Theme 3 & 4.pptx history

KO R E A S I N C E 1 9 4 5 .

THEME 3

3.1 THE KOREAN WAR

•The Cold War first erupted into heated conflict on the Korean peninsula and became the first great global crisis of the War era. •The Korean War was a direct consequence of Allied dispositions at the end of World War ll.

3.1 THE KOREAN WAR

•The involvement of the USA and Communist Russia had its foundations in the ideological differences.•The USA and Communist Russia directly contributed to the division of Korea in to north and south Korea.

THE KOREAN WAR

•Roosevelt and Stalin proposed a four-power trusteeship at the Yalta conference.•Russian troops entered the peninsula on 9 August 1945.•The US a full month later on 8 September.

THE KOREAN WAR

•Fearing that the Soviet Union may overrun the entire Korean peninsular – the US hastily arranged for partition.•Republic of Korea (South Korea) under Syngman Rhee, US territory.

THE KOREAN WAR

•Democratic People’s Republic of Korea (North Korea) under Kim II Sung, Soviet territory.•Korean people saw this division as at all natural or desirable, or expected it to be permanent.•Many were eager to unify.

THE KOREAN WAR

•Gunfire exchange and provocation.•The superpowers avoided to be dragged into the war fearing WWIII.

THE KOREAN WAR

• In 1950 Stalin gave Kim his approval for attack without active Russian participation.•The South had a larger population.•The North heavy industry and better equipped military forces.

THE KOREAN WAR

•On 25 June 1950 the North attacked.•Truman fully committed the US army.•The Soviet could have veto the involvement of the UN but were boycotting the UN.•Reason for the above.

THE KOREAN WAR

•The UN moved quickly to condemn the attack.•The defence of the South became a UN action.•Some fifteen countries contributed soldiers and the American general McArthur assumed control.

THE KOREAN WAR

•Seoul fell to Northern forces in three days.•By the third week, over half of the South had been captured.•With a large advantage in heavy weapons, the UN forces were able to dig in.

THE KOREAN WAR

•MacArthur was authorised to continue his advances into the North as long as there was no sign of intervention by Russia or China.•The Chinese premier warned that China will intervene if any American troops cross the parallel.

THE KOREAN WAR

• In spite, American troops crossed the parallel and on 19 October the North capital fell.•MacArthur assured Truman that China was not going to intervene and that even if she did – she was going to be crushed.

THE KOREAN WAR

•The next day (16 October) Chinese volunteers began crossing the Yalu River undetected by the UN.•China gamble in entering the war considering the disparity in military firepower.

THE KOREAN WAR

•Mao was confident in his doctrine of “people’s war” which rely in manpower rather than technology.•Volunteers struck at South Korea’s columns and withdrew.

THE KOREAN WAR

•MacArthur downplay the intervention as token interference.• In an effort to quickly finish the war launched a “home by Christmas” offensive on 27 Nov.•MacArthur did not realise that there were some 200 000 lay hidden in the mountains.

THE KOREAN WAR

•The Chinese strike in full force.•By January 4 1951 Seoul fell to the enemy for the second time.•MacArthur believed that the solution was to take the war to the Chinese homeland.

THE KOREAN WAR

•Truman and Joint Chiefs feared a general WWIII.•Odds against the UN – futility of bombing, China’s vast population and extensive land, and Chinese Communities experience at guerrilla warfare.

THE KOREAN WAR

•There was also a danger of World War with the Soviet Union.•MacArthur wanted to open a new front in Taiwan and continued to defy directives from Truman

THE KOREAN WAR

•He was relieved of his command.•By June 1951, the war had reached a stalemate.•A truce was declared on 27 July 1953.

3.2 CONSEQUENCES

-For the US – lost some 33 000 lives.-China lost 800 000 including Mao’s son.

-Korea, 3 million killed, wounded or missing.

- In the North the war gave Kim an opportunity to consolidate his power.

CONSEQUENCES

- In the South, it helped pave the way for three decades of military rule.

- In China, it greatly increased the prestige of the new republic.

- Koreas continues to confront each other across the DMZ.

- China now closer relation with South.

3.3 NORTH KOREA AFTER THE WAR

•Recovered more quickly economically.•Was reluctant to fully acknowledge Chinese contribution or the importance of Soviet role in establishing Kim (Kim in Russia).

NORTH AFTER THE WAR

•After the war North Korea started to chart an independent course.•After the rift between Russia and China, the independence became extreme.•Kim developed his unique philosophy of fuche (self-reliance).

NORTH AFTER THE WAR

•Fuche replaced orthodox Marxism.• It was enforced to people through loudspeakers and political study sessions.•The growing personality cult of Sung became a kind of a secular religion.

NORTH AFTER THE WAR

•Though a Stalinist regime, it was unique.•By the end of the twentieth century there were over 35 000 monuments.• The personality cult was underpinned by the patriarchal Korean Confucian legacy and ancestor warship.

NORTH AFTER THE WAR

• •Kim turned Korea North into a socialist monarchy.•Early economic achievements gave way to stagnation and decay.

NORTH AFTER THE WAR

•Available resources were diverted to military applications.•Serious economic problems: soil erosion; declining availability of fertilisers; lack of electricity; and bad weather.•Military tension remained high.

NORTH AFTER THE WAR

•The DMZ remained the most heavily fortified areas in the world.•1983 seven top South officials were killed and the president escaped death.•1990 North Korea embarked on a programme to develop an atomic bomb.

NORTH AFTER THE WAR

• International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA).•Sanctions.•North warned that further economic sanctions would be considered an act of war.• Jimmy Carter defused the conflict.

NORTH AFTER THE WAR

• In 2002 Korea expelled the inspectors and withdrew from the Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty. • In 2006 she tested a small nuclear device.•The Axis of Evil.•China organised six-party talks.

