Post on 08-Jun-2022
THl UNITED NATIONS AND HUMAN RIGHTS ENFORCEMENT: A CASE STUDY
OF SOUTH SUDAN
BY
CATHERINE KIDEN GAITANO MARKO
1163-06014-05820
A RESEARCH DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF HUMANITiES
AND SOCIAL SCIENCE IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS
FOR THE AWARD OF A BACHELOR’S DEGREE IN INTERNATIONAL
RELATiONS AND DIPLOMATIC STUDIES OF KAMPALA
INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY
MAY, 2018
DECLARATION
I. Catherine Kiden Gaitano Marko declare that this research dissertation on “The United Nations
and 1-luman Rights Enforcement, South Sudan” is my original work and to the best of my
knowledge. has not been submitted for any award at any academic institution.
Student’s Name: CATFIERINE KIDEN GAITANO MARKO
Reg. No: 1163-06014-05820
Signe& ~ Date: ~ ~
APPROVAL
This research dissertation on “The United Nations and Human Rights Enforcement, South Sudan”
has been done under my guidance and Supervision as an academic Supervisor and is due for
submission to Kampala International University in Partial fulfillment of the requirements for the
award of a Bachelor’s Degree in International Relations and diplomatic studies.
Datr
I~’Thtv~iL~zEb 1~e~Qe~fSuper~ isor:
Sign attire:
DEDICATION
dedicate this piece of work to the Almighty God who has enabled me to carry out research
successfully and my beloved parents for their endless support both financially and morally without
thrgetting my dear brothers. May the Almighty God bless you all.
iv
TABLES OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION. ii
APPROVAL iii
DEDICATION iv
CHAPTER ONE I
GENERAL INTRODUCTION I
1.0 Inttoduction I
I . I I3aekground of the Study 1
1.2 Statement of the Problem 3
I.] Objectives of the study 4
1.3. General Objective 4
1.3.2 Specific Objectives 5
1.4 Research Questions 5
1.5 Scope of the Study 5
15.1 Qeographical Scope 5
15.2 Content Scope S
1.5.3 Time Scope 5
1.6 Significance of the Study 6
1.7 Definitions of key concepts 8
CHAPTER TWO 9
LITERATURE REVIEW 9
2.0 Introduction 9
2.] Theoretical Framework 9
2.1.1 The Interest Theory Approach 9
2. I .2 The Will Theory Approach 12
V
2.2 Role played by the UN in Promoting human Rights in Thba, South Sudan .14
2.3 Challenges faced by the UN in Promoting human Rights 18
2.4 Solutions to address the challenges faced by the UN in promoting human rights in Juha,
South Sudan 20
2.5 Summary of gaps 22
CHAPTER THREE 23
RESEARCI-1 METHODOLOGY 23
3.1 Introduction 23
3.2 Research Design 23
3.3 Study Are’i 24
3.4 Study population 24
3.5 Sampling Procedures and Sample Size 25
3.6 Sampling Techniques 25
3.6.] Purposive Sampling 25
3.6.2 Simple Random Sampling 25
3.7 Methods of Data Collection 26
3.7.1 Rrimary data 26
i.7.2 Secondary Data 26
3.8 Focus Group Discussions 26
3.9 In-Depth Interviews 27
3.10 Naturalistic Observation 27
3.] I Documentary Review 27
3.12 Questionnaire 28
3.13 Procedure of collecting Data 28
3.14 Data Analysis 2$
vi
3.14.) Quantitative analysis .28
3.14.2 Qualitative analysis 29
CHAPTER FOUR 30
PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF FINDINGS 30
4.0 Introduction 30
4.1 Demographic characteristics of respondents 30
4.1.1 Gender of Respondents 30
4.1.2 Age of the Respondents 31
4.1.3 Marital Status of the Respondents 32
4.1.4 Education Levels of the Respondents 32
4.2 Findings on the roles played by the UN in the protection of human rights 33
4.3 Findings on the challenges faced by the UN in protection of human rights in South Sudan .35
4.4 Findings on the possible solutions to overcome the challenges faced by UN in protection of
human rights in South Sudan 36
CHAPTER FIVE 38
DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 38
5,0 Introduction 38
5.1 Discussion of findings 38
5.1.) Role played by the UN in Protection of 1-luman Rights in South Sudan 38
5.1.2 Challenges faced by the UN in protection of human rights 39
5.1.3 Solutions to overcome the challenges faced by the UN in protection of human rights 39
5.2 Conclusions 40
5.3 Recommendations 41
i4 Recommendation for further study 42
REFERENCES 43
vii
APPENI)ICES .46
APPENDIX I: Questionnaire 46
APPE$~DIX II: Imerview schedule for key informants 49
APPENDiX Ill: Guide for Focus Group Discussions 50
VIII
CHAPTER ONE
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
1.0 Introduction
This chapter presents the background to the study, statement of the problem. the purpose of the
study, objectives of the study, research questions and assumptions, scope of the study, significance
of’ the study, the justification of the study and the operational definitions of terms and concepts as
applied to suit the context of the study.
1.1 Background of the Study
“Human rights and fundamental freedoms are the birth right of all human beings according to
Crawford. (2002)” and since 1948, this principle has been generally accepted in international
instruments and has contributed to the substantive development of international human rights law
‘or promotion of both individual and universal human rights. But still, individuals and groups
around the world continuously become victim of human rights violations.
Crawford. (2002) argues that the United Nations was created in 1945 with an aim of bringing
harmony to the world through taking a common approach to many of the problems that the world
was fhcing. Based in New York the world body has become instrumental in the world as it has
been helping the world to take a common approach to most of the prolilern that have been affecting
peace and stability in the world.
Alston (1999) noted that the United Nation has been one of the most important bodies in the world
that have worked to ensure that there is peace and tranquility in the world, It has been looked upon
by most poor nation for promotion against oppression. The UN has been intervening in various
instances in the world especially where the life of humans is directly touched. It has been
intervening in wars to bring peace, in hunger to bring food, in disease to bring medicine, and in
other instances. In order to function properly, the UN has formed several bodies which have been
assisting it to carry out its functions properly. There have been many areas that the body needs to
address and therefore it has found it necessary to form other bodies which acts like its agencies.
1
Amartya (1999) argues that the UN has formed the Security Council which is the main body that
makes the decision for all major intervention that the body has to take. It has formed the UNDP
which is concerned with development of the world. The world health organization is the agency
of the UN which is mandated with carrying out various activities that promote the health and
wellbeing of the people. The United Nation Food Programs is an agency that has been mandated
with carrying out various activities that are aimed at ensuring that there is no hunger in the world.
UNICIEF is the agency of the UN that has been given the mandate of looking after the affairs of
the children, These are some of the bodies that help the UN to carry out its function properly in
order to eliminate all forms of suffering in the world.
Anava (2004) stresses that the south Sudanese Civil war began on the evening of 15”~December
2013. at the meeting of the National Liberation Council meeting at Nyakuron, when Opposition
leader Dr. Riek Machar, Pagan Amum and Rebecca Nyandeng voted to boycott the Sunday
December 15, 2013 Meeting of the National Liberation Council (NLC). President Salva Kiir
ordered the Sudan People’s Liberation Movement (SPLM) Major General Maria! Ciennoung.
(‘ommander of the Presidential Guard (The Tiger Battalion) to leave the meeting venue and return
Lu the barracks to disarm the troops.
After disarming all ethnicities within the guard, Marial ordered that the Dinka members be re
armed. His deputy from the Nuer ethnicity, began to question this order and a fight ensued when
surrounding officers saw the commotion. The Nuer soldiers also re—armed themselves. Fighting
erupted between the Dinka elements of the Presidential Guard and the Nuer elements. This lasted
from Sunday night until Monday afternoon. Civilians causalities began when the Dinka elements
of the SPLM beagn targeting Nuer civilians in the capital city of Juba.
President Salva Kiir has called it a coup attempt and announced that it had been put down the next
day, but fighting again erupted on 16 December and spread beyond the capital. Juba to the region
around Jonglei which is prone to ethnic conflict. Early estimates stated that at least 1,000 people
were reported to have been killed and over 800 other people were injured in Juba but this number
has now been cited to be much higher than initially, though as Human rights Watch articles cites
eye witness accounts of large numbers of bodies in Juba on December 1 7,and their removal in
trucks to an undisclosed location on December 18.
2
Ramcharan, (1989) argues that in response to the above, the human rights system of the UN has
been playing a private role in the world in promoting human rights. There have been many
instances where the Charter has come up with strategic interventions in conflict hit areas. This has
been evidenced in South Sudan where it is recorded that millions of individuals in South Sudan
have been massacred in the intensive fighting between the government and rebel fighters.
