Unification Review

• Study the map of German Unification in your textbook on page 831.

• Be able to identify – Southern German states– Know Prussia and the other states of the north

German confederation– Austrian Empire– Alsace and Lorraine– Schleswig and Holstein

Study the map of Italy in your book on page Study the map of Italy in your book on page 827 and know:827 and know:

RomeRomePiedmontPiedmontLombardyLombardyVenetiaVenetiaNice Nice SavoySavoy

National Unification

Italy and Germany

In 1848-1849, the liberal nationalists had been defeated in their efforts to unify Italy and Germany. By the early 1850’s, the Austrians had re-imposed their control over Italian and German affairs, and the German confederation had been reestablished.

Leadership now passed into the hands of professional politicians. They possessed what the revolutionary idealists of 1848 had lacked: power and the will to use power, practical political experience, and a clear vision of their goals.

In Italy, Camillo Cavour, the Premier of Piedmont, established a united Kingdom of Italy in 1861, while in Germany, Otto von Bismarck, the Prussian minister-president, created a unified German Empire a decade later.

Divided Italy• South-Kingdom of the

Two Sicilies ruled by Bourbon King

• Center- the Pope governed the Papal States

• North-Austrian domination, except for Piedmont-the source of Italian leadership most responsible for Italian Unification

Camillo Cavour

• As Premier of the Piedmont carried out a program of liberal reform

• Established banks, built railroads

• Under Cavour, Piedmont became a progressive state

• Realpolitik

Cavour’s Foreign Policy

• Austria presented roadblock to Italian unification

• Cavour sought French assistance

• Sent troops to Crimean war in 1854-to win support from France and England

• Excellent example of Realpolitik

Realpolitik after 1850

• Politics of reality

• Employed by Cavour and Bismarck

• Replaced Romantic idealism with hard headed strategy and manipulation

• Cavour’s involvement in the Crimean War

• Bismarck’s manipulation of the Ems telegram

Cavour met with Napoleon III 1858

• NIII promised to send troops to aid the Piedmont against the Austrians in war

• Piedmont would get Lombardy and Venetia

• NIII would get Nice and Savoy

Napoleon III

Austro-Sardinian War 1859

• April 1859 Cavour provoked Austria into declaring war- (Realpolitik)

• A combined French and Piedmontese army counterattacked

• Austrians defeated at Magenta and Solferino-pulled out of Lombardy

NIII backs out of deal with Cavour

• Shocked by the bloodiness of the battles and fearful of a hostile reaction by French Catholics if Piedmont moved to annex Papal States

• NIII made a separate peace with Austria• Peace of Villa Franca gave Lombardy to

Piedmont• Austria was allowed to keep venetia

Cavour was furious at Napoleon III’s double dealing

Piedmont’s annexations in northern Italy

• By September 1859 revolutionary assemblies in Tuscany, Parma, Modena and a part of the Papal States offered to unite with the Piedmont

Nice and Savoy-done deal

• NIII agreed to allow Piedmont to annex the Northern territories.

• In exchange Napoleon III received Nice and Savoy

Revolution in Southern Italy

• Revolution broke out in Sicily in response to the reactionary policies of the Bourbon King.

• Spread of revolution to the south was more than Cavour expected and more than NIII could support

Garibaldi’s Expedition

• Sailed form Genoa with 1,000 “red shirt”volunteers

• Officially Cavour opposed the expedition, Secretly he suuported it

• By April 1860 Garibaldi had taken Naples, capital of the Two Sicilies

• Bourbon King fled

The problem with Rome

• Cavour thought that the Red shirts might go for Rome.

• Could cause Austria and France to defend the Pope.

• Since 1848 French troops had been in Rome protecting the Pope against revolution

• In order to restrain Garibaldi, Cavour sent Piedmontese troops into the Papal states-avoiding Rome

Proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy

• On March 17, 1861 the Italian Parliament proclaimed the establishment of the Kingdom of Italy with Victor Emmanuel as King.

• Cavour died three months later.

Annexation of Venice and Rome

• April 1866 Italy made an alliance with Prussia

• Prussia defeated Austria in 7 weeks

• Austria ceded Venetia to the Italians

• Italy received Venetia as a result of the Austro-Prussian War

Addition of Rome

• With the Franco- Prussian war of 1870, French troops in Rome were removed to fight the Prussians.