3.4 SOUTH KOREA – THE 1ST REPUBLIC

•Founded as a constitutional democracy in 1948.•Since then the country has gone through a succession of six different republics.•Syngman Rhee, the first president soon began to display authoritarian tendencies.

THE 1ST REPUBLIC

•Spent most of his adult life in the US doing his PhD in political science and had an Austria wife.•The above made him a stranger in his own land.•After the war it remained one the poorest countries in the world.

THE 1ST REPUBLIC

•Until the mid-seventies it received more aid from the US after Israel and South Vietnam.•Allegation of fraud during the 1960 presidential elections

- student protests - 186 killed

THE 1ST REPUBLIC

- US support for Rhee withdrawn.•After nine months of leftist anarchy, Major General Park Chung Hee staged a military coup.•From 1961 to 1993, South Korea was led by a military government.

THE 1ST REPUBLIC

• It was Park who initiated economic dev.•Parks attended a Japanese military academy during the period of Japanese colonial rule.•Was the second lieutenant in the Japanese army in Manchuria during WWII.

3.5 INDUSTRIALISATION OF S. KOREA

•He encountered Japanese development.•The economic model more closely parallel that of Japan.•During his first month in office, Park established an Economic Planning Board.

INDUSTRIALISATION OF S. KOREA

•Announced a five year plan for economic development. •Nationalisation of banks.• In promoting industrialisation, tax incentives and low interest bank loans were introduced.

•Such loans were important in developing big conglomerates (chaebol).•The most important of these are Samsung, Hyundai and LG.

•The heavy reliance on bank financing encouraged them to be heavily indebted.•However, the government assumed much of the investment risk.

•Commentators – in the long run the features of the Korean economy would become problematic.• In the short term, it was working well.•From 1965 to 1990, S Korea had the second fastest growing economy after Taiwan.

•Ever-looming threat of invasion from the North.•Wanted to avoid being dependent on the us. •During the 1970’s the US transfer its recognition from Taiwan to China.

•Also announced plan to reduce its troop presence in S Korea.•Park determined to Korea self-sufficient.•Hyundai opened in 1967 and produced an automobile of its own design.

•Hyundai started exports in 1986.•By the mid-1990’s she was the fifth largest automaker in the world.•Park won the general election in 1963, 67 and 71.•During the 1971 election, an opposition won 45%.

•Park felt threatened and declared martial law, dissolved the National Assembly and introduced a new constitution.•The new reforms made the country more authoritarian.•Direct popular election of the president ended.

•Korean culture - Korea was influence by the Japanese model.•Korean leaders had mostly been educated under Japanese rule,•Korea and Japan established formal diplomatic relations in 1965 and quickly became big trading partners.

•But had bitter feeling against Japan.•Wanted to assert own independent identity.• Japanese cultural products banned.

•American was welcome.•American presence in the form of an army.•American food and pop culture became popular.•Christianity flourished more than anywhere in East Asia.

•Christmas has remained a national holiday since 1945.•More than a quarter of South Koreans are Christians.

3.6 DEMOCRATIZATION AND GLOBALIZATION

•On October 26, 1979 Park was shot to death by the head of the KCIA - apparently because of a disagreement over how to control recent student and labor unrest.• Following the assassination a gun battle between opposing detachments of South Korean soldiers.

DEMOCRATIZATION

•The gun battle ended with an attack on the Ministry of Defense and the arrest of the defense minister and the martial law commander, apparently in connection with President Park's murder.

DEMOCRATIZATION

•Major General Chun Doo Hwan staged a coup, in May 1980 -•Declared martial law, closed all universities, and suspended the National Assembly.

DEMOCRATIZATION

•This sparked protests - University students were joined in the streets by citizens, and for a few days, the demonstrators con trolled the city.•Army Special Forces crushed the protesters.

DEMOCRATIZATION

•Chun's government assumed control over all Korean television networks and began large-scale purges of the bureaucracy.•World opinion in the 1980s was very different from when Park seized power.

DEMOCRATIZATION

• In the Philippines, long-standing dictator Ferdinand Marcos was toppled by a "people power" movement in 1986.• In Taiwan, martial law would be lifted, and a successful transition from single-party rule to multiparty democracy began in 1987.

DEMOCRATIZATION

•By the 1980s, South Korea was also no longer an impoverished, war-ravaged developing country but a successfully industrialized economic powerhouse.•Korean people expected that democratization should also be part of this modernization process.

DEMOCRATIZATION

•Students, in particular, clamored for democracy. •Korean workers, whose low wages had helped make Korean industry globally competitive, were increasingly organized and active in demanding pay raises.

DEMOCRATIZATION

•Clashes between rock-throwing students and teargas-firing police ended with Chun Doo Hwan's hand-picked successor, Roh Tae Woo, making significant concessions to the demonstrators.

DEMOCRATIZATION

• In June 1987, Roh publicly promised, among other things, a direct popular presidential election and the release of political prisoners. • In December, the promised presidential election duly occurred.

DEMOCRATIZATION

•Roh Tae Woo (an army general) won the elections to become the first democratically elected president.•Another milestone was passed in 1992 with the election of Korea's first civilian president in three decades Kim Young Sam.

DEMOCRATIZATION AND GLOBALIZATION

•The new administration was committed to economic liberalization, deregulation, and globalization. •The new president was also anxious to promote democratizing reforms after he took office in 1993.

DEMOCRATIZATION AND GLOBALIZATION

•His vision of democracy was still strik ingly Confucian, however, emphasizing the collective good of the community over selfish individual interests, harmony, national discipline, and the characteristically Confucian ideal of leadership by virtuous example.