1.2 Statement of the Problem
SoLith Sudan gained independence in 2011 after a referendum in which its people voted
overwhelmingly to secede from Sudan. Independence was the culmination of a long armed
struggle waged by South Sudanese starting in the mid 1 950s. There are two phases of the armed
struggle. However, two years after independence, South Sudan was plunged into deadly conflict
pitting forces loyal to President Salva Kiir and against the armed opposition led by Rick Machar.
The conflict continues unabated after a peace deal signed in August 2015 collapsed in July 2016.
The inadvertent consequence of the collapse of the peace agreement has resulted in the birth of
new armed groups that are opposed to the government. Subsequently, South Sudan continues to
dominate the agenda of the United Nations Security Council due to its war-induced fragility.
[he hunmn person being the central subject of peace and development and all human beings having
the responsibility for establishing peace and achieving development individually and collectively,
taking into account the need for full respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms to practice
tolerance and to live together in peace with one another as good neighbours, human community
needs to concentrate all out efforts that aim at the constant improvement of the well-being of the
entire population and all individuals on the basis of the benefits resulting therefrom.
In this regard, the world peoples need to raise a single voice against any activity of unworthy
conflict, terrorism and war and in favour of universal peace and development, and that voice is
absolutely a single voice of millions and millions of people around the world with a single vision
and mission of achieving ultimate peace and development of the world people as a whole.
Therefore, to confirm continuous peace and development worldwide it is imperative to make the
world free from terrorism and war.
3
Despite several efforts put in place to address human rights violations, the instances of human
iights violations are legion and they do not paint a picture of a world in which human rights are
respected. A cursory glance is sufficient to highlight the abuses sustained by women, children,
refugees and prisoners. According to United Nations (2015), it was revealed that in 2001, some
3.000.000 children under the age of 18 years are thought to be fighting in conflicts round the world.
It is further noted that approximately 5000 children are involved in South Sudan conflict. While
14 million children are refugees or internally displaced within their own countries as a result of
conflids, I million children are South Sudanese. UNICEF estimated that some 12 million children
under the age of five die every year from preventable disease; some 10.3 million young people
between the age of 15 and 24 years have AIDS or are I-IIV infected, there are 5,00,000 to 8,00,000
orphans in South Sudan alone through AID and it was estimated that that figure would have risen
to 1.5 million by 2015 (UN, 2015).
Unfortunately, the above scenario of human rights violations around the world has remained
unchanged. Moreover, the numbers of victims and areas of human rights violations is increasing
clay h’~ clay in an alarming manner. The denial of human rights is not only an individual and
personal tragedy. it also creates conditions of social and political unrest sowing the seeds of
violence and conflict within and between societies and nations and as such as a result of work of
government, non—government, national, regional and international organisations around the globe
human rights transcend national boundaries and jurisdiction and thereby go beyond the jurisdiction
of a particular nation’s public law.
It was against this background that the study seeks to examine the role of UN in promoting human
rights particularly in South Sudan.
1.3 Objectives of the study
1.3.1 General Objective
To assess the role played by UN in promoting of Human rights in conflict situation particularly in
South Sudan
4
1.3.2 Specific Objectives
i) To assess the role played by the UN in for promoting human rights in Juba, South Sudan
ii) To establish the challenges faced by the UN in promoting human rights in Juba, South
Sudan
iii) To suggest the solutions to overcome the challenges faced by UN in promoting human
rights
1.4 Research Questions
i) What is the role played by the UN in the promotion of human rights in Juba, South Sudan?
ii) What are the challenges faced by the UN in promoting human rights in Juba, South Sudan?
iii) What are the solutions to overcome the challenges faced by TiN in promoting human
rights?
1.5 Scope of the Study
1.5.1 Geographical Scope
The study was carried out in South Sudan since it experiences a serious humanitarian crisis. South
Sudan neighbors Uganda in the north, it also neighbors Ethiopia in the West and Central African
Republic in the South.
1.5.2 Content Scope
The study was carried out with a purpose of identi~ing the need for promoting human rights in
Juba, South Sudan, establishing the possible ways and norms for promoting human rights and
assessing the criteria of human rights promotion in South Sudan. The study further targeted all the
gender groups in the United Nations (UN) organization and various stakeholders ofvarious social
standings and economic status from both rural and urban areas, elites and non-elites in South
Sudan.
1.5.3 Time Scope
5
[he stLidy focused on the period of 2013 up to date. The time period was purposely selected since
it was during that time gap that the South Sudan had been affected with this conflict. The study
covered a period of three months and took place from February to April 2018 because of the nature
of exercise that was undertaken in gathering, editing and processing data.
1.6 Significance of the Study
It is expected that when this study is carried out and accomplished successfully, it will enable
policy makers and other agencies to be aware of the role played by UN in promoting human rights
in conflict situations.
Ihe study will also serve as a future data base for further researches that will he carried out as
researchers can draw data from the findings on the UN in the promotion of human rights in conilict
situations.
This study will highlight and inform the government on the challenges, strength and weaknesses
of their activities in promoting human rights in conflict situations and prepare them for various
expectations in the field. This will also enable them to assess and establish new roles, principles
and policies in accordance to the dynamics of conflicts. The researcher and others interested in the
field will venture into the expectations, pitfalls of the military in promoting human rights, make
recommendations and gauge when and how other actors in the international system can
compliment.
The significance of the study is to equip students, researchers, conflict resolution actors with the
skills and knowledge about the role of the LEN in conflicts which has greatly shifted from solely
protecting human rights to encompass humanitarian activities and promoting of human rights
Furthermore, this study will act as the basis for other researchers who intend to carry out a study
in the same field of international relations, conflict resolution, peacemaking and peace keeping
and the role of UN in such conflict situations in terms of promoting and protecting human rights
A study into the roles of the UN in promoting and protecting human rights in Juba, South Sudan
will he of benefit to the state and all the concerned institutions, non-governmental organizations.
churches. individuals, donors and other actors in the international relations field.
6
The saidy intends to analyze and give solutions to the changing range of social problems arising
flom violent conflicts, with the objective of improving the conditions of life of individuals who
compose the society.
7
1.7 Definitions of key concepts
human rights
1—luman rights are moral principles or norms that describe certain standards of human behavior.
and are regularly protected as legal rights in national and international law (Pogge, 2000). They
are commonly understood as inalienable fundamental rights ‘to which a person is inherently
entitled simply because she or he is a human being,” and which are “inherent in all human beings”
regardless of their nation, location, language, religion, ethnic origin or any other status.
United Nations (UN)
The United Nations (UN) is an intergovernmental organization established on 24 October 1945 to
promote international co-operation (Nickel, 2006). A replacement for the ineffective League of
Nations, the organization was created following the Second World War to prevent another such
CO 1111 i ci.
Conflict
Conflict refers to a state of opposition, disagreement or the pursuit of incompatible goals or
interests by different groups and is linked to struggle over scarce resources or values. Conflict may
he characterized by physical, military or mental violence. They take place within a social structure
and it involves the use of power to attain some goal and to neutralize resistance (Priscilla &.
Hayner, 1994).
8
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 ~Introduction
The study reviews literature from various scholars on the major variables of the study which
included; the need for promoting human rights in Juba, South Sudan, the possible ways and norms
tbr promoting human rights, the criteria of human rights promotion in South Sudan, mechanisms
for promoting human rights, theoretical framework and related studies.
2.1 Theoretical Framework
2.1.1 The Interest l’heory Approach
The interest theory of rights was first proposed by Bentham (1987) who argued that a person has
a distinctive human right when others have duties which protect one of that person’s interests.
Thus, viewed from the perspective of the interest theory of rights, “human rights takes their role
to be to protect a person’s basic interests.” (Pogge, 2007:186) This constitutes the most
fundamental interpretation of human rights within the liberal democratic ideological framework
alluded to in the introduction, falling within thç theoretical parameters of what Meckled-Garcia
and Call (2005:10) refer to as the ‘normative rights model’ (FIRM) which “identifies features or
aspects ofour humanity which contribute to our well being and which are vulnerable to the actions
of others.”
The interest theory of rights therefore seeks to safeguard these features or aspects of our humanity
by protecting a citizen’s rights against wrongdoing from another citizen within the same social,
political and judicial framework. That it is to say that if, for instance, it is in one’s interests to not
to be physically assaulted then, as far as the interest theory is concerned, it is the responsibility of
both the individual and the state to ensure that this does not happen lest the basic interests of
another individual be impinged upon. Moreover, there is, as Meckled-Garcia and Cali (2005:11)
declare, “no principled difference is made between individual and collective.” This is in direct
9
contrast to international human rights law (IHRL) where only the state can impinge upon the basic
human rights of individuals or groups of individuals living within that sovereign state.
