Post on 17-Sep-2020
THE EFFECTS OF LEADERSHIP IN VETERINARY HOSPITALS ON EMPLOYEE
SATISFACTION AND CULTURE.
by
Carol Schubert Hancock
A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree
Doctor of Business Administration
School of Advanced Studies
University of Phoenix
Phoenix, AZ
April, 2008
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Copyright 2008 by Carol Schubert Hancock
All rights reserved.
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ABSTRACT
Leaders in small veterinary hospitals may lack an understanding of what leader behaviors
enhance job satisfaction and organizational culture. The purpose of the quantitative
correlational survey study examined the relationships between leadership styles, job
satisfaction, and organizational culture in a four county region in Florida small animal
veterinary hospitals. Data from The Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire, the
Organizational Description Questionnaire, the Job in General and Job Descriptive Index,
revealed that leader transformational behaviors are positively correlated with the work,
promotion, and supervisor facets of job satisfaction. Transactional culture is positively
correlated with all facets. Training leaders to improve aspects of transactional culture and
to enhance transformational behaviors may improve overall job satisfaction, satisfaction
with pay, and satisfaction with opportunities for promotion.
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DEDICATION
This study is dedicated to my husband, Guy Hancock, to my family, and to all the
wonderful animal companions who enhance our lives, especially Emma.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to recognize and thank each of my committee members, Dr. Craig
Barton and Dr. Sandra Wise as well as my mentor and committee chair, Dr. Sandy
Kolberg. Each has shown remarkable patience and professionalism throughout this
process.
I would also like to thank my entire family, especially my husband, Guy Hancock,
and my children, Katie and Matthew, for their patience and support. My parents Pat (in
loving memory), and Guy Risley, encouraged and supported me in all I did. I would not
be here today without their wise counsel.
Finally, I would like to thank all participants in this research. Though they
numbered 32 hospitals, well over 150 participants took significant time to complete the
questionnaires required to complete this study. The Florida Veterinary Medical
Association kindly supplied all the names and addresses used to garner participants.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Dedication ............................................................................................................ iv
Acknowledgements............................................................................................... v
TABLE OF CONTENTS.....................................................................................vi
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION......................................................................... 1
Background of the Problem .................................................................................. 2
Statement of the Problem...................................................................................... 6
Purpose of the Study ............................................................................................. 8
Significance of the Problem to Leadership......................................................... 10
Nature of the Study ............................................................................................. 12
Research Questions............................................................................................. 13
Hypotheses.......................................................................................................... 14
Theoretical Framework....................................................................................... 15
Definition of Terms............................................................................................. 19
General Terms..................................................................................................... 20
Leadership Sytle Terms ...................................................................................... 20
Organizational Culture Terms............................................................................. 21
Assumptions........................................................................................................ 22
Limitations .......................................................................................................... 23
Delimitations....................................................................................................... 23
Summary ............................................................................................................. 24
CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ............................................. 25
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Documentation.................................................................................................... 25
Linkages Between Leadership, Job Satisfaction, and Organizational Culture ... 27
Leadership Theory .............................................................................................. 32
Leadership Construct .......................................................................................... 38
Transformational Leadership Factors ................................................................. 38
Idealized Influence....................................................................................... 40
Inspirational Motivation .............................................................................. 41
Intellectual Stimulation................................................................................ 42
Individualized Consideration....................................................................... 42
Transactional Leadership Factors ....................................................................... 42
Contingent Reward ...................................................................................... 43
Management by Exception .......................................................................... 44
Laissez-Faire or Nonleadership ................................................................... 44
Transformational Leadership in Practice ............................................................ 45
Criticisms of the Transformational Leadership Construct.................................. 48
Job Satisfaction ................................................................................................... 49
Organizational Culture........................................................................................ 59
Conclusion .......................................................................................................... 65
Summary ............................................................................................................. 66
CHAPTER 3: METHOD .................................................................................... 68
Research Method and Design Appropriateness .................................................. 70
Research Method ................................................................................................ 70
Design Appropriateness ...................................................................................... 72
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Population and Data Collection .......................................................................... 75