GLOBALIZATION

• In the early 1990s, the new South Korean administration also made a formal pol icy commitment to globalization and the dismantling of the Korean developmental state.• The United States and other trading partners were beginning to apply serious pressure on South Korea to open its own domestic markets.

GLOBALIZATION

•Government five-year economic plans came to an end.• In 1994, the Economic Planning Board was merged into a new super ministry (called the Ministry of Finance and Economy).

GLOBALIZATION

•Also opened up diplomatically, becoming a member of the UN in 1991 and normalizing relations with the Soviet Union in 1990 and with the PRC in 1992.•Unbanning on the importation of Japanese cultural products, starting with movies and cartoons.

GLOBALIZATION

•During Park, imports of foreign con sumer goods were often restricted, and buying foreign was discouraged as being unpatriotic. •To protect the domestic automobile industry, the import of finished automobiles was prohibited until 1987.

GLOBALIZATION

•But by the 1980s, things had begun to seriously change.•South Korea had moved dramatically to a modern, industrialized, and increasingly affluent urban middle-class society.

GLOBALIZATION

•Something like 42 percent of the South Korean people now lived in the single metropolis of Seoul. •These new Korean people were not merely urban but also modern and sophisticated.

GLOBALIZATION

•Seoul boasted strikingly high concentrations of PhDs.•Beginning in 1989, for the first time, passports became easily available to South Koreans, and foreign travel has since become much more common.

GLOBALIZATION

•Koreans increasingly are inclined to make purchases based on judgments of price and quality rather than for patriotic national considerations. •Large Western discount made their appearance, and American music, movies, and cola became the rage among young Koreans.

GLOBALIZATION

• In 1996, it was estimated that 58 percent of South Koreans ate at Western-style restaurants, and 40 percent said they preferred sleeping on Western-style beds instead of on the floor, Korean style.

GLOBALIZATION

•Koreans fear foreign cultural imperialism and the possible loss of Korean national identity.•The first McDonald's opened in Seoul in 1988, for example, but McDonald's has grown more slowly in South Korea than elsewhere in East Asia.

GLOBALIZATION

•As late as 1993, South Korea - "alone in Asia" - still refused to allow Michael Jackson to perform there.•By the end of the 1990’s its global competitiveness rankings had actually declined.

GLOBALIZATION

• In 1997, it was even obliged to accept the largest bailout (fifty-eight billion dollars) thus far in the history of the International Monetary Fund (IMF).

GLOBALIZATION

•While the chaebol had continued to grow, liberal ization of the economy and deregulation made it harder for the government to impose any discipline on them.

GLOBALIZATION

•Deregulation of Korea's financial systems in the name of glob alization also brought in a flood of mostly short-term foreign debt.•But under the pressure of this crisis and IMF supervision, South Korea moved forward quickly with economic liberalization.

GLOBALIZATION

• Foreign direct invest ment was made easier, and even outright foreign acquisition of Korean firms was permitted.• The recovery was rapid and successful enough that Korea was able to pay back what it owed the IMF in three and a half years rather than the anticipated four.

GLOBALIZATION

• In June 2000, President Kim Dae Jung flew to Pyongyang, where he was received surprisingly graciously by North Korean leader Kim Jong II.• In the twenty-first century movies, music, and other pop cultural items, as well as for the material products of Korean industry, such as cell phones and automobiles, has swept across much of Asia.

GLOBALIZATION

• In 1997, opposition party candidate Kim Dae Jung won the presidential election.• In 2009, there was a renewed nuclear scare involving North Korea.

THEME 4

China since 1945

4.1 THE CHINESE CIVIL WAR

• Conditions in war-ravaged China did not noticeably improve after Japan's defeat. • Civil war between the Chinese Nationalists and

Communists entered its final phase. • The U.S. ambassador did succeed in bringing

Mao Zedong and Chiang Kai-shek together for face-to-face negotiations.• In late 1945, President Truman appointed General

George C. Marshall as a special envoy to China.

CIVIL WAR

• Marshall also expressed concern that efforts at reaching a peace settlement were being frustrated by extremists on both sides. • Taiwan, recently returned to Chinese rule

following Japan's surrender from World War II experienced economic problems.• High unemployment, short ages of goods, and out-

of-control inflation. • Taiwan erupted into a major, island wide rebellion

on February 28, 1947.

CIVIL WAR

• The rebellion was crushed by Nationalist government troops, resulting in the deaths of thousands of Taiwanese.• Meanwhile, although the Soviet Union did not

enter the war against Japan until just six days before Japan's surrender, that was still sufficient time for the Soviets to overrun Manchuria at the end of World War II.• The Soviets then occupied Manchuria for about a

year, and extracted hundreds of millions of dollars' worth of war reparations from the region.

CIVIL WAR

• Soviet military presence gave a boost to the Chinese Communists. • The Russians turned over to the Chinese

Communists some three-quarters of a million captured rifles, eighteen thousand machine guns, and four thousand pieces of artillery.• Manchuria then became the launching pad for the

Chinese Communist military reunification of China.• The United States was providing very substantial

aid to Chiang Kai-shek's Nationalists.

CIVIL WAR

• The Nationalist armies were initially larger and better equipped than the Communist Red Army.

• But the Nationalists fought a static defensive war and were outmaneuvered and defeated unit by unit.

• In the process, huge amounts of men and material were captured by the Communists.

• Senior American advisor to Chiang Kai-shek's military even complained that "the Communists had more of our equipment than the Nationalists did."

• Beijing fell to the Communists in January 1949.

CIVIL WAR

• Chiang Kai-shek retreated with some two million followers to the island of Taiwan.• On October 1, 1949, Mao Zedong stood on

Tiananmen - the old Gate of Heavenly Peace and proclaimed the establishment of a new country, called the People's Republic of China (PRC).• Westerners in China were not all immediately

expelled after the Communist takeover. • The American president even briefly

contemplated recog nizing the new People's Republic.

