THEELASTICITYOFVERBMEANINGREVISITEDBethLevin

StanfordUniversity

SALT27,2017

ThebigquesKon:Meaning&distribuKon

• HowtoaccountfortherichandvariedsetofsyntacKcenvironmentsthatagivenverbcanbefoundin?

ThebigquesKon:Meaning&distribuKon

Anexampleofwhatisatstake:

• Terrywiped.(acKvity)• Terrywipedthetable.(acKvity)• Terrywipedthetable.(telicevent)• Terrywipedcrumbsoffthetable.(removing)

• Terrywipedcrumbsintothesink.(puZng)

• Terrywipedtheslateclean.(changeofstate)• Terrywipedthecrumbsintoapile.(creaKon)

ThebigquesKon:Meaning&distribuKon

Anotherexampleofwhatisatstake:

• Thefactoryhornssirenedthroughouttheraid.• Thefactoryhornssirenedmidday…

• ThepolicecarsirenedthePorschetoastop.• Thepolicecarsireneduptotheaccidentsite.• Thepolicecarsirenedthedaylightoutofme.

(Borer2003,p.40,(13);fromClark&Clark1979:803,(32)-(36))

BasicassumpKonsaboutverbmeaning

• Averb’srootmustbedisKnguishedfromtheeventstructuresitcanbefoundin;these,inturn,determineitsargumentrealizaKonopKons•  Inmuchrecentwork,eventstructuresaresyntacKcallyinstanKatedas‘construc/ons’,soargumentrealizaKonfallstogetherwithconstrucKonaldistribuKon

(ThisbiparKtenesscanbegivenlexical/projecKonistorconstrucKonaltreatments;setthisasidehere)

ThebigquesKon:Meaning&distribuKon

• Whatistheroleoftheverb’sroot—theverb’sidiosyncraKcconceptualcontent—intheanswertothebigquesKon?

• Thesiren/wipedatamightsuggestthattherootdoesn’thavetoolargeaparttoplay

• However,therearerestricKonsonaroot’sdistribuKonwhichmightsuggestotherwise

ThebigquesKon:Meaning&distribuKonSomeakributesuchrestricKonstoworldknowledge—presumably,partoftheidiosyncraKcconceptualcontentoftheroot:

#MaryguilloKned.(#onthereading:‘MarybecameguilloKned’.)

‘WeclaimthatitispartofourworldknowledgethatonecannotbecomeguilloKnedwithouttheintervenKonofanagenKvecauser’

(Mateu&Acedo-Matellán2012:215)

ThebigquesKon:Meaning&distribuKon

OtherssuggestrootshavegrammaKcallyprivilegedcontent.,e.g.,agrammaKcallyrelevantontologicaltype(RH&L1998)

• Why?Verbswithsimilarmeaningsshowa‘distribuKonalsignature’:acharacterisKcsetofargumentrealizaKonopKons

• Evidence:Fillmore(1971)onhitvs.break

ThebigquesKon:Meaning&distribuKon

• Aresomefacetsoftheconceptualcontentofarootprivileged?

• Thatis,aretheregeneralizaKonsaboutthedistribuKonofrootsacrossconstrucKonsthatreferenceproperKescharacterisKcofcertainclassesofrootsratherthancontentidiosyncraKctoaparKcularroot?

Roadmap

• Revisittheempiricalpakerns

• Expandtheempiricallandscape

• Showasymmetriesinroot/construcKondistribuKonthatsuggestacomposiKonalprocessatwork

• Sketchtherelevantingredients

Theempiricallandscape:Fromhitandbreaktomannerandresult

DistribuKonalsignatures:hit/break• Theboybroke/hitthewindowwithaball.

• CausaKvealternaKon:• Theboybrokethewindow./Thewindowbroke.• Theboyhitthewindow./*Thewindowhit.

• ConaKveconstrucKon:• *Theboybrokeatthewindow.• Theboyhitatthewindow.

