Meghan Fraley, PhD Skyline College Psychology 100

Cogni&on'refers%to%mental'ac)vi)es'and'processes'associated'with'thinking,'knowing,'remembering,'and'communica)ng'informa)on.''

!  Cogni,on%can%include%reasoning,%judgment,%and%assembling%new%informa,on%into%knowledge.%

!  Cogni,on%also%supports%these%other%psychological%processes:%a=en,on,%emo,on,%consciousness,%percep,on,%learning,%memory,%language,%mental%health,%and%social%interac,on.%%

Thinking involves not only retrieving information but also doing something with it

Deciding something

Solving a problem

Judging something

Creating something

Finding something

Concepts Mental representations

Contents of Concepts:

Categories (dogs, books, etc.,)

Attributes (red, tall, painful)

Abstractions or non-tangible ideas (love, hate)

Procedures or processes (how to do ____)

Goals or intentions (future plans)

! How is knowledge transformed and manipulated into thinking?

Mental Representations

Judgment

Reasoning

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=R-sVnmmw6WY&list=PLLtpkqxmLd1a8RQpozpvwrQUf4ENhMjl7&index=2

A concept'is'a'mental'grouping'

of'similar'objects,'events,'states,'ideas,'and/or'people,'etc.'

A%concept%can%be%represented%

and%communicated%by%an%image,%or%by%a%word%such%as%�chair,���party,�%or%�democracy.

�%

A prototype'is'the'best'example'of'a'category.'

Analogical: share some of the actual

characteristics

Symbolic: stands for some content without sharing

any characteristics

! Mental representations that resemble the objects they represent by directly reflecting the perceptual qualities of the thing being represented

! Expressed in the mind as network structures

! Nodes represent individual symbols

! Separate nodes are connected via associative links

! proposition, activates the collection of nodes that represent the proposition and activation spreads.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ig-SVifJUKw

Drawing conclusions from experience

Mental representations are used to process and draw conclusions from evidence

We rely on shortcuts (heuristics) to be efficient

These shortcuts are helpful and frequently work, but can also lead to errors

Automatic: Thinking that occurs as a matter of

habit;

Thinking that typically requires little effort;

Thinking that is impacted by existing biases;

Frequently leads to less than optimal outcomes

Controlled: Thinking that is goal directed

Thinking that requires intentional effort

Thinking based on analysis of existing biases

Frequently leads to more optimal outcomes (better choices and

decisions)

Example:%thinking%that%winning%at%a%slot%machine%is%likely%because%we%vividly%recall%the%,mes%weve%won%before%(thanks%to%bells,%lights,%and%flowing%coins)%%

We%use%the%availability'heuris&c'when%we%es)mate'the'likelihood'of'an'event'based'on'how'much'it'

stands'out'in'our'mind,%that%is,%how%much%it�s%available%

as%a%mental%reference.%

! Purpose: Assessing Categories •  rule of thumb for judging

the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes

! BUT, some categories are heterogenous • may lead one to ignore

other relevant information

Examples:%%! thinking%you%can%put%off%work%and%s,ll%get%it%done%well%%

! thinking%you%have%test%material%mastered%when%you%scan%it%and%it%feels%familiar.%

Overconfidence'in%judgments%refers%to%our'tendency'to'be'more'confident'than'correct.%

%We%overes,mate%the%

accuracy%of%our%es,mates,%predic,ons,%

and%knowledge.%%

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3bxLx-FRooY

! The process of figuring out the implications of particular beliefs

We tend to search for information that is in agreement with our biases rather than seeking to disconfirm or disprove our biases

we tend to overestimate our ability to have predicted events based on knowledge we had beforehand; limits our ability to learn from our errors because we convince ourselves that we “knew it all the time”

!  We tend to base estimates on an initial experience; we anchor our judgments on an initial piece of information rather than consider all information

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9xSe604627c

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9xSe604627c

! Choosing among options

! Belief Bias •  the tendency for one�s preexisting beliefs to

distort logical reasoning •  sometimes by making invalid conclusions seem

valid, or valid conclusions seem invalid

! Belief Perseverance •  clinging to one�s initial conceptions after the

basis on which they were formed has been discredited

! Affective Forecasting: •  Affective forecasting (also known as hedonic

forecasting) is the prediction of one's affect (emotional state) in the future. We aren’t really that good at it

! Too Many Options •  All options seem less attractive, and less likely to

decide or be happy with their choice ! Reason-Based Choice

•  People make choices based on whether things are framed in terms of loss or gain

! the way an issue is posed ! how an issue is framed can

significantly affect decisions and judgments

! Example: What is the best way to market ground beef- As 25% fat or 75% lean?