4.2 CHAIRMAN MAO’S NEW CHINA

• But following the outbreak of war in Korea in 1950, the United States firmly recommitted itself to support for Chiang Kai-shek's Nationalist Republic of China on Taiwan.• The new PRC started to cultivate relatively cor

dial relations with the Soviet Union.• In December 1949, he went to Moscow on his first

ever trip abroad.

MAO’S NEW CHINA

• He obtain a three hundred million dollar loan, and a (short) period of Soviet assistance to China began that "has been characterized as the largest technology transfer in history.“• The most urgent immediate prior ity for the new

China was simply to restore order.• Had no inten tion of merely restoring the status

quo.• The Communist leaders were also sincerely

committed Marxists and were determined to carry through a Marxist social revolution.

MAO’S NEW CHINA

• Marxist theory taught that historical progress is driven by class struggle through a regular series of stages, defined in terms of modes of production. • The most relevant of these stages were supposed

to be the transition from feudalism to capitalism, and then from capitalism to communism. • By 1952 Mao was ready to initi ate the "transition

to socialism." • Collectivized farming, began to be promoted.

MAO’S NEW CHINA

• Although Mao had led what was undeniably a rural "peasant revolution," mod ern socialist industrialization remained a cherished Communist goal.• A Soviet Russian model for the development of

heavy industry in China was adopted, based on centralized planning and a series of Stalinist-style five-year plans. • The first was implemented in 1953.

MAO’S NEW CHINA

• During another visit to Moscow in 1957,Mao was encouraged by the pioneering launch of the Soviet space satellite Sputnik. • Mao was inspired enough by the Soviets'

announced goal of overtaking the U.S. economy in fifteen years to call for China overtaking Great Britain in that same length of time.

4.3 THE GREAT LEAP FORWARD AND THE CULTURAL REVOLUTION

• Mao's visit to Moscow may have also struck a spark of Chinese nationalistic com petitive rivalry with the Russians.• Mao began to contemplate significant departures

from the Soviet Russian model.• He believed that industrialization, and economic

takeoff, could be achieved through people power rather than through new technologies, capital investment, or elitist centralized planning.

THE GREAT LEAP FORWARD AND THE CULTURAL REVOLUTION

• People power underlay what came to be known as the Great Leap Forward, beginning in 1958.• The Great Leap Forward was announced in early

1958, the first experimental commune was established in April.• But the Great Leap Forward quickly turned into a

great disaster.

• The most notorious examples of this were the so-called backyard steel furnaces that were intended to double China's steel and iron production in a single year. • Even more serious was the disaster in agriculture. • Because private ownership was now forbidden,

many farmers apparently simply killed their livestock rather than turn it over to the collective.

• By fall 1958, serious shortages were already becoming apparent. • It is now estimated that at least fifteen million

people -and possibly many more - died of malnutrition during the famine caused by the Great Leap Forward in the years 1958-1962.

• Because Mao sometimes encouraged criticism, but also sometimes lashed out unpredictably at anyone who disagreed with him, the people around him were reluctant to tell him anything he did not want to hear.• At a party meeting in 1959, the defense minister,

a hero of the Korean War, offered a critique, in a private letter to Mao, of the Great Leap Forward as a violation of the basic laws of economics.

• Mao's prestige was still unchallengeable - and the defense minister was purged as a "bourgeois element." • Mao stepped down as the head of the Chinese

government (while retaining his more powerful position as chairman of the Communist Party)• Over the next few years, Mao was seen so seldom

in public that some observers in the West began to speculate that he might even be dead.

CULTURAL REVOLUTION

• But Mao was not dead, and he was apparently growing suspicious of "revi sionists" and "capitalist readers.“• This suspicion set the stage for Mao's next, and

last, great campaign, which is known as the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution.• By spring 1966, Mao, his wife, and a circle of

radical followers were encouraging young students to take to the streets to promote a Maoist vision of revolution.

CULTURAL REVOLUTION

• Mao famously told the students, "It is right to rebel." • Many of the students orga nized themselves into

groups called Red Guards, the first of which appeared at a Beijing middle school in May 1966.• By June, classes in China's schools had been

suspended, and millions of students were released to join the action.

CULTURAL REVOLUTION

• Students were given free rail transportation, and many went to Beijing in the hope of catching a glimpse of the "big red sun,” Chairman Mao. • The Cultural Revolution represented a rejection of

the old feudal (i.e., traditional) and bourgeois (i.e., Western) influences in art, literature, and culture generally, and an attempt to replace these with a new socialist culture.

CULTURAL REVOLUTION

• On July 17, 1966, the seventy-three-year-old Mao Zedong electrified the youth of China by swimming several miles down the Yangzi River.• He then returned to Beijing to attack the party

leadership in a Central Committee meeting on July 21. • Persons in leadership positions throughout China

who were not perceived as being sufficiently Maoist were denounced and publicly struggled against.

CULTURAL REVOLUTION

• Most prominent among the victims were the president of the PRC (the head of China's government) and another senior leader named Deng Xiaoping.• By 1968, the president of the Peo ple's Republic

had been formally expelled from the Communist Party. • He died of pneumonia, lying naked on his cement

prison floor, an "enemy of the people," the following year, in 1969.

CULTURAL REVOLUTION

• The other top-ranking target of the Cultural Revolution, Deng Xiaoping, was comparatively fortunate. • Deng, too, was purged, and Deng endured three

years of struggle sessions and solitary confinement and then three more years of internal exile under house arrest, working in a tractor repair factory in southeast China.• But Deng survived, was eventually rehabilitated,

and made an historic comeback.

