attack; prevent means to stop people on becoming a terrorist or even
supporting the terrorist group; protect means to improve the state security to stop
the terrorist attack; and the last one is prepare means to minimize the impact of
175 Comments by Air Vice Marshal Stringer, Chief of Staff Joint Command, to the defence select committee inquiry on UK military operations in Mosul and Raqqa, 15 May 2018, Q2 176 Ibid. 177 Home Office (2016) Operation of police powers under the Terrorism Act 2000, quarterly update to December 2015. Available at: https://www. gov.uk/government/statistics/operation-of-police- powers-under-the-terrorism-act-2000-quarterly- update-to-december-2015 178 Ibid.
52
the terrorist attack as well to recover as quickly as possible if there was an
attack.179
IV.1.1. The Use of UK Counter Terrorism Powers
In order to maintain the stand of pursue which the purpose is to
investigate the threats towards the UK government as well their interests in the
international stage. The UK government need to be able on finding as well to
track down the terrorists in the hostile environment where they could thrive (as in
the unstable region as well the one amid the civil wars).180
The Royal Prerogative
The Royal Prerogative could be exercised against the British passport
holders to cancel or refuse to issue, a passport on public interest grounds. It could
be used to disrupt individuals whom seek to travel to engage in the action of
terrorism. It has been used by the UK government between December until
January 2015, the Royal Prerogative power was used for 23 times. In order to do
that the UK government need to prepare several ways which are the counter
terrorism and security act as well the disruption on the terrorist funding. The Counter Terrorism and Security Act
The Counter-Terrorism and Security Act 2015 (CTSA) was passed last
year to ensure that the police and the security and intelligence agencies that have
the powers and capabilities for them to need to respond to increased the terrorist
threats to relate to Syria and Iraq. The measure in the Act provides the additional
means to disrupt the travel of the foreign terrorist fighters to as well from the
conflict area as well to improve the ability of the UK to and from the conflict area.
The UK needs to improve the ability to manage the return of the foreign terrorist.
The Act came into the force in February 2015, this include the summary of the
179 CONTEST. The United Kingdom’s Strategy for Countering Terrorism: Annual Report for 2015. Presented to the Parliament by the Secretary of State for the Home Department by Command of Her Majesty. https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/539683/55469_Cm_9310_Web_Accessible_v0.11.pdf. 2016 180 Ibid.
53
measures in the Act.181 This term strengthened aspects of Prevent and Protect
work.182
The government of UK seeks to make a hostile environment for the
terrorist financing by disrupting terrorist fundraising and the movement of the
terrorist funds into and out of the UK. In October 2015, the UK government
published the assessment of the terrorist finance risks as the part of their National
Risk Assessment of the Money Laundering as well the Terrorist Finance. The
Collaboration of the private sector on the terrorist finance was also improved by
the Joint Money Laundering Intelligence Taskforce initiatives. In April of 2015,
the UK government published their own action plan for the money laundering as
well the counter terrorist finance, which could be setting out how the government
is going to address the weakness which could be identified as the risk
assessment.183
In the term of prevent the UK government need to strengthened their
program in order to safeguard that is going to be vulnerable on the response to the
terrorist threat. The UK government has worked with the online industry to
remove the material which contain the term of terrorism as well the one
supporting the delivering of the counter narrative campaigns. The key objectives
of the prevent term in 2015, is to respond on the ideology of extremism and their
threats; prevent the people from being drawn into the terrorist group; have a good
cooperation with the specific sectors that can help them to maintain the risks of
radicalization.184
181 CONTEST. The United Kingdom’s Strategy for Countering Terrorism: Annual Report for 2015. Presented to the Parliament by the Secretary of State for the Home Department by Command of Her Majesty. https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/539683/55469_Cm_9310_Web_Accessible_v0.11.pdf. July 2016. 182 Ibid 183 Ibid 184 CONTEST. The United Kingdom’s Strategy for Countering Terrorism: Annual Report for 2015. Presented to the Parliament by the Secretary of State for the Home Department by Command of Her Majesty. https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/539683/55469_Cm_9310_Web_Accessible_v0.11.pdf.