DistribuKonalsignatures

• ThesepakernsarefoundacrosssemanKcallycoherentsetsofverbs:

Hitverbs:slap,strike,bump,stroke,…

!surfacecontactverbs

Breakverbs:bend,fold,shaker,crack,…!changeofstateverbs

(Fillmore1971)

DistribuKonalsignatures

• Juxtaposinghitandbreakiscompelling

• Certaineventscanbedescribedbyeither,thougheachdescribesadifferentfacetoftheevents:

Scenario:Avandalthrowsarockatastorewindowanditbreaks.• Thevandalhitthewindowwitharock.

• Thevandalbrokethewindowwitharock.

BeyondhiZngandbreaking:Manner/result

Manner Result

Damaging hit break

PuZng—2-dim smear cover

PuZng—3-dim pour fill

Removal shovel empty

Combining shake combine

Killing stab kill

Hitandbreakrepresentlargerclassesofroots:

BeyondhiZngandbreaking:Manner/result

Hitandbreakrepresentlargerclassesofroots(orverbs):

• Resultroots:specifyastate,osenresulKngfromanacKon

• Mannerroots:specifymanneror‘acKonpakern’associatedwithanacKon

BeyondhiZngandbreaking:Manner/result

Resultverbs:•  #Ibrokethevasewithahammer,butthevasestayedintact.

•  IbrokethevasebyhiZngitwithahammer/droppingitonthefloor/throwingitatthewall.

Mannerverbs:•  Ihitthevasewithahammer,butnothinghappenedtoit.

•  #Ihitthevasebydroppingitonthefloor/throwingitatthewall.

BeyondhiZngandbreaking:Manner/result

• MannerandresultverbshavetheirowndistribuKonalsignatures

• Resultverbs:Requirethattheargumenttheresultispredicatedofisexpressed—andnecessarilyasanobject

• Mannerverbs:NosuchrestricKons

Theempiricallandscape:Challengesinvolvingmannerandresult

Mannerandresultroots:Challenges

• ‘Manner’rootin‘result’configuraKon:• Kimrantothestore.

• Muchofthewipeparadigm

• ‘Result’rootin‘manner’configuraKon:• breakthebagopen• breakthebranchoff• breakhiswayouttosafety(M&AM2012)

• breakthewalnutsintothebowl(RH&L1998)

‘Manner’rootsin‘result’configuraKons

• FoundwhenaresultXPcanbecomposiKonallyaddedoutsideofthe‘verb’• cf.TemplateAugmentaKon(RH&L1998)

• Usedtoexplainthewipeparadigm

• UsedtoexplainvariablebehaviorwithrespecttounaccusaKvity

‘Result’rootsin‘manner’configuraKons

• ThisphenomenondeservesfurtherscruKny

• Citedexamples:• arepresupposedtobe‘manner’configuraKons

• havespecialcharacterisKcs

• arenottrulyparalleltocomparableexampleswithmannerroots(focushere)

‘Result’rootsin‘manner’configuraKons

Kellywipedthecrumbsoffthetable.• Means‘Kellyremovedthecrumbsfromthetablebywipingthetable’…leadstoexpectaKonthat:*Kellybrokethedishesoffthetable.• Shouldexpress‘Kellyremovedthedishesfromthetablebybreakingthetable’• Contrarytofact

‘Result’rootsin‘manner’configuraKons

Kellyshovedthedishesoffthetable.Means‘Kellyshovedthedishesandasaresulttheywentoffthetable’…leadstoexpectaKonthat:*Kellybrokethedishesoffthetable.• Shouldexpress‘Kellybrokethedishesandasaresulttheywentoffthetable’• Contrarytofact

‘Result’rootsin‘manner’configuraKons

ResultrootsareoccasionallyfoundinthewayconstrucKon—a‘manner’configuraKonwithanonselectedobject:breakhiswayouttosafety(M&AM2012)

‘Result’rootsin‘manner’configuraKons

…butresultrootsunlikemannerrootsarenotfoundinnonselectedobjectresultaKvesingeneral:

• ThechildrubbedtheKrednessoutofhiseyes.• *Thechildbrokethebeautyoutofthevase.

• Cinderellascrubbedherknucklesraw.• *Theclumsychildbrokeherknucklesraw.

FurtherdistribuKonalasymmetries

• ManyobjectalternaKonsarefoundwithmanner,butnotresultroots(Levin2006)

• LocaKvealternaKon:• Samsprayedthewallwithpaint.

• Samsprayedpaintonthewall.