CULTURAL REVOLUTION

• By 1969, almost half of the original Politburo members, and more than half of the original Central Committee members, had been purged. • More radical Red Guard factions were also

dragging China ever deeper into chaos where there was even some actual combat between armed factions. • Finally, beginning in September 1967, Mao called

on the People's Liberation Army to step in and restore order.

CULTURAL REVOLUTION

• Beginning in 1968, and continuing until Mao's death in 1976, more than twelve million students were "sent down" to remote rural villages. • This was intended both to break up the student

concentrations and to acquaint elitist student intellectuals with a taste of hard peasant life. • By now, the active phase of the Cultural

Revolution was over.

4.4 NIXON AND MAO

• Relations between the United States under Nixon and China started to soften. • On the other hand, relationship with the Soviet

Union had also always been distant and rocky.• After Stalin died in 1953, relations deteriorated

rapidly.

NIXON AND MAO

• Beijing denounced the Soviets for revisionism and betrayal of the revolution, while Moscow criticized ultra-radical Chinese Maoists for their extremism. • In 1968, Moscow sent troops into Czechoslovakia

and openly asserted Moscow's right to intervene in, and the limited independent sovereignty of other countries within the Socialist bloc.

NIXON AND MAO

• By this time, the Russian also seemed to be the dominant external supporters of the Communist cause in Vietnam, to China's south. • The Chinese therefore increasingly felt

surrounded with, and threatened by, Russians.• To the north, China and the Soviet Union shared

the longest land border in the world.

NIXON AND MAO

• Along this frontier there was a massive Soviet military buildup.• The number of Soviet divisions deployed along

the border increased from twenty-five in 1969 to forty-five in 1973. • During these years, there were a large number of

border incidents, the most serious of which occurred in March 1969 at Damansky Island .

NIXON AND MAO

• By 1969, many of China's leaders had come to view the Soviet Union as a greater military threat to China than the United States.• On the American side, the United States had

continued to recognize Taiwan.• There were no direct communications between

the United States and the PRC.

NIXON AND MAO

• Americans were flatly not permitted to travel to mainland China.• In 1969, moreover, the United States had a new

president, Richard M. Nixon.• China was a magnificently effective strategy in

Washington's global cold war rivalry with Moscow.

NIXON AND MAO

• In addition, the United States was then mired in a deeply unpopular war in Vietnam. • By 1969, there were 541,000 U.S. troops in

Vietnam - yet there was still no end to the war in sight.

NIXON AND MAO

• China appeared to be the only country that might be able to provide some leverage to help the United States free itself from Vietnam.• Both Mao and Nixon were therefore ready to

relax the Sino-American con frontation.• An opportunity presented itself in 1971 in the

form of so-called ping-pong diplomacy.

NIXON AND MAO

• During the Cultural Revolution, China had simply not participated in any international athletic events. • With Mao's approval a Chinese team attended the

1971 World Table Tennis Cham pionship being held in Japan. • Friendly relations between the U.S. and Chinese

ping-pong teams prompted an invitation (with top-level approval) to the American team to visit China.

NIXON AND MAO

• A year later, the Chinese team reciprocated with a visit to the United States.• Secret negotiations between the Nixon

administration and Beijing began in February 1972.• President Nixon went to China. • The biggest and most thorny diplomatic issue was

the problem of Taiwan.

NIXON AND MAO

• The United States delicately sidestepped the issue in the resulting formal document known as the Shanghai Communique.• This document acknowledged that Chinese

people on both Taiwan and the mainland were in agreement that there is only one China, and that Taiwan is a part of it, and expressed the desire that this issue be settled peacefully by the Chinese themselves.

NIXON AND MAO

• The Shanghai Communique also affirmed the American intention of progressively withdrawing U.S. military forces from Taiwan.• However, the United States did not officially

switch recognition from Taiwan to the PRC until 1979.• The U.S. Congress passed a new Taiwan Relations

Act, committing the United States to a high level of continued support for Taiwan.

4.5 DENG XIAOPING AND MARKET-LENINISM

• On September 9, 1976, Chairman Mao Zedong died. • Mao's wife and three of her ultra-radical

colleagues - the Gang of Four attempted to seize power. • Instead, senior military figures staged a

preemptive countercoup.• Power therefore passed to Mao's own handpicked

successor (Hua Guofeng, 1921-2008).

DENG XIAOPING AND MARKET-LENINISM

• Over time, some three million people who had been purged during the Cultural Revolution were restored to public life.• Deng Xiaoping was not only still alive but also

already promoting a relatively appealing program of economic and technological reform.• By 1978, Deng Xiaoping, representing the

economic reform faction, had risen to supreme power.

• Deng did not take any top offices or titles for himself, but remained China's acknowledged paramount leader until his death.• Deng never enjoyed the kind of concentrated

prestige and power that Mao had once wielded.• The goal of the economic reformers was to

improve China's standard of living.• In the agricultural sector, they proceeded through

improvisation.

• The economic reforms began with unauthorized local initiatives.• In 1979, one commune responded to a drought

situation by drawing up individual contracts and basing pay on productivity.• The practice quickly spread and turned into a

general nationwide abandonment of the communes and a return to the family farm, or individual household, as the basic agricultural unit.

• The industrial sector presented a much more complicated problem.• China's leaders were reluctant to throw large

numbers of work ers out of their jobs by closing down even the most unproductive state-run factories.• It was easier simply to authorize new enterprises

outside the existing state-run sec tor - but the surging growth of this new entrepreneurship then quickly threatened to overwhelm the state-run share.

• By about 1992, China had become a predomi nantly market economy.• A third of private business owners in China are

now actually Com munist Party members, and even though it has become common to joke that the acronym CCP really should now stand for "Chinese Capitalist Party”.

• The market-based reforms in China since 1978 have been spectacularly successful. • Although most Chinese people remain poor by the

standards of the world's most developed countries, some four hundred million Chinese people have been lifted out of the direst poverty, and China's major cities have been utterly transformed.