54
In order to challenge this threat, the UK government is going to reduce the
risk of the foreign people traveling to as well returning from, the conflict in Syria
and Iraq was a major focus of our work in 2015. Approximately 850 individuals
of national security concern have travelled since the conflict began. Just under
half have returned to the UK and approximately 15% are deceased. Over the
course of 2015, fewer people travelled from the UK to the conflict area than in
previous years. The National Offender Management Service (NOMS) manages at
any one time over 1,000 prisoners who have been identified as extremist or
vulnerable to extremism.185 NOMS has continued to manage these prisoners
through measures such as disciplinary action and transfers within the prison
estate, and standard and dedicated programs. 143 specialist interventions and
assessments were completed with this group, based on the level of risk individuals
represent, with around 60 interventions underway at any one point.186
The Prevent statutory duty has prompted a significant step forward in the
delivery of Prevent work in sectors. The number of frontline staff who have
received training on radicalization increased significantly. For example, over
150,000 NHS staff received training in 2015. In total, over 400,000 frontline staff
received training, more than double the number from the previous year. To reach
even more staff, we are expanding our training offer by endorsing more products
and developing e-learning modules.187
We published statutory guidance on the duty, setting out that activity
should be informed by a risk assessment and should be proportionate to the threat.
We also issued specific advice to each sector for example, we launched the
Educate Against Hate online portal with the Department for Education to provide
advice and curriculum materials to parents, school leaders and governors. All
185 This includes the 143 people in custody in Great Britain for terrorism-related offences as of December 2015. 186 Ibid 187 CONTEST. The United Kingdom’s Strategy for Countering Terrorism: Annual Report for 2015. Presented to the Parliament by the Secretary of State for the Home Department by Command of Her Majesty. https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/539683/55469_Cm_9310_Web_Accessible_v0.11.pdf. July 2016.
55
sectors now have robust inspection frameworks in place to monitor
implementation of Prevent.188
In term of protect, the UK government has several objectives, which are
to strengthen their border security; reduce the vulnerability of their transport
network; to increase the resilience of their critical infrastructure; improve the
security of the crowded place in the state nation as well to improve the protective
security in key overseas locations.189
Border security remains a key focus of our Protect work. We continue to
improve and evolve our border detection systems to ensure they identify those
individuals and consignments which pose the greatest risk to the UK (for
example, firearms, explosives and drugs), whilst facilitating the movement of
legitimate travel and trade. We have developed a sophisticated freight targeting
capability and further enhanced our passenger data analytical capability.
Following the Paris attacks in November, the Ministry of Defense provided
mutual aid to other organizations working at the Border to support our counter-
terrorism effort.190
Since April 2015, exit checks have been in place on all international
commercial scheduled air, sea and rail services leaving the UK for destinations
outside the Common Travel Area.191 The check is made against passenger
information provided by port and service operators and can enable appropriate
interventions to prevent travel, but not in every instance. Our ability to intervene
to prevent individuals, including vulnerable adults and minors, leaving to travel to
conflict areas, and to prevent foreign nationals arriving here, depends on the
availability and accuracy of this advance information. We will continue to work
with carriers and operators to ensure that data about individuals traveling from
and into the UK is available to ports police and to Border Force in advance of
travel.
188 Ibid. 189 Ibid. 190 Daesh: UK Government Response. https://www.gov.uk/government/topical-events/daesh. 191 The Common Travel Area comprises the United Kingdom, the Republic of Ireland, the Channel Islands and the Isle of Man.
56
There have been significant developments in the way security is delivered
on the general rail network. These include: implementation of new transport
policing tactics to deter and detect criminal and terrorist activity, as well as to
reassure the general public; commencement of armed patrols on the London
Underground; and the dissemination of cyber security guidance to the rail
industry. We have continued to review the effectiveness of security arrangements
in place at our ports and cross-Channel rail services. This has included ongoing
reviews of arrangements in place at the Channel Tunnel, the Port of Calais, and
other locations in partnership with France. We have further enhanced perimeter
security and made technological advancements to x-ray scanners (to detect
weapons or explosives on passenger shuttles) at each end of the Channel Tunnel.
We assess all risks to our Critical National Infrastructure, from flooding to
cyber- attack to terrorism, and work with operators to enhance our infrastructure
security. We are reviewing infrastructure policing to ensure that the UK has the
right capability to protect our national infrastructure and address national threats.
The scope includes the protection of civil nuclear and some military sites, policing
at airports and policing of the strategic road and rail network. A number of
different national and local forces are currently responsible for policing this
infrastructure.
Prepare term has the number of objects to continue to build capabilities
to respond to and recover from a wide range of terrorist and other civil
emergencies; improve our preparedness for the highest impact risks in the
National Risk Assessment; improve the ability of the emergency services to work
together during a terrorist attack; and enhance communications and information
sharing for terrorist attacks.192 The Home Office continues to work with the
police, security and intelligence agencies, Armed Forces and other government
departments to regularly exercise our counter-terrorism response capabilities.