• Shannonput/*filledgroceriesintothebag.• Shannonfilled/*putthebagwithgroceries.

• With/againstalternaKon;possessorraising

Interimconclusion

• ResultrootsshowmorelimiteddistribuKonoverallthanmannerroots

• ThesedistribuKonalasymmetriessuggestthatthenoKons‘manner’and‘result’makertoargumentrealizaKon

• Ifrootshaveanontologicaltype,predictthatthistypecouldberelevanttotheirdistribuKon

Nextsteps

•  Havefocusedon‘coarse-grained’distribuKonalasymmetriesKedto‘manner’and‘result’

•  Next:showdistribuKonaldifferencesariseamongverbswithmannerroots:Theseare‘medium-grained’distribuKonalasymmetries

• Casestudy:surfacecontactverbs,hitvs.wipe

Theempiricallandscape:Surfacecontactverbs:HiZngvs.wiping

Surfacecontactverbs:IntroducKon

HitandwipeshowsharedproperKescharacterisKcofmannerverbsthatsetthembothapartfrombreak

…buttheyalsoshowproperKesthatdifferenKatethem,akributabletospecificsoftheirmannerroots

Surfacecontactverbs:SimilariKes

• SimilarsemanKcsubclasses

Hi9ngverbs Wipingverbs

Bodypart Kick,punch,slap Lick

Instrument Club,lash,stab Sponge,towel

Soundoncontact Clink,thud,whack ??

Othermanner Beat,hit,swat Rub,sweep,wipe

Surfacecontactverbs:SimilariKes

• UnspecifiedobjectconstrucKon:Kimhitandhit./Thebirdpecked.Cinderellaswept/wiped/scrubbed.

• NonselectedobjectresultaKves:Kimdrummedherfingersraw.Cinderellascrubbedherfingersraw.

• ConaKveconstrucKon: Kimhitatthemosquito.Cinderellascrubbedatthestainedfloor.

Surfacecontactverbs:SimilariKes

• With/againstalternaKon:KimhitthefencewithasKck.

KimhitthesKckagainstthefence.

Samwipedthetablewithadampcloth

Samwipedadampclothoverthetable.

Surfacecontactverbs:SimilariKes

• HiZngverbsneednotrealizeaspecificargumentasdirectobject

• Objectcanbe:• thesurface:hitthetable

• theinstrument:hitthesKckagainstthefence

• anon-argument:drumone’sfingersraw

Surfacecontactverbs:SimilariKes

• Wipingverbsneednotrealizeaspecificargumentasdirectobject

• Objectcanbe:• thesurface:wipethetable

• theinstrument:wipetheclothoverthetable

• thematerialonthesurface:wipethecrumbsoff

• anon-argument:scrubone’sfingersraw

Surfacecontactverbs:Differences

• Wipingverbs:Surfaceargumentmay,butneednotbeunderstoodasincrementaltheme• Samwipedthetableinoneminuteflat.

• Samwipedthetableforanhour.

• Thatis,theseverbsarepotenKalor‘latent’incrementalthemeverbs(Tenny1992:20).

• HiZngverbs:Surfaceargumentisneveranincrementaltheme• Kimpoundedthemetalfor/*in5minutes.

Surfacecontactverbs:Differences

Wipingverbs:surfaceis‘normal'directobject

…buttheymaytakeanargumentdenoKngmaterialfoundonsurface(L&RH1991)• Kerryisscrubbingthebathtub.

• Kerryisscrubbingthestains(offthebathtub).

HiZngverbs:cannottakeamaterialargument

Surfacecontactverbs:Differences

• Expressionofthematerial:•  typicallyasanobject• occasionallyinanofphrasewithsurfaceasobject

Wefinishedthecreamycustard,scrapingthecupofitsthick,bi@ersweetchocolatesauce…(D.Pergamaent,BestTrakoriainRome?,TravelSect.,NYT,3/22/09,p.11)

Surfacecontactverbs:Differences

• GivesrisetolocaKvealternaKonforwipingverbs:

Wescrapedthesaucefromthecup.

Wescrapedthecup(ofsauce).