• By the end of the twentieth century, China had more television sets than any other country in the world.• By the start of the twenty-first century, in 2001,

China had the most cell phones in the world.• There is now more Internet use in China than in

any other single country

• In December 2008, China actually passed the United States to become the world's largest market for automobile sales (although this was, initially at least, mainly because of a slump in U.S. car sales owing to a recession).• By 2006, China had also become the world's third

largest market for luxury goods.

• The reasons for China's rapid economic takeoff were chiefly:

- The relaxation of central controls; - A widespread and obsessive focus on

economic growth and money making; - A huge, relatively well educated and eager labor sup ply; and - Generous foreign investment.

• Opening up to foreign trade and investment was critical.• Under Deng Xiaoping, China opened up again. • China, as opposed to Japan and South Korea have

a greater openness to foreign investment. • As of 2003, the foreign direct investment to GDP

ratio in China was 35 percent, compared to only 2 percent in Japan.

• The reappear ance of Spe cial Economic Zones (SEZs). • Four of these SEZs were initially approved in 1979

(Shenzhen, Shantou, Zhuhai, and Xiamen, all in the southeast).• China's new openness brought in not only foreign

investment but also foreign ideas.

• China's economic growth has been largely fueled by new investment rather than dramatic improvements in productivity.• China's efficiency in the use of resources such as

oil and water remains low com pared to advanced industrialized nations, and China's prohibition of independent labour unions has also helped keep wages low.

• China's economic growth has been largely fueled by new investment rather than dramatic improvements in productivity.• China's efficiency in the use of resources such as

oil and water remains low com pared to advanced industrialized nations, and China's prohibition of independent labour unions has also helped keep wages low.

• China's eco nomic success has been accompanied by some highly unattractive features such as sweatshops, official corruption, and horrific environmental pollution. • In 2007, China passed the United States to

become the world's largest emitter of greenhouse gases. • Corruption and abuses of authority have become

endemic.

• The economic reforms undeniably opened up new entrepreneurial opportuni ties for some people, they also took away most of the old guarantees for others.• Rapid urbanization also created a huge

underclass of migrant workers, who often face discrimination and harsh working and living conditions.

• Gender discrimi nation has actually gotten worse under the market-based reforms, as old patriarchal prejudices revive.• Relations between China and the United States

come under various new strains.• This includes the growing trade imbalance, U.S.

concern that China was help ing Pakistan develop nuclear weapons, and a newly emerging concern for human rights issues.

• Tiananmen massacre ended any illusions some Americans may have entertained that China was happily on its way to becoming a capitalist democracy.

4.6TIANANMEN SQUARE DEMONSTRATIONS

• Deng Xiaoping engineered the instal lation of a younger generation of reformers in China's top offices.• One of these men, Hu Yaobang (1915-1989), was

Deng's designated successor and, as secretary general of the Communist Party, the highest ranking person in China.

TIANANMEN SQUARE DEMONSTRATIONS

• But in the winter of 1986-1987, Hu Yaobang was accused by hard-liners of being too sympathetic to student demonstrators.• Hu was compelled to step down. • On the morning of April 15, 1989, former

secretary General Hu Yaobang died in the hospital following a heart attack.

• Later that same afternoon, mourners began appearing in Tiananmen Square.• By the time of Hu Yaobang's funeral, two hundred

thousand student demonstrators had gathered in Tiananmen Square. • Their demonstrations continued on after the

funeral and increasingly included calls for political reforms to complement the existing market-based economic reforms.

• On May 13, a smaller group of students began a permanent occupation of the square and a hunger strike. • The demonstrations coincided with the first Sino-

Soviet summit meeting in three decades. • On May 16, the leader of the Soviet Union arrived

in Beijing from Moscow, trailed by over a thousand foreign journalists.

• As a result of all the resulting world media attention, the student demonstrations in Tiananmen Square became the best-covered political event in the history of the PRC (at least until the 2008 Beijing Olympics). • By May 17, there were a million demonstrators in

the hundred-acre Tiananmen Square, and their demonstrations completely upstaged the supposedly historic Sino-Soviet summit.

• After the Sino-Soviet summit meeting and the departure of the Russian leader, live satellite television broadcasts were ordered terminated and on May 20, martial law was formally declared. • An ultimatum was issued to the demonstrators:

disperse immediately or be dispersed by force.

• The first attempt to use the army to clear the square failed.• Many people in the Communist Party itself were

apparently sympa thetic to the students.• Sympathizers included even the highest-ranking

person in China, the secretary general of the Communist Party Zhao Ziyang.• Zhao Ziyang was placed under house arrest,

where he remained until his death in 2005.

• Student grievances in 1989 included criticism of widespread official corruption, bureaucratic arbitrariness of life in the PRC, the stifling lack of personal freedoms, and frustration with a reform process that had apparently stalled.• Another motivation was the acute realization that

college-educated professionals in China - who were assigned jobs by the state at fixed rate had been largely left out of the new opportunities.

• The Goddess of Democracy statue that was erected in Tiananmen Square.• There were nearly simultaneous democracy

movements in several other parts of the world. • "People power" successfully brought down the

Filipino dictator Ferdi nand Marcos in 1986, student demonstration in South Korea led to a democratic presidential election in 1987.

• The same year, Taiwan repealed its martial law and legalized the formation of opposition parties, becoming a genuine mul tiparty democracy. • In 1989, the Berlin Wall fell, beginning the

unraveling of the Soviet bloc in Eastern Europe and the collapse of the Soviet Union. • But the 1989 Tiananmen Square demonstrations

in China ended very differently.