As a consequence, we can see that the first and most prominent drawback to the interest theory of
rights is that there exists such a wide divergence between theory and practice; between the
interpretation of the rights and responsibilities of the individual citizen versus the interpretation of
the rights and responsibilities of the sovereign state. This is to say that while the interest theory of
rights brings to the fore important concepts relating to the synthesis of the values pertaining to
Ii bertv. community and mutuality — concepts which Francesca KIug (2000) refers to as values for
a godless age’ -~ it falls of short establishing important criteria with regards to who these rights
apply to (the rights holder), who these rights impose duties upon (the duty bearer) and what exactly
thcse duties entail. Therefore, we can see that, rather than seeking to impose values for a godless
age. interest theories relating to rights merely help to perpetuate the misunderstanding and the
misconception of the ideal of human rights so that the definition, interpretation and subsequent
implantation of rights remains an ideological and theoretical quagmire (Cali and Meckled—Garcia.
2005: 1L9). As a result, we can deduce that the first and most prominent failure of the interest theory
is that it does not address the concept of establishing a universal concept for human rights and that
it flails to address the question of what human rights are and how they- are best protected.
Addressing the moral aspect of human rights at the expense of the broader legal and judicial
imperative only ensures additional questions will be raised as to the purpose of rights as a social,
cultural and political ideal.
We can also declare that the interest theory of rights is, in its bid to politicise every sphere of
human relationships and human interaction, wholly incompatible with international human rights
law because “international law, by its nature, contains traits which alter the nature of human rights
provisions” (Meckled-Garcia and Cali, 2005:23). That is to say that, as a branch of international
law, international human rights law is distinct from domestic law of sovereign states that act as the
defining means of arbitrating power between individuals on a state by state basis. Yet, as is the
case with all law, human rights law clearly and identifiably differs when the concept is transferred
from territory to territory; state to state. Human rights in the United Kingdom are, for instance, an
inherently different moral concept from human rights in the United States where the boundaries
between the legal and the illegal are set by democratically elected domestic governments.
10
Likewise, there are distinct judicial differences between domestic human rights law and
international human rights law, certainly in the application and exaction of these laws on a
worldwide basis.
Morsink, (1999) cites that according to the view of the interest theory approach, “one has a right
inst when one has an interest that grounds a duty for another moral agent” and “the principal
Iiinctic>n ofhuman rights is to protect and promote certain essential human interests.” The functions
of legal rights are. according to MacCormick, to express various degrees as in liberty, claim and
power—right of promotion of the interest of an individual
Nickel. (1993) also mentions that they argue that securing human beings’ essential interests is the
viIcilal ground upon which human rights may be morally justified. Therefore, the interests
approach is primarily concerned to identify the social and biological prerequisites for human
beings leading a minimally good life. (Nickel, 2006)
0km, (1998) suggests that the philosopher John Finnis provides a good representation of the
interests theory approach. He argues that human rights are justifiable on the grounds of their
instrLlniental value for securing the necessary conditions of human well—being. He identilies seven
fundamental interests, or what he terms ‘basic forms of human good’, as providing the basis for
human rights which are: life and its capacity for development; the acquisition of knowledge, as an
end in itself; play, as the capacity for recreation; aesthetic expression; sociability and friendship;
practical reasonableness, the capacity for intelligent and reasonable thought processes; and finally,
religion, or the capacity for spiritual experience. According to Finnis, these are the essential
prerequisites for human well-being and, as such, serve to justi~’ our claims to the corresponding
rights, whether they may be of the claim right or liberty right variety.
Pogge. (2000) notes that Thomas 1-Jobbes and some other philosophers defended human rights
from an interests-based approach having addressed the question of how an appeal to interests can
provid~ a justification for respecting and, when necessary, even positively acting to promote the
interests of others. James Nickel has termed this approach as ‘prudential reasons’ in support of
hi.iman rights. Nickel writes, ‘a prudential argument from fundamental interests attempts to show
that it would be reasonable to accept and comply with human rights, in circumstances where most
11
others are likely to do so, because these norms are part of the best means for protecting ones
fundamental interests against actions and omissions that endanger them.’ (Hayner, 1994).
Economic philosopher AmartyaSen has argued that “the minimal conditions for a decent life are
socially and culturally relative.” These interest are ultimately identical and prerequisites for
satisfying individual’s fundamental interests which may be termed as basic interests.
Joseph. (1986) notes that according to 1-lenry Shue, “a right is basic just when its promotion is a
necessary condition for all other rights.” But the fact is that some basic interests can only be
satisfied when certain other practically necessary conditions are met. As Hobbes famously argued.
it is foolish to think that our basic interest in security can be met outside the context of political
authority, a “common power to keep [us] all in awe.”
As the interest based approach tends to construe fundamental interest as pre—determinants of
human moral agency, so, this can have the effect of subordinating the importance of the exercise
01’ fteedom as a principal moral ideal and to include as a basic human interest which is not
constitutive of interests on this account and therefore, this particular concern lies at the heart of
the ‘will theory approach.’ (Nickel, 2006)
2.1.2 13w Will ‘l’hcory Approach
Will lheory was developed by I—hut. K in 1982. More specifically, a will theorist asserts that 11w
unction ofa right is to give its holder control over another’s duty. Your property right diagrammed
in the figure above is a right, says the will theorist, because it contains a power to waive (or annul.
or transfer) others’ duties. You are the “sovereign” of your computer, in that you may permit others
to touch it or not at your discretion. Similarly a proinisee is “sovereign” over the action of the
promisor: she has a right because she has the power to waive (or annul) the promisor’s duty to keep
the promise. In Hohfeldian terms, will theorists assert that every right includes a Hohfeldian power
over a claim. In colloquial terms, will theorists believe that all rights confer control over others’
duties to act in particular ways.
I lo\\ e\ er. the will theory’s account of’ the function of rights is unable to explain many rights that
most think there arc. Within the will theory there can be no such thing as an unwaivable right: a
12
right over which its holder has no power. Yet intuitively it would appear that unwaivable rights
are some of the most important rights that we have: consider, for example. the unwaivahie right
not to he enslaved (MacCormick 1977. 197). Moreover, since the will theorist holds that all rights
confer sovereignty, she cannot acknowledge any rights in beings incapable of exercising
sovereignty. Within the will theory it is impossible for incompetents like infants, animals, and
comatose adults to have rights. Yet we ordinarily would not doubt that these incompetents can
ha~ e rights, for example the right not to he tortured (MacCormick 1982. 154—66). Will theories
also have difficulties explaining bare privilege—rights (such as in the Hohbesian state of nature).
~ hich are not rights of authority over others.
I-lenrv (1996) also argues that according to will theorists: “human rights originates in a highly
limited set of purportedly fundamental attributes.” Will theorist H.L.A. Hart claims that legal
right is an expression of the individual possibility to control the obligations of other persons, also
to waive the possibility. Such a person can be relatively weak, as in liberty—right or strong as a
power—right.’’
Hohhes (1651) notes that Hart further argues: “all rights are reducible to a single, fundamental
right as equal right of all men to be free.” Upon 1-lart’s argument, Henry Shue develops further that
liberty alone is not ultimately sufficient for grounding all of the rights, but, man)’ of these rights
imply more than mere individual liberty and extend to include security from violence and the
neeess~try material conditions for personal survival. Shue grounds rights upon liberty, security. and
subs isle nec.
Alan Gewirth has further developed upon such themes arguing that the justification of our claims
to the possession of basic human rights is grounded in what he presents as the distinguishing
characteristic of human beings generally further stating that the recognition of the validity of
human rights is a logical corollary of recognizing oneself as a rationally purposive agent and that
the possession of rights are the necessary means for rationally purposive action. (Hathaway,2005).
l-lobhes (1 65 1) stresses that Alan Gewirth further bases the necessary concern for other human
rights upon what he terms the ‘principle of generic consistency’ (PGC) and Dworkins concept of
rights as trumps further arguing that the right to life is absolute and cannot be overridden under
13
any circumstances and it can never be justifiably infringed and it must be fulfilled without any
cxc ep t ions.
j innemore (2003) mentions that the will theorists attempt to establish the validity of human rights
upon the ideal of personal autonomy stating ftrther that rights are a manifestation of the exercise
of personal autonomy.
1-lowever. if the constitutive condition for the possession of human rights is said to be the capacity
or acting in a rationally purposive manner, for example, then it seems to logically follow, that
individuals incapable of satisfying this criteria have no legitimate claim to human rights. The
general tendency is towards extending human rights considerations and, if not ultimately
defensible by appeal to practical reason, anything to do otherwise would appear to many to be
intuitively wrong. (Morsink. 1999).
Nickel. (1993) argues that thus, “strictly applying the will theorists’ criteria for membership of the
community of human rights bearers would appear to result in the exclusion of some categories of
human beings who are presently recognized as legitimate bearers of human rights.”
