The Politics of Identity in Middle East International Relations

- Nation-building complicated by incongruence between the state and sub- (i.e.cities, tribe, religious sects) and supra-state identities (i.e. Arab , Islamic umma).

- An exceptionally diverse etno-linguistic and secterian mosaics : not only was Islam divided between Sunni and Shia, but the latter also produced several branches: the Druze, Ismailis, Alawis, Zayids ; a multitude Christian minorities.

- Even the most successful and durable Middle East empire, the Ottoman, was the opposite of nation-state.

The Challenge of Nation-building-1

- Imposition of Western state system created weak, competing, artificial state units.

- Nation-state” problematic term for Arab states: one nation-one state vs one nation-many states.

- Arabism based on history and language competes with rival identities.

The Challenge of Nation-building-3

- Pan-Arab identity (qaumi) and state centric (watani) nationalism.

- Construction of Arab nationalism as secular in multi-religious states, stronger Islamic content in religiously homogenous states.

- Arab nationalism and Islamism: Rivals with shared causes and overlap.

- Pan-Arab nationalism hegemonic ideology from 1950s to 70s, and persistence of the “imagined community”.

- Identification with the state and Islam exceeding Arab identity.

Arab Nationalism

- Externally imposed boundaries built irredentism into regional state system.

- Nations without states, e.g. the Kurds, Palestinians.

- Contested borders have dragged states into conflict with each other. Example: Iraq’s wars.

Irredentism and Inter-State Conflict

- Identity both shapes perceptions of interest in foreign policy

making and is an instrument in their pursuit.

- Supra-state imagined community makes inter-Arab politics

distinctive: competition among states for Pan-Arab leadership.

- Identity can also constrain states: material vs identity interests.

- Unionist projects such as United Arab Republic.

- Variations in state identity and foreign policy variations partly

explained by varying social compositions:

- satisfied identity status quo

- identity revisionism.

Identity and Foreign Policy

- Events of 2011 manifest conflict between rival coexisting identities: “Arab Spring” indication of shared Arab public space.

- Yet demands are state-centric.

- Arabism suffers from association with repressive regimes, such as Syria.

- Islamacizing states related to Pan-Islamic identity.

Identity and the Arab Uprising

- Quran and Sunna refer to concepts such as nations, power, political authority, and treaty-making.

- Does Islam make distinction between religion and politics? Evidence of differentiation between religious authority and political power.

- Jihad: a martial or spiritual concept?

- The Community of Believers (umma): general sense of belonging to a geographically broad and culturally diverse faith tradition, not incompatible with other memberships and associations

Islam and International Relations: History and Key Concepts

- Islam emerged as focal point of anti-colonial agitation by the late 19th century.

However, nationalism proved to be a more effective discourse.

- In popular discourse, (principally Muslim Brotherhood) led political mobilization of

umma serves symbolic function towards unity among Muslims.

- “Petro-Islam”: Saudi propagation of Wahhabism.

- Iran only Islamic state where religious scholars/clerics (assembly of experts) in

along with supreme leader and Guardian Council controls government al

functions.

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Pan-Islam, Colonialism, and the Modern State

“Petro-Islam”: Saudi propagation of Wahhabism/Salafism.

Iran:Who holds Power?

Ayatollah Khamenei became Supreme Leader in 1989

The Political Economy of Islamic Revival

-“Islamic Revival” often dated to post-Six Day War (1967), but cultural

resonance and language of religion always present.

- Islamist social/political movements not the only actors: States intervene in

religious field and deploy religious institutions for own goals.

- Muslim Brotherhood primarily middle-class phenomenon, but cannot be

reduced to class interests of a particular actor.

- The Egyptian example: liberalization created political environment

conducive to growth of Islamism – into the vacuum of state retreat.

Muslim Brotherhood (Ihvan) : founded in Egypt in 1928, prototype for many modern Islamist movements Islam pervades all aspects of life.

Islam and Geopolitics

- Cold War geopolitics gave more prominent role to Islam.

- Example: Saudi religious outreach welcomed by US as check against

Communism.

- Iran’s Islamic Revolution (1979):

- Domestically implemented direct clerical rule.

- Internationally, symbolised removal of a secular regime by

Islamic forces, “Third Worldist” appeal.

- Soviet invasion of Afghanistan: financial and military support for

Mujahidin from the West and Middle Eastern states evidence that

superpower can be subdued under banner of Islam.

The US supported an Islamic opposition to the Soviet invasion out of

doctrinal principles long held sacred. Throughout the CW, conventional

wisdom in the West saw Islam as an antidote to Communism and thus

as a strategic asset to be cultivated…The problem was that many

Muslims did not see socialism and Islam to be so starkly opposed.

Indeed, throughout the 20thcent., a substantial current of opinion in

Muslim societies held that Islam’s message was one of social justice and

that socialism was inherent in Islam. Therefore, only the more extremist

and inflexible versions of Islam could effectively counter Communism.

(Khalid,p.17-18).

Thinking about Islam and Foreign Policy

- Middle way between explaining all Muslim behaviour in relation to

Islam and viewing Islam as a rhetorical instrument.

- Religion and IR theory: Realist and Constructivist approaches.

- Need to understand how languages, symbols, and values associated

with Islam are linked to representation and deliberation of political

issues.

Islam, Globalization and the Middle East

- Increase in extent and range of Muslim transnationalism.- Example: “Muslim Public Sphere” through information and communications technology

- Islamist groups use globalization to expand international political influence.

- However, Islamist not uniformly adopting normative agenda of neo-liberal globalization.

- Arab uprisings in 2011 undermine jihadist claim that political change can only result from combination of Islam and violence ?

Anti-Mursi Protests in Cairo on June 30,2013