• Senior Communist leaders, including Deng Xiaoping, were determined to maintain control.• In the darkness of early Sunday morning, June 4,

thousands of fully armed combat troops assaulted Tiananmen Square.• Around 1:00 A.M., an armored personnel carrier

toppled the Goddess of Democracy statue• At 4:30 A.M., the remaining students, after taking

a voice vote, withdrew from the square.

• Hundreds - perhaps thousands - of people had been For a time.• China appeared poised on the brink of civil war.• Since 1989, ' in China itself, however, the

Communist Party has managed to stay in power^ suppress unwelcome memories, restart the market-based economic reforms, and deliver surging prosperity.

• By 2008, China's rate of popular national satisfaction was the highest in the world, with 86 percent of the Chinese people expressing satisfaction.

4.7 GREATER CHINA

• Economic development has been largely fueled by foreign invest ment – but as much as 80 percent - has come from Chinese people.• There are some thirty to thirty-five million

overseas Chinese (Huaqiao) who live scattered around the world, in neither the PRC nor Taiwan, and who have been important sources of investment in China.

GREATER CHINA

• There are three predominantly Chinese territories outside the mainland PRC that together comprise a kind of Greater China: Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Singa pore. • Hong Kong, especially, proved critical to the early

stages of China's market-based reforms, serving as China's single largest source of foreign direct investment.

GREATER CHINA

• After Hong Kong reverted to Chinese rule in 1997, Taiwan then replaced it as the major source of foreign investment.• Greater China and the overseas Chinese enjoy

certain natural advantages in doing business there.

GREATER CHINA SINGAPORE

• Singapore is the most remote from the PRC of these three Chinese territories.• About three-quarters of the people in Singapore

are ethnic Chinese.• Geographical importance - has been a principal

gateway for shipping coming from the west into the Pacific Ocean for many centuries.• Singapore is today the world's busiest container

GREATER CHINASINGAPORE

• Was still almost entirely uninhabited, however, when the British East India Company first established a base there in 1819.• Large numbers of Chinese people, together with

somewhat smaller numbers of Indians, moved into the region to participate in its economic development. • Tension after independence.

• Singapore to split from Malaysia in 1965, becoming an independent city-state.• Singapore became rich because it was already

relatively rich, and because it had good policies.• Its prosperity was rooted in a lengthy colonial

prehistory of active participation in world trade, which was modified after the end of British rule to include a particularly active new role for government.

• An antiseptic, relatively crime-free environment was achieved through unusually strict measures such as a stiff U.S. $50 fine for spitting in public, fine for not flushing public toilets after use, a long-standing (now slightly modified) prohibition on chewing gum, a ban on nudity, and a particularly high ratio of capital punishment.• People's Action Party (PAP) the only party.

• The world's number one freest economy.• It enjoys a longer average f life expectancy than

the United States.• Territories with the world's highest per capita

incomes. • A special administrative region (SAR) of the PRC.• Began life as a British colony.

GREATER CHINAHONG KONG

• Soon after the British acquisition, Chinese people began migrating there in large numbers, in search of economic opportunity.• Chinese people make up some 95 percent of

Hong Kong's total population.• Hong Kong is very much an in-migrant society

with only about half the people in Hong Kong had actually been born there.

• With the onset of Deng Xiaoping's market-based reforms in the late 1970s, Hong Kong found itself uniquely well positioned.• Hong Kong entered now into its greatest boom

era. • Even while still a British colony, per capita income

in Hong Kong surpassed that of Great Britain in the 1990s.

• Hong Kong was not a democracy as there was no representative self- government. • It was, instead, a direct Crown colony.• The first direct popular democratic election was

not held until 1991.• Christopher Patten came into office in 1992.

• The majority of Hong Kong's land area, the New Territories, had merely been leased. • That ninety-nine-year lease was due to expire in

1997, and in anticipation of that date, British prime minister Margaret Thatcher (1925-) visited Beijing in 1982 in the hope of negotiating an extension.

• Deng Xiaoping and the Beijing authorities flatly refused to consider any continuation of British administration, however, and the final outcome was a 1984 Sino-British Joint Declaration, under the terms of which all of Hong Kong would revert to Chinese rule at the expiration of the lease.

• But Beijing also made a significant concession: Hong Kong would become a special administrative region of the People's Republic, and would be allowed to keep its own distinctive capitalist society for at least fifty years, under the formula "one country, two systems."

• At midnight on June 30, 1997, 156 years of British colonial rule in Hong Kong finally came to an end. • Hong Kong nonetheless does retain a high degree

of autonomy.• Hong Kong retains its own separate money

system, known as the Hong Kong dollar.• Hong Kong is the only place in China today where

the Tiananmen massacre can be openly commemorated.

GREATER CHINATAIWAN

• Taiwan's government still calls itself the Republic of China.• It still flies the old national flag of the Chinese

Republic.• Taiwan still actively uses the old Chi nese

Nationalist calendar that counts all dates from the founding of the Chinese Republic on the mainland in 1912 (making, for example, the year 2000 of our so-called "common era" the year 89 on Taiwan).

GREATER CHINATAIWAN

• Taiwan has maintained more continuity with cer tain aspects of Chinese traditional culture (such as religion, respect for Confucian I values, and the full form of the Chinese writing system) than the mainland PRC has.• There are aborigines on the island, though today

they only make up about 2 percent of the population.

GREATER CHINATAIWAN

• HISTORY - In the seventeenth century, the Dutch established an outpost on the southwest coast of Taiwan (1624-1662).• The Dutch were soon driven off by Chinese

pirates. • In 1683, pirates were conquered by the Qing

Dynasty, and for the first time, Taiwan officially became part of an empire based in China.

GREATER CHINATAIWAN

• The Qing Dynasty was defeated by Japan in war in 1895 and the island was ceded to Japan and became modern Japan's first overseas imperial colony.• In 1945, Japan lost World War II, and Taiwan was

returned to Chinese rule under Chiang.• Chiang Kai-shek remained president until his

death in 1975.