2.2 Role played by the UN in Promoting human Rights in Juba, South Sudan
Alston and Crawford 2000 (2002) argue that the United Nations helps to negotiate human rights
treaties and declarations mainly focused on the rights of vulnerable groups such as women.
childreh. persons with disabilities, minorities and indigenous peoples in South Sudan. Together.
these treaties and declarations help to create a ‘culture of human rights’ throughout the world.
providing a powerful tool to protect and promote all rights. In accordance with the treaties, States
parties set up treat)’ body committees that call upon States to respond to allegations, adopt
decisions and publish them along with criticisms or recommendations.
Alsion (1999) cites that the UN monitors the human rights records of nations for instance the
organization has maintained its objective of human right recording particularly in South Sudan.
The treaty body committees receive technical, logistical and financial support from the United
Naiions. The United Nations also has an Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights.
14
which is mandated to promote and protect the enjoyment and full realization by all people of
human rights.
Appointing ‘special procedures’ to address specific country situations or broader issues. The
United Nations may also appoint experts (sometimes titled special rapporteurs, representatives or
independent experts), to address a specific human rights issue or particular country. These experts
may conduct studies, visit specific countries, interview victims, make specific appeals and submit
reports and recommendations. (Amartya 1999)
According to Anaya (2004), the UN also helps to reform national laws and thus incorporation of
international human rights norms into national laws and constitutions is a key element in
promoling of human rights. Assistance in drafting new constitutions and laws in line with human
rights conventions has been provided to, inter alia, Bulgaria, Malawi and Mongolia. This is
currently being ptirs~iecl in South Sudan due to the ever increasing number of human rights
violations in the conflict areas.
Preventing massive human rights violations by responding to them through strengthening before
they escalate into conflicts and controlling and resolving conflicts before they escalate further are
central concerns of preventive action. This has also enable UN to play a vital role in promoting
human rights in conflict hit areas. UN has been able to deploy thousands of its peacekeepers in
some areas of JUba (Bailey, 1994)
Barbara (2002) suggests that recognizing that human rights violations are frequently the root
causes of conflict and humanitarian crises, the United Nations is making efforts towards
strengthening its early warning capacity and response to conflicts by integrating human rights
monitoring into peacekeeping operations, thus enhancing its ability to deal with allegations of
human rights violations. The Office of the I-ugh Commissioner for Human Rights is developing
close contacts with the United Nations departments, offices and programmes responsible for
peacekeeping and for humanitarian assistance, in particular the Department of Peacekeeping
Operations (DPKO), DPA, the Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) and
the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR).
15
The UN also has introduced numerous human rights programmes intended for post-conflict
reconstruction, building mutual confidence and helping to re-establish a climate of understanding
and thi evidenced in some parts of South Sudan where fighting had stopped. This is partly because
the international community has recognized that protecting human rights in the aftermath of
conflicts cannot be isolated from how the conflict is brought to an end. Experience in assisting
countries in transition to democracy has shown how important the inclusion of human rights
provisions in peace or transitional agreements can be.
According to Bayefsky (2001), the United Nations has put more efforts to establish minimum
humanitarian standards, seeking to identify fundamental rules of human rights and humanitarian
law that can be applied in all circumstances, in times of conflict, as well as in situations of mass
exodus, for the promoting of human rights. These efforts aim to provide the human rights
&ame~york necessary to find long-term solutions to the root causes of conflict and to prevent the
excesses that make reconciliation so difficult. The United Nations urges national authorities to
respect international human rights standards in such situations.
Brandt (1983) also notes that just as human rights forge vital links between peace, democracy and
development, bringing the full weight of the United Nations human rights programme to bear can
also facilitate the successful transition between peacekeeping operations and humanitarian
emergency assistance to long-term peace-building and sustainable development. Societies that are
emerging from civil conflict have particular needs in the area of human rights and economic
development. He further suggests that the complexities of post-conflict situations require that
special attention be given to repairing the large-scale damage inflicted on economic, health and
educational infrastructures.
The UN also created the International Criminal Court at the United Nations Diplomatic Conference
of Plenipotentiaries on the Establishment of an International Criminal Court, held in Rome from
15 June to 17 July 1998. The establishment of the Court makes it clear that the UN no longer
tolerates violations of human rights without assigning responsibility. Unlike the ad hoc Tribunals,
the Court provides a comprehensive mechanism for punishing perpetrators of genocide and other
crimes against humanity. The assurance that at least some perpetrators of war crimes, crimes
16
against humanity or genocide may be brought to justice acts as a significant deterrent, and in itself
may provide incentives to end conflicts.
l3roomhall (2003)stresses that as advocacy organizations; UN also works with or against
governments in developing agendas for action particularly in South Sudan. Through treaty
negotiations with governments, they seek to establish international standards for state behavior.
To mobilize public opinion, they investigate and report human rights abuses and offer direct
assistance to victims of those abuses. They lobby political officials, corporations, international
financial institutions, intergovernmental organizations, and the media. As their numbers increase,
so their range of activities continues to expand.
The UN has been unprejudiced and successful in setting values and roles, selectively successful in
monitonng abuses; and almost flail in enforcement in South Sudan. (Ramcharan, I 989)
Government usually subordinates considerations of UN effectiveness to the principle of non
interference. However, the modesty of the achievements ofthe UN should not blind us to its reality.
The Universal Declaration embodies the moral code, political consensus and legal synthesis of
human rights.
Claude and Weston (2004) further suggest that the UN investigates individual complaints of
human rights abuse, the UN 1-luman Rights Commission always focuses world attention on cases
of arhilrary detention, torture, disappearance, and has generated international pressure to be bring
down pressure on governments to improve their human rights records. The United Nations enables
people in many countries to participate in free and fair elections, including those held in Cambodia,
Namihia. El Salvador. Eritrea, Mozambique, Nicaragua and South Africa.
According to Cranston (1967), the United Nations has played a pivotal role in independence of
countries that are now among its Member States. Independence of nation and its countrymen as is
agreed worldwide is a fundamental human right. Deployment peace-keeping forces and observer
missions, the United Nations has been able to restore calm to allow the negotiation process to go
forward while saving millions of people from becoming casualties in the conflicts. There are
presently 16 active peace-keeping forces in operation.
17
The UN as an organization also supports democratization by providing advice on electoral
procedures. This is because democratization has been a priority issue for advisory services,
assismnce has been provided to several nations on holding elections and setting up national human
rights institutions.
It also assists in the drafting of national laws and preparation of national reports. For instance
Regional and sub-regional training courses have been held in Africa, Latin America and Asia and
the Pacific. These help to promote and protect the human rights of the people across the globe.
Bide 1992 (2002) maintains that the UN also strengthens national and regional institutions in South
Sudan. For instance the UN’s assistance has been provided to institutions in various countries to
strengthen human rights promotion activities. This has been vital towards creating a favourable
climate for advocating for human rights in conflict situations particularly in South Sudan.
The United Nations is increasingly combining efforts on ensuring the promotion of minorities,
strengthening democratic institutions, realizing the right to development and securing universal
respect br human rights.
United Nations has been working for a long time to progress the lives of women and to empower
women. Several conferences during the UN-sponsored International Women’s Decade set a
~the improvement of women and women’s rights across the globe. (Oewirth, 1978)
2.3 Challenges Paced by the UN in Promoting human Rights
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) states that the sheer volume and growth of
peacekeeping has put the UN and its missions under severe strain. Over the past six years, the UN
has had to launch or expand eight missions in rapid succession. In 2003, the UN had about 36,000
uniformed personnel deployed around the world.
It has been relatively difficult for the UN officials to generate, recruit, and deploy the numbers of
personnel required, while keeping quality high and ongoing improvements on track. This is
because some times there is always intense fighting and thus subjecting the UN peace keepers to
risk of death on peace keeping missions.
18
Raz (1 986) states that the UN some times is requested to take on harder, riskier operations often
without the support and capabilities it needs from member states. The Security Council has
recently given some very ambitious mandates to peacekeeping operations in Africa, such as
protecting civilians under the threat of physical violence including sexual violence in vast and
populous territories with limited infrastructure, faltering peace processes, ongoing hostilities, and
uncooperative host governments.
There is also a growing challenge of uncooperative governments such as the Government of Sudan
that has repeatedly failed to cooperate with UN international peacekeepers and humanitarian
workers, denying them access, expelling international humanitarian groups, refusing entry visas
for desperately needed personnel and blocking the delivery of critical logistical support.
0km (1998) discusses that there is still lack of sufficient support in terms of finances to buy
adequate armory to maintain its mission of peace keeping and promoting human rights in conflict
situations. The most common challenge facing UN in promoting of human rights include the host
governments that often lack of security and rule-of-law capacities needed to take over successfully
from UN peacekeepers when they leave. This has further subjected the lives of the vulnerable in
conflic,t hit areas to numerous human rights violations.