Internal Validity .................................................................................................. 77
Data Collection ................................................................................................... 84
Data Analysis ...................................................................................................... 85
Confidentiality .................................................................................................... 86
Instrumentation ................................................................................................... 87
Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire ................................................................ 87
Job Descriptive Index and Job in General Scale................................................. 89
Organizational Description Questionnaire.......................................................... 90
Demographic Survey .......................................................................................... 94
Alternative Instruments....................................................................................... 94
Summary ............................................................................................................. 96
Chapter 4: Presentation and analysis of Data ..................................................... 97
Demographic Findings - Employees ......................................................... 100
Outcomes from the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) ........ 114
Outcomes from the Job Descriptive Index and Job in General Scale........ 118
Outcomes for the Organizational Description Questionnaire (ODQ) ....... 122
Findings............................................................................................................. 127
Correlations Between Job Satisfaction and Organizational Culture.......... 130
Correlations Between Leadership Styles and Organizational Culture ...... 133
Summary ........................................................................................................... 136
Chapter 5: Summary and Recommendations.................................................... 138
Conclusions....................................................................................................... 140
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Comparison with Previous Research ................................................................ 143
Research Questions and Hypotheses ................................................................ 147
Implications....................................................................................................... 148
Recommendations............................................................................................. 151
Study Replication....................................................................................... 151
Actions....................................................................................................... 152
New Studies ............................................................................................... 158
Summary ........................................................................................................... 159
References......................................................................................................... 114
APPENDIX A: INITIAL LETTER OF REQUEST ......................................... 174
APPENDIX B: FOLLOW-UP/COVER LETTER ........................................... 176
APPENDIX C: INFORMED CONSENT......................................................... 177
APPENDIX D: QUESTIONNAIRES .............................................................. 179
APPENDIX E: MULTIFACTOR LEADERSHIP QUESTIONNARES ......... 187
APPENDIX F: SAMPLE JDI/JIG.................................................................... 191
APPENDIX G: ODQ SAMPLE ...................................................................... 193
APPENDIX H-MLQ PERMISSION................................................................ 194
APPENDIX I-JDI/JIG PERMISSION.............................................................. 195
APPENDIX J- ODQ PERMISSION ................................................................ 196
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List of Tables
Table 1 Euthanasia Statistics.............................................................................. 52
Table 2 Summary of Variables and Statistics to Be Used................................... 71
Table 3 Response rates in recent dissertations .................................................. 79
Table 4 Employee Age ...................................................................................... 101
Table 5 Employee Education ........................................................................... 102
Table 6 Employee Hours Worked/ Week .......................................................... 103
Table 7 Employee Type ..................................................................................... 103
Table 8 Employee Length of Time in Current Hospital .................................... 104
Table 9 Employee Length of Time in Field ....................................................... 105
Table 10 Employee Ethnicity ............................................................................ 106
Table 11 Employee Gender............................................................................... 106
Table 12 Leader Age ......................................................................................... 107
Table 13 Leader Education............................................................................... 108
Table 14 Leader Hours Worked/Week.............................................................. 108
Table 15 Leader Type ....................................................................................... 109
Table 16 Leader Length of Time in Current Hospital....................................... 109
Table 17 Leader Length of Time in Field ......................................................... 110
Table 18 Leader Ethnicity................................................................................. 110
Table 19 Leader Gender ................................................................................... 111
Table 20 Full Time Equivalent Veterinarians .................................................. 111
Table 21 Hospital Revenue ............................................................................... 112
Table 22 Average Client Charge ...................................................................... 112
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Table 23 Clients/ Week ..................................................................................... 113
Table 24 Doctor to Staff Ratio .......................................................................... 114
Table 25 Descriptive Statistics for Leadership Styles....................................... 116
Table 26 Cronbach´s Alpha Coefficients for Leadership Styles ....................... 118
Table 27 JDI and JIG Descriptive Statistics..................................................... 119
Table 28 Cronbach´s Alphas for the Job Satisfaction Scales ........................... 120
Table 29 Betas and Significance of Job Satisfaction Facets
And Demographic Information........................................................... 121
Table 30 Culture Types and Scores .................................................................. 124
Table 31 Descriptive Statistics for Organizational Culture Scores.................. 125
Table 32 Correlations between Leadership Styles and Satisfaction.......................