During summer 2015, we delivered Exercise STRONG TOWER in London. This
exercise tested the response of the Metropolitan Police Service, British Transport
Police and other agencies to a terrorist firearms attack in the capital. The 192 Daesh: UK Government Response. https://www.gov.uk/government/topical-events/daesh.
57
successful exercise provided a number of lessons on how to further improve our
response.
We have longstanding plans for responding to firearms attacks. But the
November Paris attacks were a terrible reminder of the destruction which a
marauding terrorist firearms attack can cause and the challenges it poses for the
emergency services. Following the attacks in Paris, we took the decision to
provide extra funding to uplift armed policing capability and capacity to respond
more quickly and effectively to a firearms attack. This funding uplift will total
£35 million in 2016/17, with more to follow in future years.
In 2015, the Armed Forces established plans to provide support in the
event of a large scale terrorist attack in the UK. If needed, up to 10,000 military
personnel, supported by military experts such as bomb disposal teams, are on
standby to support the civil authorities. The Joint Emergency Services
Interoperability Program was developed to ensure that the emergency services
work together effectively to save as many lives as possible. In 2015, we built on
the original 2012 to 2014 program to continue to improve multi-agency response
to major incidents through joint training and exercising. In 2015, the emergency
services also implemented a new national system for identifying, analyzing and
addressing learning from both real-life incidents and training exercises.193
IV.2. The UK Operation Shader to Combat the ISIL
Operation SHADER is the operational code name given to British military
operations undertaken as part of the US global coalition against the ISIL. The
operation began in Iraq on 26 September 2014 in response to a formal request
from the Iraqi government. The intervention extended to Syria in October 2014,
with the Royal Air Force mandated to conduct surveillance flights over the
country. On 2 December 2015, the British Government approved RAF airstrikes
193 CONTEST. The United Kingdom’s Strategy for Countering Terrorism: Annual Report for 2015. Presented to the Parliament by the Secretary of State for the Home Department by Command of Her Majesty. https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/539683/55469_Cm_9310_Web_Accessible_v0.11.pdf. July 2016.
58
against ISIL in Syria. Since then, the RAF has operated at its highest level in 25
years in a single theatre of operation on June 2016, over 1,000 personnel were
engaged, with the RAF having flown more than 2,200 sorties, including
approximately 900 airstrikes that have resulted in the deaths of nearly 1,000 ISIL
fighters. Operation Shader also involves the Royal Navy, the British Army and
special forces.194
The Operation Shader is one of the UK operations in tackling the ISIL,
which also known as the second largest movement against ISIL after the United
States. There are MQ 9 Reaper drones based in Cyprus which responsible for 30%
of aerial surveillance over Syria. Tornado jets that have been involves since the
beginning of this mission, as well the Typhoon aircraft that joined this operation
in the late 2015, when the parliament voted to extend their air campaign against
ISIL in Syria.195
In the Operation Shader itself, the Royal Air Force, the Army and the
Royal Navy are taking each of their part in the movement. But, the fact is that,
most of the forces in the Operation Shader is basically coming from the Royal Air
Force (RAF). In 2014, there are total 1.950 RAF personnel were deployed with
the number growing each year. In 2017, there are around 2.230 RAF personnel
involved in this Operation Shader.196 For the British Army, there are 500 of them
in 2014 and in 2017 there are around 1.920 Army personnel involved in this
movement.197 The Royal Navy has around 60 personnel in 2014, but in 2017 it
rises into 80 members involved in Operation Shader.
During the nearly four-year campaign, the RAF operation has been
substantial. The UK has been the second largest contributor to air operations in
Iraq and Syria, conducting sorties at a During the nearly four-year campaign, the
RAF operation has been substantial. The UK has been the second largest
contributor in the air operations in the Iraq and Syria, which they could conduct 194 “Operation Shader.” http://www.warfare.today/category/operations/operation-shader/. 195 “Operation Shader: All you need to know about the Britain’s Fight Against IS.” April 2019. https://www.forces.net/news/three-years-op-shader-1500-airstrikes-against-islamic-state. 196 Ibid. 197 Ibid.