Priscilla (1994) cites that like any other NGO, faces another common problem was of poor
governance and the relations between board members and staff This sometimes stemmes largely
from the boards’ inability or unwillingness to carry out their responsibilities of governing the
organizations. Board members often lack the time or the expertise to be able to carry out these
responsibilities effectively. As a result, senior staffs are often left to make policy decisions with
little or no support from board members.
There is also a challenge of failure to raise sufficient funds to maintain its mission of protecting
human rights. Fund raising activities are often the source of much tension in most non—
govern ental organizations. The strategies and images used by the UN to raise funds from the
puhlic are olien felt to compromise the nature of the work done by other members of staff These
images often depict beneficiaries as helpless victims in need of assistance, which other staff felt
are inaccurate and lack respect for the beneficiaries
19
2.4 Solutions to address the challenges faced by the UN in promoting human rights in Juba,
South Sudan
Morsink (1999) notes that there is need to work with other human rights agencies to provide
credible and achievable mandates for UN operations. And the UN needs to outline a better process
for [ormulating peacekeeping mandates, and measuring progress in their implementation so as to
protect human rights.
Henry (1996) argues that there should be strong commitment to resist endorsing un-achievable or
ill-conceived mandates. Peacekeeping missions are not always the right answer; some situations
require other types of UN—authorized military deployments, such as regional efforts or
multinational forces operating under the framework of a lead nation. And effective mediation
needs to precede and accompany all peacekeeping efforts, if they are to succeed thus ensure
effective promoting human rights
The UN should also ensure the parties in fragile peace talks to abide by their commitments, to
cooperate with peacelceepers, and build mutual trust. This mainly focuses on faltering peace
processes where peacekeeping operations are currently deployed. This also plays an important role
in promoting human rights. (Hobbes 1651)
Martha (2003) stresses that the UN needs to do more to help expand the pool of willing and capable
troop and police contributors. The immediate priority is to help secure the capabilities that the
missions in Darfur. Chad, and the South Sudan need to better protect civilians under imminent
threat. l3ut we are also pursuing more long-term efforts.
There is also need to equip the UN peace keepers with adequate training and skills in promoting
human rights. For instance since 2005, the U.S. Global Peace Operations Initiative, or GPOI, and
its Allican component, ACOTA, have focused on training the peacekeepers needed to meet this
spike in global demand.
The UN also should also prime the pump to generate even more peacekeepers to maintain peace
in conflict hit areas and thus protect the human rights especially for civilians. Other countries’
20
willingness to provide troops and police needs to increase if they see that key Security Council
members, including the United States, not only value their sacrifice but respect their concerns.
Finnei-nore.(2003) suggests that the UN needs to recognize that also the host government’s
capacities grow. the role of a UN in promoting of human rights is not disrupted. Then there is
always need not to lessen the peacekeeping load, as appropriate thus should support arbitrary or
abrupt efforts to maintain its mission of promoting human rights globally.
According to the US Declaration of Independence, 1776 there is also need to support reforms that
help achieve economies of scale and realize cost savings; that strengthen oversight, transparency.
and achountability; that improve field personnel and procurement systems; that strengthen the
process of mission planning; that reduce deployment delays; and encourage stronger mission
leadership; and clarify the roles and responsibilities of all UN actors, in the field and at
headquarters.
1-lenry (1996) argues that the tendency is to offer decentralization, in which some power is
devolved to field level, as a solution to the problem of tensions between field offices and
headquarters. However, decentralization can have the paradoxical effect of increasing bureaucracy
as organizations devolving power on the one hand, tend to set up all sorts of control measures on
the other.
Henrard. (2000) notes that the UN has to make strategic choices between confrontational.
complementary or collaborative strategic relationships with government. The process of making
these strategic choices gives rise to internal tensions concerning expenditure priorities, the
conflicting demands of clients and donors, which result in disagreements over an appropriate
balance between quality services and meeting fundraising targets. Service-deliverers are pulled
towards clients and fund—raisers towards donors. The result can be a split within the organization,
which can be resolved by the voluntary organization acting as a mediator or bridge between donor
and client.
Focus on fostering the participation of all sectors of society in environmental decision-making and
in supporting regional cooperation. Offer the following services: information exchange and
publications, with an emphasis on facilitating access to information; training and capacity building:
21
and grants programs for NOOs with limited access to local resources. Consist of a network of
national offices, as well as a head office that acts as a coordination and information center with
financial authority.
The UN needs to form voluntary national professional associations, like associations of engineers,
accountants, or insurance companies, aimed at promoting the sector, partly through self—policing
of standards.
2.5 Summary of gaps
Annan (1998) notes that forces undermine human rights are concerned with critical and pervasive
threats that are on a large scale and are recurrent. Some threaten life directly such as armed
conflicts, genocide and soil degradation, while others do so indirectly and over a large period uI
time such as under-investment in education, poor health, lack of food, poor road infrastructure.
domestic violence and lack of law and order. He further stresses that safeguarding human lives
involves not oniy those institutions that directly promote human security but also institutions that
an intentionally undermine it.
22
CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.) Introduction
Basing on the nature of the research problem, an analytical study was employed. The data
collection methods applied were quantitative and evaluative. Key Informant Interviews, General
Interviews and Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) were used as qualitative methods. Unstructured
selfadministered and researcher administered questionnaires were prepared for the key
information interview and Group Interview, while question guides were prepared for FGDs.
3,2 Research Design
In trying to identify the need for promoting human rights in Juba, South Sudan, to establish the
possible ways and norms for promoting human rights, to assess the criteria of human rights
promotion in South Sudan and to find out the mechanisms for promoting human rights, the
researcher used both qualitative and quantitative methods in the study.
Qualitative research design was chosen because it is good for open ended question and it is more
open and responsive to its subjects. The researcher used quantitative research design because it is
very original or direct, easy to analyze, categorize, code and interpret large amount of data by
computer for simple descriptive statistical analysis which is good for quanti~ing the figures.
The study was based on both primary and secondary data materials regarding the role of the UN
in promoting human rights in conflict situations. Human rights abuses or violations in this region
had persisted for long and many actors like the non-governmental organization both local and
international, the civil society, churches and the government through the UN were involved in
addressing this issue.
23
3.3 Study Area
The study area was South Sudan. The study was carried out in communities of Jonglei state,
Central Equatorial State since these were the worst hit by the conflict. In addition, most of the
other actors including UN, government officials and other human rights agencies had their
headquarters situated in these areas. The people in this area were of different age, gender. education
levels and status especially those who had gone through the same conflict situation and experience
various degrees of human rights abuses, and have a need that join them together. The area had
heavy security provided by the UN and other peace keeping forces such as AU and looming
activities from other actors.
3.4 Study population
Information on the matter under study was derived from individuals of various walks of life who
included children, women and men from various communities in South Sudan. The study area was
purposely selected because it bore the necessary and required study elements. The study population
targeted 30 UN officials. 36 Civilians/local people. 20 Government officials and 30 officials from
other l—lumanitarian agencies such as Amnesty International, Human Rights Watch etc. All these
stakeholders had a responsibility of promoting human rights within this region.
‘[‘able I: Showing Research Population
‘[~pe of population Population Target Sample size
UN bificials 30 20
Civilians 24
Government Officials 20 17
Officials from other Humanitarian agencies 30 29
(Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch)
Total 116 90
Source: Primary Data (2018)
24
3.5 Sampling Procedures and Sample Size
In South Sudan, a total of ninety respondents were selected out of the targeted population of 116
people. The sample size was arrived at through the use of a formula to ensure that there was no
bias in the sample selection.
A sample size of 90 respondents was determined through purposive and random sampling methods.
This is so because the nature of data to be generated requires different techniques for better
understanding of the research problem under investigation. Besides this the approach is also
commonly known for achieving higher degree of validity and reliability as well as elimination of
biases as per Amin (2013).
The Sloven’s formula (1978) was used to determine the minimum sample size.
n = n = 116 = 90 respondentsi+N& 1±116(0.05)2
n sample size
N the population size
e - level of significance, fixed at 0.05
3.6 Sampling Techniques
3.6.1 Purposive Sampling
The researcher also used purposive sampling method to get information from different
stakeholclers with knowledge on the issues under study. The UN officials were purposely selected
because they played a vital role in promoting human rights in Juba, South Sudan.
3.6.2 Simple Random Sampling
Simple random sampling method was equally incorporated for wider and in—depth information
from various respondents in the field. The civilians or local people were randomly selected to give
each an equal chance of representation. All respondents were assumed to have vital information
25
on the subject matter of the research. Respondents who were willing to participate were
approached. This was because these areas are densely populated and are largely targeted by the
rebels.
3.7 Methods of Data Collection
In the both primary and secondary data collection methods were incorporated.