GREATER CHINATAIWAN

• The government in Taipei long continued to claim that it was the only legiti mate government of all China.• When forced to choose, most of the world

eventually opted to recognize the Beijing-based PRC. • Great Britain recognized, the PRC in 1950, soon

after its formation, France recognized it in 1964, Canada established diplomatic relations in 1970, and by 1979, even the United States had formally switched its recognition from Taipei to Beijing.

GREATER CHINATAIWAN

• Today, the only European state that still officially recog nizes the Republic of China on Taiwan is the Vatican.• The split between mainland China and Taiwan is

still an unresolved issue.• Friction between mainlanders and Taiwanese. • Taiwan Independence Movement.

GREATER CHINATAIWAN

• The "mainlanders" are those who fled to the island with Chiang Kai-shek make up roughly 14 percent the island's population.• Some Taiwanese felt oppressed by this continuing

mainlander rule on the island. • Despite these problems, however, Taiwan also

quickly became a spectacular example of an East Asian "economic miracle," and the first genuine multipart democracy in Chinese history.

GREATER CHINATAIWAN

• In the following year, 1987, President Chiang Ching-kuo's administration formally repealed martial law, legalized the formation of opposition parties lifted some of the existing restrictions on the press, and permitted indirect travel (through another country) to mainland China.• Became primarily a two-party system, with the :

DPP and the Nationalist Party as the two major alternatives.

GREATER CHINATAIWAN

• In 2000, the DPP candidate, Chen Shuibian won the presidential election. • In 2004, Chen Shuibian won reelection for a

second four-year term.• While President Chen Shuibian and the DPP weri

trying to promote a Taiwan independence agenda and tensions between Taipei and Beijing were most elevated, Taiwan's economic and cultural reintegration will mainland China was also simultaneously rapidly accelerating.

GREATER CHINATAIWAN

• Prior to the democratization of Taiwan in 1987, it had been flatly illegal for people from Taiwan to go to mainland China. • Thereafter, however, they began doing so in ever

growing numbers. The PRC has now become Taiwan's largest market.• Culturally - the Man darin language that is spoken

in Taiwan is nearly identical to the Mandarin spoken in the PRC.

4.8 CHINA AND GLOBALIZATION

• Deng Xiaoping toured the SEZs in the early 1990s - pro nounced that China should not fear a little capitalism.• By the early 1990s, China had successfully

completed its transition to a predominantly market economy and her economy continued to surge.

CHINA AND GLOBALIZATION

• In 2008, China invested about one trillion U.S. dollars in American government bonds and other U.S. debt. • China passed Japan in late 2008 to become the

largest single holder of U.S. government debt.

• Economic growth and international integration have not yet triggered democra tization.• China's current president, Hu Jintao did affirm a

commitment to democracy and rule by law shortly after com ing to power in 2002.• Voting by ordinary citizens remains limited to the

lowest administrative level.

• The Internet is also monitored.• One of the biggest grievances leading up to the

Tiananmen Square demon strations in 1989 had been that college-educated professionals felt excluded from the profit-making opportunities provided by market-based reforms.

• Since 1989, however, some observers believe that college-educated professionals in China have been specifically targeted for economic rewards and have accordingly become increasingly content and satisfied with the status quo.• Half of all college students in China are now

applying to join the Communist Party, and party membership has grown, reaching some seventy-three million by 2003.

• China today does face a considerable number of daunting problems. • Major problems include the exhaustion of China's

natu ral resources, growing economic inequality, and endemic corruption. • The single most frightening problem is China's

rapidly dwindling water supply, partic ularly in north China, where the water table is plummeting alarmingly.

• Industrialization has had a predictably horrific effect on the environment. • China's leaders are aware of these problems.• China, for example, has imple mented higher fuel-

efficiency standards for automobiles than the United States.• Its solar energy industry is the fastest growing in

the world.• Its wind-turbine energy production is also

developing spectacularly.

• China today shares land borders with fourteen different countries and has territorial disputes with several. • Yet China today has nonetheless delib erately

charted a course of development that it advertises as a "peaceful rise”.• In 1984, China had no golf courses, but by 2007,

China had the fifth greatest number of golf courses in the world.

• Christianity, amazingly enough, has also been booming in the PRC.• Both China's current president and premier have

children who have studied in the United States.• One of Deng Xiaoping's grandsons is a U.S.

citizen. • English is the preferred language of international

communication.

• At the end of the twentieth century, the world's largest and busiest McDonald's restaurant was in Tiananmen Square.• The most popular brand of automobile in China is

the American General Motors (GM).• The first major political manifestation of the new

Internet technology came in the form of a newly invented "traditional" Chinese religion - Falun Gong.

• Its followers used computer Web sites and cell phones to mobilize this impressive mass demonstration in 1999, which they evidently hoped would win greater toleration of Falun Gong from the authorities in Beijing. • The attempt backfired, however, because party

leaders panicked instead and ordered a harsh and continuing crackdown on Falun Gong as a supposedly dangerous cult.

• Globalization in China has therefore not been a simple one-directional process of Americanization or Westernization but a much more complicated mul tidirectional process of action and reaction, shaped by both the preexisting sit uation and the swirling patterns of international trends.

• In the new the age of globalization, as the tide of Marxist revolution against "feudal" tradition has receded, there has even been a certain amount of conscious revival of, and renewed pride in, pre-modern Chinese traditions.• China is already coming to be seen as

representing an attractive possible alternative model for some parts of the developing world, where - especially in Asia, Africa, and Latin America - China has suddenly become a major force for export growth.

• In 2009, for example, China passed the United States to become Brazil's largest trading partner and is becoming globally more important.

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