• Materialosenco-occurswithsurface• suggestsitmaybelicensedviaalocaKverelaKonwiththesurface(RH&L1998)

Surfacecontactverbs:Differences

• PossessorraisingisfoundwithhiZngverbs,butdisallowedwithwipingverbs

• Kellyhitmyarm.

• Kellyhitmeonthearm.

• Kellywipedmyarm.

• *Kellywipedmeonthearm.

Surfacecontactverbs:ImplicaKons

• Evenamongmannerverbs,therearesubclasseswhosemembersshowsystemaKcdifferencesindistribuKon

• SuggestsprivilegedfacetsoftherelevantrootsarebehindthedisKnctdistribuKonalsignatures

AccounKngforthedistribuKonalasymmetriesThebasicingredients

Ingredients:Eventstructures/construcKons

• State(includinglocaKonalstates)• AcKvity• Eventsofscalarchange• NoncausaKve(‘become’)

• CausaKve

(CouldbesyntacKcized)

Ingredients:Roots

• GrammaKcallyrelevantontologicaltypesofroots:• Result(orstate)roots•  Specifysomekeypropertyofascalarchange

•  Thisincludesspecifyingelementsdefiningapath

• Mannerroots•  InstanKatean‘acKonpakern’(Jackendoff1990)

• RootsareinsertedintoeventstructureposiKonscompaKblewiththeirtype(cf.RH&L’s1998CanonicalRealizaKonRules)

Ingredients:Roots

Requirementsonmannervs.resultroots:

• AresultrootmustbeinaconstrucKonwhere:•  theargumentitispredicatedofisexpressed

•  anditisexpressedasanobject

• Amannerrootdoesnothavesucharequirement

Scalarchanges

• Typesofscalarchange(HK&L1999):• Propertyscale:scalarvaluedpropertyofanenKty• Pathscale:pathanenKtymovesalong• maybeinstanKatedinvarioussemanKcfields(Jackendoff1983):posiKonal,possessional,idenKficaKonal,…

• UnderliediversityofconstrucKonsthatcertainverbrootsarefoundin

Scalarchanges

• Licensingascalarchange:• ViathelexicalizaKonofaresultrootintheverb•  Terrybrokethevase.•  SamexitedthestaKon.

• ViaresultXP(TemplateAugmentaKon;RH&L1998)(ResultXPscanintroduceacompletescaleorfilloutascaleparKallylexicalizedintheroot)

•  Kimhittheballintothegarden.

•  Samwipedthetableclean.

•  Terrybrokethevasetosmithereens.

Scalarchanges

• TherecanbeonlyonescalarchangeinaconstrucKon(cf.Goldberg1995,Tenny1987)

• Anargumentwithascalarchangepredicatedofitmustbeexpressedandonlyasanobject

AccounKngforthedistribuKonalasymmetriesChangeofstateverbs

Changeofstateverbs

• Duetotheirresult(state)root,theyarepairedwitheventsofscalarchange

• Requireanobjectwhichthechangeispredicatedof

• Consequence:cannottakeunspecifiedobjectsornonselectedobjects,nortakeanythingbuttheirthemeasobject.AlsocannotbefoundinobjectalternaKons.

AccounKngforthedistribuKonalasymmetriesSurfacecontactverbs

Surfacecontactverbs:AcharacterizaKon

• Hi9ngroots—andevents—involveimpactata‘point’onthesurface,usuallycarriedoutwiththeintentofcausingdamage(althoughdamageisnotlexicalizedbytheverb).

• Wipingroots—andevents—involveacontactoveranextendedpartofthesurface,usuallycarriedoutwiththeintentofremovingstufffromit(althoughremovalisnotlexicalizedbytheverb).

Surfacecontactverbs:BasicproperKes

• Theconceptualcontentoftheirrootbringsinanargument,thesurface(Levin1999)• Sincethesurfaceofasurfacecontactverbdoesnothavearesultnecessarilypredicatedofit,therearenoconstraintsonitsrealizaKon.