3.7.1 Primary data
This was obtained through use Focus Group Discussion, in—depth interviews with the key
respondents. naturalistic observation and listing ideas.
3.7.2 Secondary Data
‘This was acquired from text books and other related works of outstanding scholars such as
published magazines, written data sources including published and unpublished documents,
company reports and internet sources which were all referred to, to provide more information on
the role played by UN in promoting of human rights in conflict situations.
3.8 Focus Group Discussions
The researcher conducted a group discussion in each of the four groups of respondents; U1’J
olticials. civilians! local people, government officials and other humanitarian agencies.
The groups were made up of six to eight people and they were comprised of females and males of
various age groups, education level and employment status. The reason was to get various views
on role of UN in promoting of human rights in conflict situations particularly in South Sudan.
The researcher facilitated the discussion by introducing the subject, explaining the key words and
issues, guide the discussions and urge the respondents to freely express their ideas and opinions
with regard to the role played by UN in promoting of human rights in conflict situations
particularly in the area. From this method of data collection the researcher was able to get first
hand information on the perception of the roles of the UN in promoting of human rights in conflict
situations.
26
3.9 In-Depth Interviews
This form of primary data collection was carried out with mainly some officials from the UN,
government agencies and other human rights agencies with in the area. These respondents were
selected purposively because these were the key stakeholders in protecting human rights. It
entailed asking questions, listening, recording as well as noting down the answers. A question
guide was developed although during the interview informal conversations took place and made
the interviewees to freely narrate their experiences with and in the UN as it played its roles in the
conflict hit areas.
3.10 Naturalistic Observation
The study included naturalistic observation of the living conditions of the locals, which had been
adversely affccted by the conflict and the activities that were carried out by various actors,
institutions and the TiN in promoting and protecting human rights without manipulating them in
any way. The researcher was able to witness the various social, economic, religious and cultural
activities that had been set up in an attempt to identify the need for promoting human rights in
Juba. South Sudan. Some of these activities would help the locals psychologically to forget their
experiences and try to get back to their normal livelihood. From the observation the activities of
the UN in comparison to other actors in protecting human rights in these communities were listed
and recorded.
3.11 Documentary Review
\‘arious hooks, magazines, journals and newspapers with information on of human rights
promotion and the roles played by the UN and even various actors like the non-governmental
organizations; both local and international, individual actors, churches, the military and other state
institutions written by varied authors were consulted. This was supplemented by data from various
websites and the Internet although they were minimal. Reports from various ministries were
equally obtained.
27
3.12 Questionnaire
The researcher had to include this method of data collection in order to get the views that the
respondents would feel could not be voiced out before other people for fear of victimization by
UN spies. The researcher was able to get more information through this method of data collection
as compared to all the other methods that were used especially on information about the UN
operations in terms of security in these areas.
3.13 Procedure of collecting Data
l3asing on the objectives of the study, the researcher prepared interview transcripts and
questionnaires to make the work in the field easier and avoid anomalies. A cover letter was
obtained from the University, introducing the researcher into the field. The researcher used the
letter to introduce herself to the respondents who participated in the study. The researcher was able
to access the UN officials at the headquarters who upon agreeing the study can not compromise
their mission in South Sudan and accepted to be interviewed.
Using the same letter, the researcher was able to access the government officials of South Sudan
and interviewed several officials. The researcher also interviewed officials from other human
rights agencies specifically Amnesty International and 1-Juman rights Watch. Some civilians who
were willing to participate in the study also were approached and interviewed.
3.14 Data Analysis
1 he raw data collected in the field were systematically organized to facilitate analysis and easy
comprehension of the findings.
3.14.1 Quantitative analysis
Excel tables were used to sum up the data into descriptive statistics. It was coded, statistics made
and summarized into frequency and percentage tables and later was used to explain the findings
through charts and graphs.
28
3.14.2 Qualitative analysis
The information collected was evaluated with documentary review and the research theme in a
systematic way in order to describe what was on ground, establish useful conclusions and
recommendations that were unbiased and were in line with the objectives of the study. l)etailed
information on the various activities carried out majorly by the UN to promote and protect human
rights in this conflict hit areas were obtained, classified and grouped according to patterns. trends
and the relationship of the UN with the civilians and other actors in the field were established.
29
CHAPTER FOUR
PRESENTATION AND ANALYSTS OF FINDINGS
4.0 Introduction
In this chapter, the study presents and discusses the characteristics of the sample selected, findings
of the study basing on the collected data from the respondents linking it with the review of the
elated literature. In presenting the findings, percentages and tables were used to quantify and
present the findings. The findings were presented under several headings. This chapter discusses
the research objectives jointly to identify points of weaknesses and strengths of the military and
conflict resolution in light of the data gathered and literature reviewed.
4.1 1)emographie characteristics of respondents
Under this section, the researcher was interested in finding out the demographic characteristics of
the respondents. They are presented as follows:
4.1.1 Gender of Respondents
The researcher wanted to know the gender or sex distribution of the respondents and this is shown
in the following table and illustration. This section indicates the both sexes with the community.
Table 2 presenting the gender distribution of the respondents who participated in the study
Gender Frequency Perccntage (%)
Males 36 40
Females 54 60
Total 90 100
Son reè: Primary Data (2018)
In the above table I, the study findings revealed that the sample constituted of 90 respondents of
which 60% were females and the 40% remaining were males. The table above shows that the
majority of the respondents were female who had varied experiences in the conflict. Most of the
30
males had either been killed or abducted and forced to join the rebels, leaving the women and
children prone to attacks. The conflict had varied effects on the different gender groups with the
iëniales being adversely affected.
4.1.2 Age of the Respondents
The study went on to establish the different age groups of the respondents and the findings were
as presented in table 2. The study also involved all respondents who are responsible and with
mature understanding. For example all the respondents were 20 years and above.
Table 3 showing age distribution of the respondents
Age Frequency Percentage (%)
20 25 27 30
26-35 36 40
36—45 18 20
46-55 9 10
56! 0 0
Total 90 100
Source: Primary Data (2018)
The study revealed that the majority of the respondents fell in the age category 26-- 35 with a 40%
representation. Age category 20-25 had a total response of 30%, while 36 —45 age group was
represented by 20% the 46-55 category had a total representation of 10% while the least
represented category was that of the 56± with a representation of 0%. Table above shows the
majority of the respondents were adolescent and middle aged people since the conflict and its
effects like diseases had wiped out most of the young children and the aged who could not fend
br themselves. These two generations of humanity was almost inexistent in the area. The
adolescent and the middle aged were in charge of various institutions like the families and other
worked with the Local Defense Unit in the area and thus mostly executed and abused thus violation
of human rights.
31
4.1.3 Marital Status of the Respondents
The study furt] er went on to establish the marital status of the respondent and the findings were
us represented in table 3. The researcher was also interested in finding out the marital status of
respondents.
‘Fable 4 showing marital status of the respondents
Marital Status Frequency Percentage
Shi]e 9 10
Married 18 20
Divorced 18 20
Widowed 45 50
lotal 90 100
Son rcé: Primary Data (201 8)
The study established that the majority of the respondents were widowed (50%). The divorced
comprised of 20%, the married were 20% whereas the single were only 10%. Study findings
established that, the majority were widowed since most of their husbands had been killed or
executed by the conflict.
4.1.4 E~ducation Levels of the Respondents
The study also sought about the educational levels of the respondents and the findings were as
represented in table 4. Under this section. the researcher was interested in finding out the education
status bf all respondents involved in the study. This was partly essential in order to enrich the
findings of the study since education level had a significant relationship with level of knowledge
about roles played by the UN in protection of human rights respondents had.
32
‘fable 5: I≤ducational Level of the Respondents
Education Level Frequency Percentage
Primary 27 30
Secondary eve! 1 8 20
Vocational 36 40
University 9 10
Total 90 100
Son ree: Primary Data (2018)
Study findings in table 4 revealed that the least represented level of education was the University
vocational group which comprised of 10%, followed by vocational group (40%), while secondary
level was represented by 2O% and the most represented group was that of pnmary level which
comprised of 30%. It is evident from the above table that the majority of the respondents were
uneducated, a situation worsened by the conflict. Only a few have had the opportunity of joining
secondary schools and tertiary institutions in the area and in other places in the country while the
rest have stopped at the primary and uneducated. They did not have the opportunity or resources
to further their education. Most of the respondents from tertiary institutions were the military men
operating in the area and the UN officials.
4.2 Findings on the roles played by the UN in the protection of human rights
f’he first objective of the study was to identify the roles played by the UN in the protection of
human rights. To achieve this objective, respondents were asked to mention the roles played by
the tJN in the protection of human rights and their responses were tabulated as seen ftom the table
below.