Facets According To Leaders ............................................................. 128
Table 33. Leader Styles and Job Satisfaction Means ....................................... 129
Table 34 Correlations between Job Satisfaction and Organizational
Culture Scores .................................................................................... 132
Table 35 Correlations between Certain Job Satisfaction Facets And
Leader Styles and Organizational Culture ......................................... 133
Table 36 Leadership Styles and Culture ........................................................... 135
Table 37 Means of Culture Types for Each Leadership Combination ............. 137
Table 38 Demographic Comparisons to Other Studies .................................... 145
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List of Figures
Figure 1. Histogram of Means of Styles as Reported by
Leaders and Employees ........................................................................114
Figure 2. Pareto Chart Representing Reported Leader Styles by Employees ...116
Figure 3. Histogram of Leader Reported Culture Types ...................................125
Figure 4. Histogram of Employee Reported Culture Types ..............................125
Figure 5. Model for leadership behaviors and cultural characteristics leading to
increased job satisfaction ……………………………………………...15
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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
The American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA) sponsored research in
2005 to determine the business practices that best predicted high incomes in small animal
veterinary hospitals (Brakke Consulting, 2005). The results of the study confirmed and
expanded upon a previously commissioned study by the AVMA, conducted by Brakke in
1998 (Cron, Slocum, Goodnight, & Volk, 1998). In the 1998 study, 19 business practices
that were most associated with high incomes in veterinary practices were identified. Eight
of the business practices were critical, one of which was leadership. The other qualities
were employee development practices, business orientation, frequency of financial data
review, negotiating skills, client loyalty, client retention practices, and new client
development practices (Brakke Consulting). Employee development practices were
identified as the most important business practice that lead to high incomes for
veterinarians (Volk, et al., 2005). The focus of this research is further examination of
leadership styles that affect job satisfaction and organizational culture.
An indication of job satisfaction is employee turnover (Harris & Brannick, 1999).
Approximately 36% of employees are actively seeking another job, with slightly fewer
not satisfied with their current positions but not actively seeking reemployment (Hilpen,
2006). Specifically, Schmidt (2005) noted that employee turnover in veterinary medicine
is likely to be the same as in other industries, with 33% being at high risk for leaving and
another 39% feeling trapped. High employee turnover increases expenses in veterinary
hospitals (Amburgy, 2005), and when expenses are increased, less money is available to
increase the pay of the remaining employees. Pay rates, a good employer, and recognition
are all factors that encourage employees to remain (Hilpen). These factors may correlate
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with the employee development practices mentioned as one of the important business
skills identified by the second AVMA study (Brakke Consulting, 2005). Understanding
the relationship between veterinary leadership and employee development practices, as
related to job satisfaction and culture in the veterinary hospital, may be a critical element
in maintaining a healthy veterinary practice.
In chapter 1, the background of leadership, job satisfaction, and culture in
veterinary hospitals will be discussed. Chapter 1 will also cover the problem addressed in
the research, the purpose of the research, and why the research is significant in general
and its significance to leadership. The chapter will also include a discussion of the nature
of the study, an outline of the hypotheses and theoretical framework, and the definition of
some commonly used terms. The assumptions, limitations, and delimitations will be
presented, and the chapter will be summarized.
Background of the Problem
Veterinarians were the lowest paid of nine groups of professionals studied in
1998, with average incomes of $57,130 a year, less than physical therapists, pharmacists,
optometrists, chiropractors, lawyers, and doctors (Cron et al., 1998). Brakke Consulting
(2005) noted that while veterinarians’ incomes increased to $73,270 in 2003, in an
AVMA survey conducted in 2004, 95% of the respondents stated that the improvement
was due to price increases. The survey also showed that on 11 measures for efficiencies
in business or improvements in behavior, the next highest impact on revenue, after price
increase, was inventory control at less than 50%. If Cron et al.’s findings are correct,
future economic health will likely depend on business efficiencies and/or behavioral
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improvements that the leaders make within their practices if price increases and inventory
controls are not to be the primary reasons for income gains.