59
the airstrikes against the ISIL in the region. They also provided intelligence,
surveillance as well reconnaissance for the Coalition partners.198 In evidence to
the defense select committee in May 2018 Air Vice Marshal Stringer, former UK
Air Component Commander in the Middle East revealed that “our Sentinel stand
off radar provided about 25% to 30% of the overall [intelligence] contribution”.199
IV.2.1. The United Kingdom Royal Air Force to Defeat ISIL
The United Kingdom air forces or known as the Royal Air Force (RAF)
began their first air strike against the ISIL in 2014. Between then and. 2017, the
RAF Typhoon, Tornado and Reaper aircraft have struck the ISIL region more
than 1,300 times in Iraq and over 260 times in Syria.200 Through that time, the
terror group has lost their territory in the Iraq and Syria, their finance status has
been disturb and the leaders as well the fighters as the 71 member coalition has
liberated in those two cities.201 Militarily, the UK is now making the second-
largest contribution to the air component. However, in line with most other
coalition partners, at the time of writing the UK is only conducting bombing
operations against ISIL in the Iraq region and not across the border in Syria
(although it carries out airborne intelligence and surveillance missions over both
countries).202
The United Kingdom government efforts to defeat ISIL in Iraq and Syria
are part of a wider strategy to promote peace and prosperity in the Middle East
and North Africa. The Arab Spring in 2011 highlighted the interconnected nature
of the region, which ISIL has subsequently exploited to expand across Iraq, Syria
and Libya. Thus, efforts to defeat ISIL are essential to the stability and security of
198 Ministry of Defence, Update: air strikes against Daesh. 199 Oral evidence: UK Military operations in Mosul and Raqqa, HC 999, Q.9 200 Royal Air Force, “Combating DAESH: The UK is playing a leading role in a global coalition.” https://www.raf.mod.uk/what-we-do/overview/combating-daesh/. 201 Ibid. 202 US Department of Defense, ‘Operation Inherent Resolve Targeted Operations against ISIL Terrorists’, Special Report: Operation Inherent Resolve, <http://www.defense.gov/home/ features/2014/0814_iraq/>.
60
the whole region.203 According to official reports released by the Ministry of
Defence (MoD) reports, between October 2014 and the end of July 2015, RAF
Tornados conducted at least 200 air strikes, with a further 132 strikes launched by
Reaper drones.204
Given this force, the significant lesson is that strike numbers have been
severely limited by the lack of suitable targets rather than available assets: the
ISTAR assets, Tornados and Reapers together are capable of a far greater strike
rate than that achieved since October 2014. The RAF does not have political
clearance to attack targets within Syria, although Reapers do conduct
reconnaissance and, controversially, an RAF Reaper was employed in a targeted
strike against British foreign fighter Reyaad Khan in Syria on 21 August 2015, in
what the government justified as a necessary counter-terrorist act.205 The other
movements did by the UK Royal Air Force is the operation shader, which would
be supporting the air campaign did by the RAF in the Iraq and Syria.206
IV.2.2. The United Kingdom Army to Defeat ISIL
The British Army has been in Iraq since October 2014 in a non-combat
role, training Iraqi Security Forces and Kurdish Peshmerga forces. The British
Army is also leading the Coalition’s counter-IED training program. At the end of
June 2016, the MOD announced a further 50 personnel would deploy to Al Asad
airbase in western Iraq to give training in counter-IED methods, infantry tactics
and medical care. At present, the total size of the British Army in Iraq amounts to
500 personnel. It is estimated that the British Army has already trained almost
40,000 Iraqi troops, including 7,300 Peshmerga, in bases at Besmaya, Taji and al-
203 Royal Air Force, “Combating DAESH: The UK is playing a leading role in a global coalition.” https://www.raf.mod.uk/what-we-do/overview/combating-daesh/.. 204 Ministry of Defence, ‘British Forces Air Strikes in Iraq: Monthly List’, <https://www.gov.uk/ government/publications/british-forces-air-strikes-in-iraq-monthly-list>. 205 A second British foreign fighter, Ruhul Amin, was also killed in the strike. See David Cameron’s statement to the House of Commons on refugees and counter-terrorism in Syria, 7 September 2015, <https://www.gov.uk/government/speeches/syria-refugees-and-counter-terrorism-prime- ministers-statement>. 206 “Operation Shader.” http://www.warfare.today/category/operations/operation-shader/.