• Consequence:unspecifiedobjects,conaKveconstrucKon,nonselectedandotherobjects

Surfacecontactverbs:BasicproperKes

• Generalconceptualcontent:applicaKonofforcetoasurface

• Thus,unlikemanymannerverbs,thiscontent‘licenses’asecondeventparKcipantinaddiKontotheparKcipantthat‘instanKates’themanner(andisexpressedassubject)• Cf.Levin’s(1999)‘constantparKcipants’

Surfacecontactverbs:Natureofroot

Morespecificconceptualcontentdeterminesthenatureofthe‘second’parKcipant/surface:

• Hi9ngroots:surfaceunderstoodasapoint(i.e.aninherentwhole)

• Wipingroots:surfaceunderstoodasaregionorextendedarea• AkributepotenKalincrementalthemehoodtothis:givesextentnecessaryfor‘measuringout’

Determiningakestedtypesofscalarchange

• Mannerrootsdonotlexicalizeascalarchange,allowingtheminconstrucKonswherearesultXPintroducesascalarchange• Manymannersareperformedtoachieveagoal;resultXPmakesgoalexplicit• AparKcularmannerrootmaybefoundwithseveraltypesofresultXPsbecausethesamemannercouldbeusedtoachieveseveralresults

Determiningakestedtypesofscalarchange

• SomemannersareconvenKonallyassociatedwithparKcularresults:• WipedescribsanacKoninvolvingsurfacecontactandmoKonwhichisosenusedtoremovestufffromasurface

• hitdescribesanacKoninvolvingforcefulcontactwithasurfacewhichisosenusedtodamageorharmthesurface

• Givesrisetotheobservedparadigms

AccounKngfortheparadigms:wipe

• Samwiped.(acKvity)• Noexternalscalarchange;noneedforanobject

• Samwipedthetable.(acKvity)• Noexternalscalarchange;objectlicensedbyroot

• Samwipedthetable.(telicevent)• Objectunderstoodasincrementalthemesincerootintroducesa‘region’surface

AccounKngfortheparadigms:wipe

• Samwipedcrumbsoffthetable.(removing)•  IntroducKonoffrompathscalewithsurfaceassource;bringsmaterialargumentwithit

• Samwipedthecrumbsintothesink.(puZng)•  IntroducKonoftopathscalewithsurface(=source)lesimplicit;bringsmaterialargumentwithit

• Samwipedthecrumbsintoapile.(creaKon)•  IntroducKonofabstractpathscaledetailingtransformaKonofmaterialviamanner

AccounKngfortheparadigms:wipe

• Samwipedtheslateclean.(changeofstate)•  IntroducKonofpropertyscale,predicatedofsurface;detailschangeinsurface

• Samscrubbedherhandsraw.(changeofstate)•  IntroducKonofpropertyscale,predicatedofnonselectedargument;surfaceisimplicit

AccounKngfortheparadigms:hit

• Thebirdpecked.(acKvity)• Noexternalscalarchange;noneedforanobject

• Kimhitthefence.(acKvity)• Noexternalscalarchange;objectlicensedbyroot

• *Kimhitthefence.(telicevent)• Objectcan’tbeunderstoodasincrementalthemesincerootintroducesa‘point’surface

AccounKngfortheasymmetries:hit

• Kimhittheballintotheplayground.(puZng)•  IntroducKonoftopathscale,predicatedofsurface,detailingitstrajectory

• Kimpoundedthemetalintoatray.(creaKon)•  IntroducKonofabstractpathscaledetailingtransformaKonofmaterialviamanner

AccounKngfortheasymmetries:hit

• Kimpoundedthemetalflat.(changeofstate)•  IntroducKonofpropertyscale,predicatedofsurface;detailschangeinsurface

• Kimdrummedhisfingersraw.(changeofstate)•  IntroducKonofpropertyscale,predicatedofnonselectedargument;surfaceisimplicit

Conclusions/ImplicaKons

• ResultrootssystemaKcallyshowamorelimiteddistribuKonthanmannerroots

• MannerrootsalsoshowsystemaKcdistribuKonaldifferences

• Allthesedifferencescanbetracedbacktotheconceptualcontentoftheroots

Conclusion/ImplicaKons

‘Thus,whilethelexiconisnotoriouslythedomainoftheidiosyncraKc,itisbecomingincreasinglyapparentthatitisalsothedomainofprinciplesofgreatgenerality.ThatisparKcularlyevidentintherelaKonshipofsyntaxtolexicalsemanKcs…’

(Haleetal.n.d.(circa1983):8)

Thankyou!