Ilgen, Lloyd, Morgeson, Johnson, Meyer and Marrinan (2003) confirmed that
Cron et al. (1998) and the authors of the Brakke study (2005) had recognized the
technical skills necessary for becoming a successful veterinarian; the authors affirmed
that business expertise and leadership were among the skills that are desirable but not
emphasized in veterinary practice. As a result, Ilgen et al. studied several facets of
nontechnical matters in veterinary work. Among the nine most important factors,
following direct treatment of animals and working with their owners, was personnel
management.
The economic health of veterinary practices is important for viability of the
business, but economic health is also critical for the staff members. In May of 2004,
veterinary technologists and technicians, defined as individuals with two and four-year
degrees in veterinary technology, earned a median income of $11.90 an hour (U.S.
Department of Labor, 2006). Other animal-care service workers earned a median income
of $8.39 an hour. The poverty level was $18,850 in 2004 for a family of four (United
States Department of Health and Human Services, 2006) and the veterinary technician
with a college education would be earning $23,800 if he or she worked 40 hours a week
for 50 weeks a year. The animal-care worker would earn $16,780. The average salary for
lay and paraprofessional workers in veterinary hospitals is $20,290, which was $1440
over poverty level in 2004. If the owners of the hospitals are not able to increase the
efficiency of their hospitals through increased business acumen or improved behavior,
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hospital staff will continue to experience a high rate of turnover as employees seek better
wages elsewhere.
Reinvestment in hospital facilities and equipment is also critical for continuous
improvement of veterinary services. In the quest to provide excellent veterinary care for
pets, hospitals invest in equipment comparable to that used in human facilities. The Well
Managed Practice Study (Wutchiett,Tumblin, Flemming & Lawson2005) indicated an
array of services offered in veterinary hospitals that included radiology, endoscopy,
ultrasound, electrocardiogram, anesthesia, life monitoring, laboratory and surgery
services, and life sustaining services for nursing and well-pet care. Some veterinary
practices also offer services that require magnetic resonating imaging (MRI), computed
tomography (CT) scans, chemotherapy and radiation treatments, and a wide array of
internal medicine services (Veterinary Pet Insurance, 2005). Reinvestment in equipment
to perform diagnostics and services can be expensive. In 2002, the Western College of
Veterinary Medicine invested $1.4 million to buy an MRI and build the room to house it
(Canadian Veterinary Journal, 2002) and Purdue’s School of Veterinary Medicine paid
$500,000 for a refurbished CT imager (Winter, 2004).
According to Brown and Silverman (1999), while mixed results have been
reported regarding clients’ sensitivity to prices in veterinary hospitals, price elasticity has
been shown to equal roughly -0.43, meaning that for every 10% increase in price, the
practice will lose an average of 4.3% of its revenue. The elasticity number showed that
prices have been relatively inelastic in veterinary medicine (Brown & Silverman). Much
of the inelasticity was driven by high-income families, with 70% of households with
incomes over $100,000 reporting unwillingness to change veterinarians if the hospital
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raised their prices by 20%. Fifty percent of households with incomes under $40,000
reported a willingness to change veterinarians if the same price increase were
implemented. A further 43% of small-animal owners felt their veterinarians charged too
much for their services (Brown & Silverman). Given that the Brakke Study was
conducted in 1999, and income of veterinarians rose by 41% adjusted for inflation in two
years, a question arises regarding the ability of veterinarians to depend primarily on price
increases as a means of increased income. In the 2005 study, veterinarians reported
setting prices with little regard to competition and to clients’ willingness to pay (Brakke,
2005). An increased focus on business practices to increase income may be prudent even
with the price inelasticity veterinarians have enjoyed.
Job satisfaction is influenced in part by pay. Other influences include time to do
the job assigned, confidence in one’s abilities, and the tasks assigned (Ernst, Franco,
Messmer, & Gonzales, 2004). In research conducted by Harmon, Scotti, Behnson, Farias
et al. (2003), high-involvement work systems were shown to increase employee
satisfaction and to significantly reduce costs for an organization. High-involvement work
systems include “involvement, empowerment, development, trust, openness, teamwork,
and performance based rewards” (p. 393). Many of these components, namely
empowerment, development, and performance-based rewards, stem from the leadership
styles defined by Avolio and Bass (2004).