• The Italians occupied and annexed Rome

• The annexations of Venetia and Rome completed the Risorgimento.

Divided Germany

• Following 1848 german Confederaion made up of 39 States, Austria and Prussia

• Holding the presidency of the German confederation, the Austrians dominated Germany as they did Italy

Bismarcks Rise

• King William I of Prussia sought to strengthen the Prussian Army requiring new taxes

• Liberal parliament would not approve taxes without concessions from the King

• Bismarck addressed the parliament- “great issues of the day would not be settled by parliamentary debate and majority vote, but by blood and iron”

• Parliament still refused new taxes, Bismarck proceeded to collect the taxes any way

Schleiswig-Holstein Affair

• Danish King ruled the partly Danish and German duchies-although they were not a part of Denmark

• In 1863 the Danish parliament annexed Schleswig.

• Infuriated German nationalists

Austro-Prussian alliance• Bismarck proposed a Prussian alliance with

Austria to take action against Denmark.• Prussia and Austria went to war with Denmark in

1864.• Denmark was quickly defeated and gave up

Schleswig and Holstein.• Bismarck set up joint occupation of the territories

with Prussia getting Schleswig and Austria getting Holstein.

• Bismarck used arrangement to provoke arguments and war with Austrians—led to Austro-Prussian War 1866.

Bismarck’s Alliances isolating Austria

• Napoleon III remains neutral-he thought that Austria would win

• Alliance with Italy-promised Venetia to Italians if Prussians won

Austro-Prussian war 1866 aka Seven Weeks War

• Prussia accused the Austrians of violating German confederation agreements.

• Prussia proposed the abolition of the German Confederation

• The Prussians defeated the Austrians at the battle of Sadowa

North German Confederation• Bismarck made a moderate

peace with Austria.

• Prussia gained full possession of Schleswig and Holstein.

• Prussia also annexed the Northern German States of Hanover, Hesse, Nassau, and Frankfurt.

• This created the North German Confederation 1867

North German Confederation

• Austria was now out of German affairs

• Kleindeutsh

• Prussia dominated the North German Confederation

• Four independent southern States, Bavaria,Wurtemburg, Baden, Hesse-Darmstadt

Southern Germany

• 4 southern German states refused to join with the Prussian dominated North German confedration

• Traditionally quite liberal and Catholic• Reluctant to be controlled by

autocratic/militaristic/Lutheran Prussia• Napoleon III opposed the further expansion

of Prussia• Bismarck believed he would have to fight a

war with France to win the Southern states

The Hohenzollern candidacy

• An 1868 revolution in Spain set the wheels in motion for Franco-Prussian war

• Spanish revolution led to overthrow of Queen Isabella-spain needed new monarch

• A Hohenzollern (Prussian relative) was considered

• France strongly opposed this possibility

French demands on Prussia

• In the face of French protests, Kaiser William I withdrew Leopold’s name

• On July 13, 1870 French ambassador Count Bennedetti met with William I in Ems and asked the king that a Hohenzollern candidacy would not be considered for Spain

• William reported the outcome of the meeting to Bismarck in Berlin. William indicated that the meeting went fine. He sent this news to Bismarck via the “Ems telegram”

Ems Telegram

• Bismarck edited the Kings report and released it to the papers.

• Bismarck made it apear that William I and Bennedetti insulted each other.

• Napoleon III declared war on July, 19 1870• Bismarck had made alliances with the southern

German states in anticipation of war• Now all of Germany went to war with France

Franco-Prussian War

• The Southern German States joined with the North German Confederation thus creating the German Empire.

Completion of German Unification

• January 18,1871 William I was declared the Emperor of Germany.

• This occurred in the Hall of mirrors at the palace of Versailles

Treaty of Frankfurt May 10, 1871

• French ceded the Provinces of Alsace and Lorraine to the Germans and had to pay the Germans the equivalent of $1 billion dollars.

• The annexation of Alsace and Lorraine enraged the French-pick that back up in WWI.

• The French would want REVENGE!