Problem%solving%refers%to%the%thinking%we%do%in%order%to%answer%a%complex%

ques,on%or%to%figure%out%how%to%resolve%an%unfavorable%situa,on.%

Trial%and%error%involves%trying%various%possible%solu,ons,%and%if%that%fails,%trying%others.%! When%its%useful:%perfec,ng%an%inven,on%like%the%light%bulb%by%trying%a%thousand%filaments%! When%it%fails:%when%there%is%a%clear%solu,on%but%trial%and%error%might%miss%it%forever%

Strategies%for%

arriving%at%solu,ons%include:%

trial%and%error%

algorithms%

heuris,cs%

insight%

An%algorithm%is%a%step%by%step%strategy%for%solving%a%problem,%methodically%leading%to%a%specific%solu,on.%%

A%heuris,c%is%a%shortLcut,%stepLsaving%thinking%strategy%or%principle%which%generates%a%solu,on%quickly%(but%possibly%in%error).%

Insight%refers%to%a%sudden%realiza,on,%a%leap%forward%in%thinking,%that%leads%to%a%solu,on.%

Wander%around%a%supermarket%randomly%to%find%it.%

To%find%a%specific%item%in%a%supermarket%

Trial%and%error%

Algorithms%

Heuris,cs%

Create%a%methodical%path%to%make%sure%you%check%every%single%aisle.%

Check%only%related%aisles.%

%Where�s%the%apple%juice?%Do%I%look%on%every%shelf%in%the%store,%or%do%I%search%where%there%is%

similar%stuff?%

Automaticity /���t�m��t�s�ti/ is the ability to do things without

occupying the mind with the low-level details required, allowing it to become an automatic response pattern or habit. It is usually the result of learning, repetition, and

practice.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VdrV01s3-2M

! Using these materials, how would you mount the candle on a bulletin board?

! How would you arrange six matches to form four equilateral triangles?

There%are%certain%tendencies%in%human%cogni,on%which%make%it%more%difficult%to%find%correct%solu,ons%to%problems.%

Fixa&on/'mental'set%

Confirma&on'bias'

Heuris&cs'(which%help%solve%problems%quickly%but%can%lead%to%mistaken%conclusions)%

Common Obstacles:

Mental set

Functional fixedness

Incorrect or incomplete representation of the problem

Lack of domain knowledge

Self-handicapping

Obstacles

Mental'set''The%tendency%to%

approach%problems%using%a%mindset%(procedures%and%methods)%that%has%worked%previously.%

Fixa&on%%The%tendency%to%get%stuck%in%one%way%of%thinking;%an%inability%to%see%a%problem%from%a%new%perspec,ve.%

Other'ProblemASolving'Habits!

! Tendency to approach a problem in a particular way • Especially a way that has been

successful in the past but may or may not be helpful in solving a new problem

Perceptual Set—perceiving the problem from only one perspective

Response Set—accessing only one solution response (“it’s the way we’ve always done it”)

! Thinking about something only in terms of its functionality, rather than new ways in which it could be used

! Self-imposed limitations OR Self-Handicapping:

•  Creating limits to protect one�s status or prevent one from failing

•  May be �unconscious� to the individual (may be based on perceived social status—sex, race)

! Solving this problem requires recognizing that a box need not always serve as a container

! Solution #1: We move the left two matchsticks, to make a Roman numeral VI.

! Solution #2: The solution to this is to make twelve in Roman numerals, as shown. The top half is VII, or seven. Just remove the bottom half.

! Solution #3: We spell out NINE, as shown.

"When most of us look at the field of nine dots, we imagine a boundary around the edge of the dot array. In doing so, we limit ourselves to trying solutions to the puzzle that only link the dots inside the imaginary border. The result is futility. We can only solve the puzzle if we realize that there is no border."