Forty-eight percent of pet owners “would spend any amount necessary to keep
their pets healthy”, and 40% consider their pets as children. Forty-two percent buy gifts
for their pets, and 54% miss their pets while they are away (Lue, Pantenburg & Crawford.
2008, p. 531). Given the statistics, and the rising importance of the human-animal bond in
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American society, veterinary hospitals might find importance in increasing margins
through increased efficiencies rather than through continuous price increases. The
efficiencies gained through the lower turnover associated with higher job satisfaction, and
the role that organizational culture plays, are explored in the literature review. How
leadership styles affect study variables is also explored, and the specific impact the styles
have in small-animal veterinary medicine is the focus of this research.
Statement of the Problem
Discussion regarding leadership has been lacking in the veterinary profession,
although the need for leadership has never been greater (Lloyd, Chaddock, Hoblet, Bayly,
Albers, & Burge, 2007). A leadership crisis in veterinary medicine is causing poor life-
to-work integration as well as lack of desired professional success (Lloyd, King, Mase, &
Harris, 2006). Veterinarians commonly define professional success to include economic
success and leadership ability (Lewis & Klausner, 2003). Leadership ability necessitates
human interaction, and veterinarians report being surprised by the amount of human
interaction that is necessary in their jobs, and most feel unprepared for it. Veterinarians
report that human interaction includes delegating to others, giving feedback, hiring
effectively, and managing worker’s performance (Lewis & Klausner).
The general problem is that there are no studies to date that examine the
relationship between leadership styles and job satisfaction and organizational culture in
small animal veterinary hospitals. Brakke (2005) noted that while incomes for small
animal veterinarians have increased since 1996, most of the gains have resulted from
increases in prices rather than improved management practices, specifically leadership
styles as they relate to job satisfaction and staff turnover. The specific problem this study
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addresses is to help reduce staff turnover by identifying leadership styles and their effects
on job satisfaction and organizational culture in small animal veterinary hospitals with
the intent to positively affect small animal veterinary hospitals’ economic success. The
quantitative survey study outcomes may help to define the leader-employee relationships,
and understanding the relationships may contribute to improved leader development
(Bodaracco, 2002).
Theorists contend that leadership traits affect job satisfaction (Taylor, 1911;
Weber, 1947), and turnover is affected by job satisfaction and organizational culture
(Barak, Nissley & Levin, 2001). Schmidt (2005) wrote that 33% of employees in
veterinary practices are at high risk for leaving their jobs, and another 39% feel trapped.
Schmidt also noted that employee satisfaction is the main reason for staff to remain loyal
to their current employer. Pay, benefits, and the work environment affect employee
satisfaction (Tumblin, 2006). The work environment in Tumblin’s definition includes
feeling valued, the pay of the employee, chances to improve skills, flexibility, and a
family atmosphere (Tumblin). Employing practices to reduce staff turnover increases
veterinary income (Brakke Consulting, 2005). The AVMA-Pfizer study showed that
associate veterinarians felt retention of employees was due to quality medicine and
surgery as well as to compensation and benefits, while hospital owners felt high staff
retention rates were due to employees being treated with respect and being valued as part
of the team. The specific problem that is addressed in this study is to understand job
satisfaction and organizational culture as they relate to leadership styles with the intention
of improving the economics in small animal veterinary hospitals in Florida.