Russia

From Alexander I to Nicholas II

Crimean War 1853-1856• Russians occupied

Moldavia and Wallachia 1853-on the west coast of the black sea

• Turkey declared war on Russia

• Great Britain, France, Piedmont joined Turkey

• Prussia and Austria remained neutral

• Following the death of Nick I, Alexander II sued for peace

• Treaty of Paris 1856-Russia could not have a navy on the Black Sea

• Crimean war taught Alexander II that the Russians were behind the west-reform was needed.

Reforms of Czar Alexander II (r. 1855-1881)

• Emancipated the serfs 1861– Serfs acquired some

land– State compensated

landowners for lost land

– Peasants required to reimburse state

– Land was given to Mir (village communes) not to individual peasant

Terrorism

• Reforms of Alex II increased demands for reform

• Some radicals turned to terrorism- “Peoples will”

• Terror would hopefully get gov’t change

• Led to increased gov’t repression

• March 13, 1881, Alex II agreed to establish representative council to consider reform

• Alex II was assassinated the same day

Czar Alexander III (r. 1881-1894)

• Autocrat, rejected all proposal for further reform

• Secret Police went after terrorists

• Censorship tightened • Further Russification• Pogroms-authorities

often encouraged peasants to conduct anti-Jewish riots

• Also harassed Protestants in the Baltic and Catholics in Poland

• OAR-Orthodoxy, Autocracy, Russification

Czar Nicholas II (r. 1894-1917)• 1880’s marked the

beginning of Russia’s industrial revolution

• Peter Stolypin, “wager on the strong” allowed peasants to produce individually away from the Mir

• Sergei Witte-Minister of Finance 1892-1903– Trans-Siberian railroa– Use the “West to Catch up

to the West”

Germany after 1871

Pope Pius IXPapal Infallibility 1870

• belief of the Roman Catholic Church that God protects the pope from error when he speaks about faith or morality

• It was in this climate that Bismarck launched the Kulturkampf

Kulturkampf-early 1870’s

• Bismarck’s “struggle of civilization”• Campaign against the Roman Catholics of Germany• Bismarck believed Catholics could not be loyal to both

Germany and the Pope• 1872-Jesuits expelled from Germany• 1873-Prussian placed the education of the clergy under

the supervision of the state• Bismarck’s Kulturkampf failed

Bismarck’s anti-socialist campaign 1878 and on

• Social Democratic Party– Socialist groups including Marxists

• Bismarck: repression and social welfare• Banned socialist meetings, suppressed

newspapers• Creation of the modern welfare state• 1883/1884 National health/Accident insurance• Old age pensions

France and England

The Advance of Democracy

The Reform Bill of 1867

• Benjamin Disraeli-conservative Prime Minister

• Some seats in House of Commons redistributed

• Extended vote to most of Great Britain’s urban workers

• Disraeli’s “Great Leap into the dark”- in that more voters were created, not sure how they would vote!

William Gladstone’s Liberal “Great Ministry” 1868-1874

• British Parliament enacted extensive reform program

• Civil service exams• Education Bill of 1870

provided $ to local school boards to operate non-sectarian schools

• 1871 workers gained right to organize unions and strike

• Gladstone maitained Laissez-Faire

Disraeli, again, 1874-1880

• “Tory democracy”- designed to benefit the working class and win further support for the conservative party

• Conservatives were less committed to laissez-faire doctrine

Gladstone, again, 1881-1885• The reform Bill of 1884

– Extended right to vote to most urban workers• The Irish question/Home Rule• Act of Union 1801-Ireland governed by

British Parliament• Catholic emancipation Act-increased number

of Irish in Parliament• Home rule: Irish would have own Parliament

but would join with Britain’s foreign policy• Six Protestant counties in Northern Ireland

opposed this

Home Rule defeats/Victory• Gladstone introduced

home rule bills in 1886 and 1893-both defeated by conservatives

• In 1914 Liberals pushed through Home rule

• Could not be enforced because of opposition from Ulster (northern Ireland Protestants)

• Both Protestants and Catholics formed militia’s-brink of civil war-WWI

Development of the Labor Party

• In 1900 workers in labor unions formed the Labor Party

• Labor Party ultimately replaced Liberal Party• In an effort to keep the Labor vote the Liberals

enacted worker friendly legislation• 1906 aid to injured workers• Old age pensions act 1909