61
Asad. Many of those soldiers are now seeing action in the battle to liberate
Mosul.207
The US requested additional help for its train and equip program in Syria,
and from 25 October 2016 the British Army was detailed to resume training of
vetted Syrian opposition groups. A total of 20 Army personnel have deployed to
locations outside of Syria to provide this training. The British Army has deployed
to Iraq elements of 2nd Battalion, The Yorkshire Regiment (2 YORKS); 2nd
Battalion, The Princess of Wales’s Royal Regiment (2 PWRR); 1st Battalion, The
Rifles (1 RIFLES) (July 2015 – January 2017); 4th Battalion, The Rifles (4
RIFLES); and 2nd Battalion, The Duke of Lancaster’s Regiment (2 LANCS). The
4th Battalion, The Royal Regiment of Scotland (The Highlanders) (4 SCOTS),
replaced 1 RIFLES at al-Asad airbase, Anbar Province, in January 2017 for a six-
month tour. Currently being deployed is the 2nd Battalion, The Royal Regiment
of Scotland (2 SCOTS).208
IV.2.3. The United Kingdom Royal Navy to Defeat ISIL
The Royal Navy first ship to be deployed was HMS Defender, a Type 45
destroyer, in October 2014. In August 2016, it was announced that HMS Daring,
another Type 45 destroyer, would deploy to the Gulf to give air defense support to
the US Carrier Groups there. HMS Defender returned to base. HMS Ocean was
deployed in September 2016 as part of the UK’s Joint Expeditionary Force
(Maritime) Task Force on operations until March 2017. In total, there are around
1350 Armed Forces personnel are deployed in Operation Shader, with elements in
Cyprus, Turkey, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Bahrain and Qatar.209
207 Ibid. 208 “Operation Shader.” http://www.warfare.today/category/operations/operation-shader/. 209 Ibid.
62
CHAPTER V
CONCLUSION
ISIL is one of the terrorist groups that is becoming the biggest threat to the
world’s security. ISIL has become the one shaking the world’s stable situation
into a chaos starting from the Syria and Iraq. In Syria and Iraq, the ISIL has taken
their place as the one perpetrators for the death of more than hundreds of people
in the region. Then, ISIL presence is not only in the Iraq and Syria but their
movement are now spreading towards the other part of the world. Like one of the
example to the Europe region like Paris for one of the example. Because of that,
the United Kingdom is also being threatened by the presence of the ISIL. They
believe that the ISIL somehow could be attacking the region in UK, in which
made the level of terrorism attack in the UK become in the level of SEVERE.
The whole analysis in this thesis is about the United Kingdom movement
against the ISIL threats toward the security of their region. The UK statement on
ISIL could be found in their Defense White Paper 2015, where in the chapter 4,
the UK stated that the ISIL is a significant threat towards the world and the UK
itself. UK then followed the movement of US against the ISIL, on war on
terrorism, in which the UK is being the second largest anti terrorism movement
after the US. This thesis is going to be focused on the military plan and
movement of the United Kingdom to prevent the attack of the ISIL by
maintaining the security of their border as well to protect the state nation bu
strengthening their military troops as well the military strategy they established
against the ISIL.
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The military strategy against the ISIL could be seen from the presence of the
Royal Navy, Royal Air Force and the United Kingdom Army whom are all ready
to prevent the spreading of ISIL also to attack on their presence in the Iraq, Syria
and the other part of the world. This is also in the same line of the UK national
interest to protect their people and their state from the threats of ISIL One of the
way is the Operation Shader. The Operation Shader is one of the UK operations in
tackling the ISIL, which also known as the second largest movement against ISIL
after the United States. There are MQ 9 Reaper drones based in Cyprus which
responsible for 30% of aerial surveillance over Syria. Tornado jets that have been
involves since the beginning of this mission, as well the Typhoon aircraft that
joined this operation in the late 2015, when the parliament voted to extend their
air campaign against ISIL in Syria.
In the Operation Shader itself, the Royal Air Force, the Army and the
Royal Navy are taking each of their part in the movement. But, the fact is that,
most of the forces in the Operation Shader is basically coming from the Royal Air
Force (RAF). In 2014, there are total 1.950 RAF personnel were deployed with
the number growing each year. In 2017, there are around 2.230 RAF personnel
involved in this Operation Shader. For the British Army, there are 500 of them in
2014 and in 2017 there are around 1.920 Army personnel involved in this
movement. The Royal Navy has around 60 personnel in 2014, but in 2017 it rises
into 80 members involved in Operation Shader. Thus, the implementation of the
UK movements to tackle on ISIL presence in the world is still on going as their
national security interests are also on the process to be fulfilled. The United
Kingdom is going to keep on maintaining the existence and the movement of ISIL
as well find new strategy to banished them from the international system.
64
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