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The AVMA-Pfizer study (Brakke Consulting, 2005) indicated that the personal
income of veterinarians was $34,470 higher for veterinarians who employed practices to
promote their employees’ longevity. Given that veterinarians rank among the lowest paid
of nine measured professionals (Brown & Silverman, 1999), the added income from
promoting longevity may improve the economics of veterinary practice. Nonveterinary
staff-member compensation typically accounts for 23% of the total revenues of a
veterinary hospital (Wutchiett, Tumblin, Flemming, & Lawson, 2005). Because such a
large portion of the hospital’s revenues are spent on lay and paraprofessional salaries, the
staff’s general satisfaction and intention to remain in the practice can have a significant
financial and cultural impact on the practice.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this quantitative survey study is to determine if there is a
relationship between transformational, transactional, and passive avoidant leadership
styles and job satisfaction and organizational culture for leaders and employees in small
animal veterinary hospitals in a four-county region in Florida. The independent variable
is defined as leadership styles, specifically transformational, transactional, and passive-
avoidant, and the dependent variables are defined as job satisfaction and organizational
culture.
Veterinary hospital leaders would benefit from knowing what styles could be
associated with high levels of job satisfaction and optimal organizational culture within
their organizations. No published scholarly studies have related leadership styles to job
satisfaction or organizational culture in veterinary medicine. The purpose of this
quantitative survey study is to examine a cross section of small animal veterinary
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hospitals in a four-county area in Florida, using survey outcomes to determine the
relationships between leadership styles and job satisfaction and organizational culture. A
cross-sectional survey design is appropriate because the population will be examined at
one point in time, and “attitudes, beliefs, opinions, or practices” (Creswell, 2002, p. 398)
of leaders and employees will be assessed. Conversely, a longitudinal design examines
general populations over time (Vogt, 2005), and that was not the intent behind this
research.
The quantitative method is appropriate because values can be assigned to
variables using four survey instruments, and the results of each will be compared to the
others to determine if relationships exist. The surveys contain specific questions relating
to leadership, which represents the independent variable, as well as job satisfaction and
organizational culture, which denote the dependent variables, enabling the researcher to
focus on the relationships between all the variables in a given population. The
relationships between leadership, job satisfaction, and organizational culture are well
understood in non-veterinary fields, as will be discussed in the literature review in
chapter 2. Qualitative research helps where little existing research is available on a
subject, which is not the case when comparing leadership, job satisfaction, and
organizational culture (Creswell, 2002) in non-veterinary venues.
Significance of the Problem
Intention to leave a job, turnover, absenteeism, withdrawal, and reduced
commitment are all signs of employee burnout and have a significant negative effect on
the overall morale of a company as well as on productivity (Maslach, Schaufeli, & Leiter,
2001). Maslach et al. further noted that a number of job characteristics contribute to
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burnout, among which are lack of social support from supervisors and coworkers, lack of
ability to participate in decision making, and lack of feedback. The responsibility of the
leaders in organizations is to assure the culture is conducive to employee satisfaction and
to modify the culture if necessary (Schein, 2004). Linking specific leadership styles to
cultural issues and to job satisfaction may help veterinary practices reduce turnover and
increase productivity and morale.
Relationships are anticipated between particular leadership styles, job satisfaction,
and organizational culture. Understanding the relationships may help inform veterinary
hospital leaders how to enhance their ability to improve job satisfaction and
organizational culture through their own behaviors.
Significance of the Problem to Leadership
In a larger sense, veterinary practices may not be much different from other
organizations. When defining leadership styles that may most likely engender employee
satisfaction and a positive organizational culture in a veterinary environment, the
presumption that the same skills might be important for leaders in related or nonrelated
fields should be considered. While the results of some studies have supported the
suggestion that supportive-type leaders with consideration-type cultures reap the highest
job satisfaction (Lok & Crawford, 2004; Parsons & Stonestreet, 2003; Silverthorn, 2004)
and lowest turnover, the application of the concept to veterinary practice is new. The
interplay between leadership styles and job satisfaction and turnover in veterinary
medical practices may impact society in the United States because of the rising
importance of the human-animal bond (Hines, 2003). Risley-Curtis, Holley, and Wolf
(2006) noted that pet ownership has health-enhancing qualities and improves quality of
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life for owners in general. The health benefits can include circulatory improvements,
improvements in depressed patients, and survival rates for some patients after a medical
crisis (Donohue, 2005). If veterinary hospitals can improve financial performance by
improving job satisfaction, organizational culture, and turnover, more resources may be
available to care for pets.