33
Table 6 Role of UN in the protection of human rights
Responses Frequency Percentage
Necotiates human rights treaties and declarations mainly18 20
locused on the rights of vulnerable groups
Appointing •special procedures’ to address specific~ 18 20
coun ti-v situat ions or broader issues
Relorins national laws and thus incorporation of
intet-national human rights norms into national laws and 9 I 0
constitutions
Prevents massive human rights violations by responding45 50
to them through strengthening
Total 90 100%
Source: Primary Data (2018)
According to the above table, 20% of the respondents argued that the UN negotiates human rights
liCatics and declarations mainly focused on the rights of vulnerable groups. Another 2O% were of
view unit UN is appointing ‘special procedures’ to address specific country situations or broader
issues. 50% suggcstcd that it also prevents massive human rights violations by responding to them
tFrougli strengthening and strengthens its early warning capacity and response to conflicts. I 0%
were also of the view that it also reforms national laws and thus incorporation of international
human rights norms into national laws and constitutions. This implies that UN plays a vital role in
the promotion of human rights especially in conflict hit areas such as Juba, South Sudan. This is
evidenced by the majority of the respondents suggesting that UN negotiates human rights treaties
and declarations mainly focused on the rights of vulnerable groups.
Fable 7:Any improvement in protection of human rights as a result of UN involvement
Frequency percentage
Yes 63
No 27 30
Total 90 100
Source: Primary Data (2018)
70
34
The table above indicates that 7O% of the respondents agreed that there was an improvement in
protection of human rights due to UN involvement where as 300/c disagreed that no improvement
was made concerning protection of human rights as a result of UN involvement. The majority of
[lie respondents agreed.
This implies that the UN has played a significant role since an improvement has been noticed
concerning the protection of human rights in Juba, South Sudan.
4.3 Findings on the challenges faced by the UN in protection of human rights in South
Sudan
The second objective of the study was to establish basic challenges facing the UN in the promotion
and protection of human rights. To achieve this objective, respondents were asked to mention the
basic challenges facing the UN in the promotion and protection of human rights and their responses
were tabulated as seen from table below.
1 able 8: Basic challenges facing the UN in the promotion and protection of human rights
Frequency Percentage
~ Uncooperative governments 9 10
Lack of security and rule-of—law capacities 27 30
Poor governance and the relations between board18 20
members and staff
Failure to raise sufficient funds to maintain its36 40
mission of protecting human rights
Total 90 100Son rev: Primary Data (2018)
The findings in the above table indicate that 30% of the respondents suggested that there is lack of
security and rule-of-law capacities, Failure to raise sufficient funds to maintain its mission of
protecting hLlnian rights was suggested by 40%. Another 20% of respondents argued that there is
also poor governance and the relations between board members and staff and the remaining 10%
oted that there was also a challenge of uncooperative governments.
35
This implied that despite the roles played by the UN, the above challenges have hindered its
0perELti0I~s in Juba. South Sudan where the fighting was still intensive.
4.4 Findings on the possible solutions to overcome the challenges faced by UN in protection
of human rights in South Sudan
The third and last objective of the study was to establish the possible solutions to overcome the
challenges faced by the UN in protection of human rights in South Sudan. To achieve this
uhjecuve. respondents were asked to mention the possible solutions to overcome the challenges
heed ~y the UN in protection of human rights in South Sudan and their responses were tabulated
as seen from table below.
Table 9: solutions to overcome the challenges fliced by UN in protection of human rights
Responses Frequency Percentage
Need to work with other human rights agencies to9 10
pro ~‘ide credi ble and achievable mandates
Need for strong commitment to resist endorsing un—27 30
achievable or ilL-conceived mandates
Need to du more to help expand the pool of willing and18 20
capable troop and police contributors
Need to support reforms that help achieve economies of27 30
scale and realize cost savings
Make strategic choices between eonfrontational,9 10
complementary strategic relationships with government
Total 90 100
Source: Primary Data (2018)
ihe table above also shows that the majority of the respondents 30% were of the view that there
is need to work with other human rights agencies to provide credible and achievable mandates.
another 30% reported that there is also need to support reforms that help achieve economies of
scale and realize cost savings, 20% of the respondents noted that there is also need to do more to
36
help e>~pancl the pooi of willing and capable troop and police contributors, 10% suggested that the
UN should make strategic choices between confrontational, complementary strategic relationships
with government and the remaining 10% argued that the UN also needs to work with other human
rights agencies to provide credible and achievable mandates.
This implies that the UN needs to respond to the challenges faced by setting a number of strategies
mentioned in the above table so as to help in the protection of human rights in the conflict hit areas
of Juba, South Sudan.
37
CHAPTER FIVE
DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.0 Introduction
This chapter discusses the findings of the study and presents them in summaries. The summary
presei~ts findings from the study, its conclusions are then drawn from these findings and then
recommendations are eventually made.
5.1 Discussion of findings
5.1.1 Role played by the UN in Protection of Fluinan Rights in South Sudan
It was found out that the United Nations helps to negotiate human rights treaties and declarations
mainly focused on the rights of vulnerable groups such as women, children, persons with
disabilities, minorities and indigenous peoples in Juba, South Sudan.
The study also found out that the UN monitors the human rights records of nations for instance the
organization has maintained its objective of human right recording particularly in Juba, South
Sudan. The treaty body committees receive technical, logistical and financial support from the
United Nations.
The study further revealed that appointing ‘special procedures’ helps to address specific country
situations or broader issues. The United Nations also appoint experts (sometimes titled special
rapporteurs. representatives or independent experts), to address a specific human rights issue or
particular country.
It was found out that the TIN also helps to reform national laws which facilitate the incorporation
of international human rights norms into national laws and constitutions which is a key element in
the protection of human rights.
38
it was found out that preventing massive human rights violations by responding to them through
strengthening before they escalate into conflicts and controlling and resolving conflicts before they
escalate further are central concerns of preventive action. (Bailey, 1994)
5.1 .2 Challenges faced by the UN in protection of human rights
The study found out that it had been relatively difficult for the UN officials to generate, recruit,
and deploy the numbers of personnel required, while keeping quality high and ongoing
impro~~ements on track. This was because some times there was always intense flghting and thus
subjecting the UN peace keepers to risk of death on peace keeping missions.
it also found out that the UN some times is requested to take on harder, riskier operations often
without the support and capabilities it needs from member states. The Security Council has
recently given some very ambitious mandates to peacekeeping operations in Africa. such as
protccting civilians under the threat of physical violence including sexual violence in vast and
populous territories with limited infrastructure, faltering peace processes, ongoing hostilities, and
uncooperative host governments.
It was revealed that there was also a growing challenge of uncooperative governments such as the
Goven~ment of Sudan that has repeatedly failed to cooperate with UN international peacekeepers
and humanitarian workers, denying them access, expelling international humanitarian groups.
refusing entry visas for desperately needed personnel and blocking the delivery of critical logistical
support.
5.1.3 Solutions to overcome the challenges faced by the UN in protection of human rights
The study further found out that there was need to work with other human rights agencies to
provide credible and achievable mandates for UN operations. And the UN needs to outline a better
process for formulating peacekeeping mandates, and measuring progress in their implementation
so as to protect human rights.
39
It revealed that the UN should also ensure the parties in fragile peace talks to abide by their
commitments, to cooperate with peacekeepers, and build mutual trust. This mainly focuses on
filtering peace processes where peacekeeping operations are currently deployed. This also plays
an important role in protection of human rights. (Hobbes 1651)
The study also found out that the UN needs to do more to help expand the pool of willing and
capable troop and police contributors. The immediate priority is to help secure the capabilities that
the missions in Darfur, Chad, and the Democratic Republic of Congo need to better protect
civilians under imminent threat. But we are also pursuing more long—term efforts.
Ii also revealed that there is also need to equip the UN peace keepers with adequate training and
skills in protection of human rights. For instance, since 2005, the U.S. Global Peace Operations
Initiative, or GPOI. and its African component, ACOTA, have focused on training the
peacekeepers needed to meet this spike in global demand.
5.2 Conclusions
l3ased on the findings and summary the following conclusions are made:
According to Brandt (1983), human rights forge vital links between peace, democracy and
development, bringing the full weight of the United Nations human rights programme to bear can
also Ihcilitate the successful transition between peacekeeping operations and humanitarian
emergency assistance to long-term peace-building and sustainable development. Societies that are
emerging ftom civil conflict have particular needs in the area of human rights and economic
development.
It also concludes that the UN also created the International Criminal Court at the United Nations
Diplomatic Conference of Plenipotentiaries on the Establishment of an International Criminal
Court, held in Rome from 15 June to 17 July 1998. The establishment of the Court makes it clear
that the UN no longer tolerates violations of human rights without assigning responsibility.
(Broonthall, 2003).