The “peoples budget” 1909• Passed under Prime Minister David Lloyd George• Called for tax increases to pay for social

programs and naval expansion (blame Kais. William II)

• House of Lords refused to pass Bill• King George V threatened to increase # of

liberals in Lords to pass• Lords passed it-weakened the power of the Lords• Further promoted full political democracy in

England

France

The end of the Second Empire and the Creation of the Third

French Republic

The end of Napoleon III

• The final crisis for the second Empire was the Franco-Prussian war

• At Sedan the Prussians captured Napoleon III

• In Paris, radicals proclaimed the creation of the third French Republic

Problems for the new Republic

• Radicals dominated Paris and other major cities

• Monarchist candidates won the majority of the seats in the new assembly

• The 3rd French Republic set up its government in Versailles, not Paris.

• Radicals in Paris threatened the new Republic

The Paris Commune• Commune of Paris, also called Paris Commune, French

Commune de Paris,  (1871), insurrection of Paris against the French government from March 18 to May 28, 1871. It occurred in the wake of France’s defeat in the Franco-German War and the collapse of Napoleon III’s Second Empire (1852–70).The National Assembly, which was elected in February 1871 to conclude a peace with Germany, had a royalist majority, reflecting the conservative attitude of the provinces. The republican Parisians feared that the National Assembly meeting in Versailles would restore the monarchy.To ensure order in Paris, Adolphe Thiers, executive head of the provisional national government, decided to disarm the National Guard (composed largely of workers who fought during the siege of Paris).

The Paris Commune• Adolphe Thiers head of

the government ordered the dissolution of the Paris National Guard

• Parisian Radicals responded by creating the city gov’t the Paris Commune

• Thiers decided to crush the commune

• The Republic reasserted its control over the commune

3rd Republic anticlericalism

• Church had generally supported Monarchists• 1880’s republican gov’t sought to reduce the

influence of the Church in national life• Jesuit order was expelled from France• The name of God was removed from oaths

Boulanger Affair

• General Georges Boulanger- minister of war• In 1889, it appeared that Boulanger might

attempt to carry out a coup against the government with monarchist and clerical support

• He failed to do the coup• Discredited monarchists, strengthened

Republic

Dreyfus Affair• 1894-Jewish officer Alfred

Dreyfus convicted of giving information to Germans

• Actual criminal was major Esterhazy

• Dreyfusards- supported Dreyfus innocence and the cause of the republic and anticlericalism

• Anti-Dreyfusards-insisted on Dreyfus Guilt supported cause of Monarchists, army and the Church-openly anti-semitic

Dreyfus Affair

• Dreyfus affair, political crisis, beginning in 1894 and continuing through 1906, in France during the Third Republic. The controversy centred on the question of the guilt or innocence of army captain Alfred Dreyfus, who had been convicted of treason for allegedly selling military secrets to the Germans in December 1894. At first the public supported the conviction; it was willing to believe in the guilt of Dreyfus, who was Jewish.

Dreyfus Cont.

• The effort to reverse the sentence was at first limited to members of the Dreyfus family, but, as evidence pointing to the guilt of another French officer, Ferdinand Walsin-Esterhazy, came to light from 1896, the pro-Dreyfus side slowly gained adherents. The accusations against Esterhazy resulted in a court-martial that acquitted him of treason (January 1898). To protest against the verdict, the novelist Émile Zola wrote a letter titled J’accuse, published in Clemenceau’s newspaper L’Aurore. In it he attacked the army for covering up its mistaken conviction of Dreyfus, an action for which Zola was found guilty of libel.

Dreyfus, cont.

• By the time of the Zola letter, the Dreyfus case had attracted widespread public attention and had split France into two opposing camps. The anti-Dreyfusards (those against reopening the case) viewed the controversy as an attempt by the nation’s enemies to discredit the army and weaken France. The Dreyfusards (those seeking exoneration of Captain Dreyfus) saw the issue as the principle of the freedom of the individual subordinated to that of national security. They wanted to republicanize the army and put it under parliamentary control.

Emile Zola “J’Accuse”

• Zola charged the army with forging the evidence that convicted Dreyfus

• By 1906 Dreyfus is pardoned

• Victory of the Dreyfusards was a defeat for the conservative elements of the army, the monarchists, and the Church as well.