Considering the social implications of pet ownership in the United States, along
with the large number of households owning pets, veterinary practices have an obligation
to provide care to pet patients and their clients that will help engender the human-animal
bond. Many people enjoy the quality-of-life improvements that pet ownership brings. In
the U.S. population, 62% of people report having owned a pet and 68% report viewing
their pets as family members (American Pet Products Manufacturers Association, 2003).
Along with pet ownership for pleasure, animals are involved in many programs to help
humans in tangible ways, including animal-assisted activities for nursing home residents
and for those in hospitals, pet usage in prison programs, animal-assisted therapy as well
as employment of service dogs, which includes dogs who assist the blind, the deaf,
persons with compromised mobility, patients who have suffered seizures, and those who
are hearing impaired (Hines, 2003). Improvements in job satisfaction and organizational
culture that are created by particular leadership styles can help facilitate optimal animal
care, thus promoting and enhancing the human-animal bond that is important to society.
In a study done in 2003 by Ilgen et al., veterinarians who were practicing at that
time rated 22 factors that influenced their decision to enter veterinary medicine as a
profession. Of the top three influences, two were “knowing a veterinarian” and “a part-
time job with a veterinarian” (p. 38). Given the influence veterinarians have over new
12
entrants into the field, leadership behaviors of practicing veterinarians may be of
importance. Because working for a veterinarian ranks as a top factor in attracting new
entrants to the field, the potential entrant’s job satisfaction and the organizational culture
experienced within the hospitals might be important factors in the decision to attend
veterinary school.
Nature of the Study
A quantitative survey approach will be used to examine the relationship between
leadership styles, job satisfaction, and the organizational culture within veterinary
hospitals using existing instruments. Quantitative correlational research is designed to
describe how two or more variables are associated (Creswell, 2002). Cross-sectional
survey designs are used when the researcher collects data at one point in time and
examines the “attitudes, beliefs, opinions, or practices” (Creswell, p. 398) of a
population. The purpose of this quantitative survey study is to determine whether certain
leadership styles relate to job satisfaction and organizational culture within small-animal
veterinary hospitals. By relating leadership styles to job satisfaction and organizational
culture variables, findings may help veterinarians to determine how to effectively lead
veterinary practices in future years.
Alternatives to the quantitative research method might include a qualitative
approach by conducting interviews with hospital administrators and employees in small-
animal veterinary clinics. A qualitative approach would necessarily limit the number of
participants in the study and employ interpretations of events or phenomena (Leedy &
Ormrod, 2005). The qualitative approach is normally used when there is a paucity of
research on a subject (Creswell, 2002), which is not the case here. Relationships between
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leadership, job satisfaction, and organizational culture have been established in other
industries but not in veterinary hospitals. The research could also employ a quantitative
experimental design. Experimental research would require an intervention as well as
control of all external factors (Leedy & Ormrod). To attempt to understand the leadership
characteristics most suited for job satisfaction and optimal organizational culture, the
intervention that is required by experimental research could create an environment in
which the subjects are not behaving naturally.
The research design incorporates four commercially available instruments that
will be administered to employees and administrators/owners in small-animal veterinary
hospitals in Florida. The administrators/owners were asked to complete a demographic
questionnaire, and the leadership and organizational-culture instruments, while the
employees were asked to complete a demographic questionnaire, the leadership
instrument, two job satisfaction instruments, and the organizational-culture instrument.
The results were analyzed using SPSS analytical and statistical software, with
relationships examined between leadership styles and job satisfaction and organizational
culture.
Research Questions
The purpose of this quantitative survey study is to determine the relationships
between transformational, transactional, and passive-avoidant leadership styles and job
satisfaction and organizational culture. The leadership styles represent the independent
variables, and job satisfaction and organizational culture represent the dependent
variables. Specifically, the data analyzed will help to answer two questions. Research
Question 1 is, what is the relationship between transformational, transactional, and
14
passive-avoidant leadership styles, as defined in the MLQ, and employee satisfaction, as
defined in the JIG and JDI? Research question two is, what is the relationship between
transformational, transactional, and passive-avoidant leadership styles, as defined in the
MLQ, and organizational culture, as defined in the ODQ?