40
Weston (2004) argues that the study also concludes that as advocacy organizations; UN also works
with or against governments in developing agendas for action particularly in Juba, South Sudan.
Through treaty negotiations with governments, they seek to establish international standards for
state behavior. To mobilize public opinion, they investigate and report human rights abuses and
offer direct assistance to victims of those abuses.
The study also concludes that the UN has to make strategic choices between confrontational,
complementary or collaborative strategic relationships with government. The process of making
these strategic choices gives rise to internal tensions concerning expenditure priorities, the
conflicting demands of clients and donors, which result in disagreements over an appropriate
balance between quality services and meeting fundraising targets.
It also concludes that United Nations has been working for a long time to progress the lives of
women and to empower women. Several conferences during the UN-sponsored International
Women’s Decade set a schema for the improvement of women and women’s rights across the
globe. (Ge\virth 1978)
5.3 Rccornmendations
The study recommends that the UN should also prime the pump to generate even more
peacekeepers to maintain peace in conflict hit areas and thus protect the human rights especially
for civilians. Other countries’ willingness to provide troops and police needs to increase if they
see that key Security Council members, including the United States, not only value their sacrifice
hut respect their concerns.
There is also needs to help build up host governments’ security sectors and rule—of—law institutions,
as part ofan overall peace-building strategy. The UN’s immediate priorities in this regard are l-Iaiti,
Liberia, and South Sudan three places where such efforts could help let UN peacekeeping missions
depart sooner.
There is also needs to help build up host governments’ security sectors and rule-of-law institutions,
as part ofan overall peace-building strategy. The TiN’s immediate priorities in this regard are l-laiti.
41
Liberia, and South Sudan three places where such efforts could help let UN peacekeeping missions
depart sooner.
It also recommends that the UN needs to recognize that also the host government’s capacities
grow. the role of a UN in the protection of human rights is not disrupted. Then there is always
need not to lessen the peacekeeping load, as appropriate thus should support arbitrary or abrupt
efforts to maintain its mission of protection of human rights globally.
There is also need to support reforms that help achieve economies of scale and realize cost savings;
that strengthen oversight, transparency, and accountability; that improve field personnel and
procurement systems; that strengthen the process of mission planning; that reduce deployment
delays; and encourage stronger mission leadership; and clarify the roles and responsibilities of all
UN actors, in the field and at headquarters.
It also recommends that decentralization, in which some power is devolved to field level, as a
solution to the problem of tensions between field offices and headquarters. However,
decentralization can have the paradoxical effect of increasing bureaucracy as organizations
devolving poxvei on the one hand, tend to set up all sorts of control measures on the other.
5.4 Recommendation for further study
l3ased on the findings of the study, the researchers recommended that further research should be
conducted on roles played by other non-governmental organizations in protection of human rights
in conilict situations.
42
REFERENCES
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Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Alston P. (1999), Promoting Human Rights through Bills of Rights, Oxford: Oxford University
Amartya. S ( 999). Development as Freedom, New York, Anchor Books
Anaya. S. (2004), Indegenous Peoples in International Law. Oxford: Oxford University Press
Bailey. S. (1994), The UN Security Council and Human Rights, New York: St. Martin’s Press;
Ramcharan, B. 2002, Ed
Barbara F. Walter (2002) Committing to peace: the successful settlement ofcivil wars. (Princeton.
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Bayefsky, A. (2001), The UN Human Rights Treaty System: Universality at the Crossroads,
Ardsley. NY: Transnational
Brandt RB. (1983). “The Concept ofa Moral Right”, Journal ofPhilosophy
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B.C. Ramcharan. (1989) The Concept and Present Status of the International Promoting human
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Cranston, M. (1967) “1-luman Rights, Real and Supposed”, in D.D. Raphael, (ed). Political Theory
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Don Hubert and Thomas G. Weiss et al.(2001) The Responsibility to Protect: Supplementary
\folume to the Report of the International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty.
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hide. A., 1992 (2002) The Universal Declaration of Human Rights: A Commentary, Norway:
Scandanvanian University Press
Gev~irth, Alan. (1978) Reason and Morality, Chicago: Chicago University Press
Gewirth, A. (1982), 1-luman Rights, Chicago: University of Chicago Press
Hathaway. 0. (2005). Constitutional Environmental Rights, Oxford: Oxford University Press
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Clarendom Press
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Martha Finnemore,(2003) The purpose of intervention: changing be1i~fs about the use of/örce.
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McGoldrick, D.et. al. 2004. Eds. The Permanent International Criminal Court, Oxford: Hart
Morsink, .1. (1999), Universal Declaration of Human Rights: Origins, Drafting and Intent,
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Nickel. .T. (1993) “The Human Rights to a Safe Environment”. Yale Journal of International Law
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Nickel. J. (2006) Making Sense of Human Rights, Second Edition, Oxford: Blackwell Publishing
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The IJN Declaration on the Right to Development 1986
The US Declaration of Independence, 1776
45
APPENDICES
APPENDIX I: Questionnaire
Dear Respondent,
I am by the names of CATFIERINE KIDEN GAITANO MARKO, 1163-06014-05820 a student
pursuing a Bachelors degree in International Relations and diplomatic studies at Kampala International
University. 1 am undertaking a research on the ROLE OF UN IN PROMOTING OF FIUMAN
RIGhTS IN JUBA, SOUTH SUDAN which is part of the requirement of the award of the Bachelor’s
degree in International Relations. I kindly request you, to fill in blank boxes and spaces as provided.
All the information provided will be used purposely for academics only and all information will be
treated confidentially.
PERSONAL DETAILS
Name (Optional)
Age bracket
18-30 3 0-40 40-56 50 and above
Others please specify
[ducation
Primary level
Secondary level
Diploma level
IDegre~ level
Others specify
Occupation
Civil Servant
Self employed
Military
Others specify
46
PLEASE TICK WHERE APPROPRIATE (‘J)The role of UN in the protection of human rights in conflict situation particularly in Juba,
South Sudan
Category Excellent Good Fair Poor
Negqiiates human rights treaties and declarations mainly
lhcused on the rights of vulnerable groups
Appointing ‘special procedures’ to address specific country
siwations or broader issues
Reforms national laws and thus incorporation of
international human rights norms into national laws and
constitutions
Prevents massive human rights violations by responding to
them through strengthening
• As a resident in Juba, South Sudan do you see any improvement in protection of human
rights as a result of UN involvement?
a) Yes
h) No
2. What do you think are the basic challenges facing the UN in the promotion and protection
of human rights in Juba, South Sudan?
a) Uncooperative governments
b) Lack of security and rule-of-law capacities
c) Poor governance and the relations between board members and staff
d) Failure to raise sufficient funds to maintain its mission of protecting human rights EZ
47
3. What do you think should be done to protect human rights in conflict hit areas of Juba,
South Sudan?
a) Need to work with other human rights agencies to provide credible and I_____achievable mandates
h) Need for strong commitment to resist endorsing un-achievable or ill- EL.conceived mandates
c) Need to do more to help expand the pooi of willing and capable troop and
police contributors
d) Need to support reforms that help achieve economies of scale and realize cost EElsavings
c) Make strategic choices between confrontational, complementary strategic Lrelationships with government
4. Any other information you think may be helpful in successful completion of this research?
Thanks for your response
48
APPENDIX II
Interview schedule for key informants
SPOT INFORMATION
1. What role does the UN play in promoting of human rights in Juba, South Sudan?
2. What are possible challenges put in place to overcome the challenges faced by the UN?
3. What are the mechanisms put in place towards promoting of human rights in Juba, South
Sudan?
4. What are the possible ways and norms for promoting of human rights in South Sudan?
5. What criteria of human rights promotion is used by UN in Juba, South Sudan?
6. Where has the UN failed in promoting of human rights?
7. What do you think should be done to promote human rights in Juba, South Sudan?
8. Any other information you think may be helpiiil in successfUl completion of this research?
49
APPENDIX III
Guide for Focus Group Discussions
1. What impact has the conflict had on your livelihood?
2. What does the concept “Human rights” mean to you?
3. i-low long has the situation persisted?
4. What efforts rio the locals do to improve the situation?
5. Do you think the locals need intervention?
If yes. explain why.
6. Which actors come to your rescue?
7. What is the relationship between the various actors like?
8. Is it peaceful or rebellious? Explain your answer.
9. Do you know about the UN?
If yes what do you know about it?
0. Do you think they have any roles to play in promoting human rights in such areas?
II. What mechanisms did they put in place in ensuring human rights are promoted in this
area?
12. Was this achieved Yes/No
1 yes. please explain to what extent
If no. please explain why
13. Do they face any challenges in carrying out their roles? Yes/No
If yes, what challenges
14. How best do you think the situation can be improved?
1 5. I-low best do you think the UN should helped you?
Thanks for your responses.
End
50