! Procedure: •  Give participants one problem to read, with a solution •  Then give them a second problem, which can be solved using

a similar solution

! 3 groups of participants •  Control group that only tried to solve the radiation problem •  A group previously given the analogous General/Fortress

problem & solution •  A group given the General/Fortress problem and told that its

solution would help in solving the radiation problem

Obstacles

Gick & Holyoak (1980)

0102030405060708090100

Control Analogy Analogy & Hint

Obstacles

Gick & Holyoak (1980) Results

! Similarity ! Number of examples exposed to

•  Gick and Holyoak conducted a study in which the dictator story was just one of three other stories participants heard before radiation problem

•  Only 20% got the problem correct ! Whether schema for problem is activated

•  If the two problems are separated by a delay or if they are presented in different contexts, almost none of the participants use the analogy

Obstacles

Abstract Thinking Separates Experts from Novices

Experts have more abstract representations Experts know more solutions

Not a general ability

Have an extensive knowledge that they use to organize, represent, and interpret information in their environment

This affects their abilities to remember, reason, and solve problems

! Participants were chess masters and beginning chess players

! Studied a chess board that had the pieces randomly displayed or a chess board with pieces in the middle of a game.

! Beginners and experts had to recall as many pieces as they could

Expertise

Experts vs. Beginners Under what condition did the experts remember more?

Expertise

! Master chess players and beginning players recalled a similar number of pieces from the random board

! Master chess players remember significantly more chess pieces from the game board in play than did the beginning chess players

Expertise

! Better schemas ! Well organized knowledge

in specific domain ! Less time to set up

problem ! Select more appropriate

strategies ! Faster at solving problems ! Are more accurate

Expertise

! Need'new'theories'in'all'domains'! Is'it'possible'to'lead'people'to'beFer'thinking?'

! Humans'are'capable'of'excellent'quality'thinking;'thoughts?'

Those who make good decisions and solve problems with higher levels of success share characteristics of critical thinking

•  Thinking is goal directed •  Thinking is based on logic and reliable information •  One’s own assumptions and biases are questioned

first •  Other’s assumptions and assertions are questioned •  Assertions are supported with valid and reliable

supporting data •  Alternative and oppositional views are considered

fairly •  Contradictory data or evidence are considered and

refuted fairly

How'to'use'it'well'

When'it�s'effec&ve'How'it'may'

have'been'adap&ve'!  We%have%seen%that%

in%complex%situa,ons,%it%helps%to%use%careful%reasoning%to%avoid%mistakes%made%by%intui,ve%judgments.%

!  However,%research%supports%the%idea%that%some,mes%we%need%to%let%our%unconscious%mind%do%some%work.%%

!  Incuba&on'refers%to%the%power%of%taking%a%break%from%careful%thinking,%even%to%�sleep%on%it,�%to%allow%%leaps%in%cogni,on.%

!  Judging%quickly%what%to%eat%and%what%might%kill%us%might%have%helped%our%ancestors%survive%long%enough%to%reproduce.%

!  The%,mes%that%our%intui,on%was%incorrect%may%not%have%been%fatal;%if%humans%%avoided%all%red%plants%instead%of%poisonous%berries,%they%might%have%been%hungry,%but%s,ll%alive.%

!  Intui,on%is%effec,ve%when%it%is%a%product%of%exper&se%built%up%from%trial%and%error;%this%hones%one�s%judgment%to%the%point%of%being%more%accurate%than%logical%analysis.%

!  Examples:%knowing%the%sex%of%a%chick,%making%a%diagnosis,%speed%chess,%quarterback%decisions%

!  The%mind�s%ability%to%judge%a%situa,on%from%experience%is%more%efficient%than%any%stepLbyLstep%analysis.%%

Insight'and'the'Brain%In%one%study,%par,cipants%monitored%by%fMRI%and%EEG%were%asked,%which%word%will%form%a%compound%word%with%the%words%pine,'crab,%and%sauce?�%What%the%brains%did%along%with%the%aha!�%of%geYng%the%answer:%

Insight%refers%to%a%sudden%realiza,on,%a%leap%forward%in%thinking,%that%leads%to%a%solu,on.%! We%say%aha�%and%feel%a%sense%of%sa,sfac,on%when%an%answer%seems%to%pop%into%our%minds.%! We%also%may%laugh;%joke%punchlines%rely%on%sudden%insight.%

1.  extra%frontal%lobe%ac,vity%

2.  experiencing%the%�aha!�%moment%and%sta,ng%the%answer%

3.  a%burst%of%ac,vity%in%right%temporal%lobe%(shown%here)%

!  Process of creating something that is original and worthwhile

!  Multiple views which emphasize •  The product •  The person\personality creating the product •  The creative process; the steps that the creative

person followed to create the product •  The creative environment •  A synthesis of all of the above