Hypotheses
The purpose of this quantitative survey study is to determine if a relationship
exists between transformational, transactional, and passive-avoidant leadership styles and
employee satisfaction and organizational culture in small animal veterinary hospitals in
Florida. The MLQ survey instrument was used to determine transformational,
transactional, and passive-avoidant styles of the leader as measured by his or her
followers and by self-assessment. Job satisfaction of followers was measured using the
JDI and JIG, and organizational culture was measured using the ODQ survey instrument.
H01: No relationship exists between transformational, transactional, or passive-
avoidant leadership styles, as measured by the MLQ, and employee satisfaction, as
measured by the JIG and JDI in small animal veterinary hospitals in Florida.
H11: A relationship exists between transformational, transactional, or passive-
avoidant leadership styles, as measured by the MLQ, and employee satisfaction, as
measured by the JIG and JDI in small animal veterinary hospitals in Florida.
H02: No relationship exists between transformational, transactional, or passive-
avoidant leadership styles, as measured by the MLQ, and organizational culture, as
measured by the ODQ in small animal veterinary hospitals in Florida.
15
H12: A relationship exists between transformational, transactional, or passive-
avoidant leadership styles, as measured by the MLQ, and organizational culture, as
measured by the ODQ in small animal veterinary hospitals in Florida.
Theoretical Framework
Motivational, organizational, and leadership theories are the fundamental
underpinnings of the current research. Maslow (1943), Herzberg (1964), and McGregor
(1960) presented theories of motivation, including Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, the two-
factor theory, and theories X and Y. Maslow, in the hierarchy of needs, suggested that
people have five levels of needs, starting with the lowest level, representing the most
basic need, and ascending to the most complex. The five levels are physiological, safety,
social, ego, and self-actualizing needs. In 1971, Maslow added several levels to the
hierarchy; transcendence was added beyond self-actualization, and the need to know and
understand as well as an aesthetic need, were added beyond the ego need. Herzberg’s
two-factor theory referred to hygiene factors, which are extrinsic motivators in a job, and
motivators that are content-oriented and are intrinsic rewards of a job. The hygiene
factors include supervision, relationships, working conditions, pay and benefits, and
policies and practices of the company (Hansen, Smith, & Hansen, 2002; Lunenburg &
Ornstein, 2004). The intrinsic rewards include achievement and recognition, challenging
work, and opportunities for personal growth. Theory X, as explained by McGregor,
posited that people generally dislike and will avoid work and must be coerced into doing
it. Theory X also posited that people had to be directed and would avoid responsibility,
wanting security above all else. McGregor explained that in theory Y, the average worker
treated work as a natural extension of play. Theory Y posited that people would be self-
16
directed in their work efforts, and their self-actualization would be based on their natural
satisfaction from a job well done. McGregor further stated that humans have a natural
knack for imaginative work and for being creative in job application and that a human’s
potential is only partially utilized in the normal work environment.
Early organizational theory began with Fayol, who listed principles of
management that included unity of command, hierarchical chain of command, separation
of powers, centralization, and order (Fayol, 1965). According to Fayol, managers need
specific abilities, including health and vigor, the ability to learn and understand, the
ability to use good judgment, and moral qualities such as energy, initiative, loyalty, tact,
and dignity. Managers also need a good general education as well as specialized
knowledge appropriate to their functions. Finally, managers need experience. Weber
(1947) presented his theory of bureaucracy enumerating seven essential elements The
elements included division of labor, implementation of a chain of command, selection of
offices on the basis of on technical competency, appointment of officials to positions,
payment of fixed salaries to individuals who have career positions, appointment of
administrators who are not owners, and finally, appointment of administrators who will
adhere to strict rules and controls in the execution of their official duties.
In the scientific management era, the hierarchical theories evolved into time-and-
motion studies designed to assist industry to produce more efficiently (Wren, 1994). The
consensus was that workers would be motivated by the monetary rewards that increased
production would net, and would avoid the pain associated with the embarrassment,
ridicule, or decreased pay resulting from lower production. Taylor (1911) was among the
earliest thinkers in the scientific management era, having gained experience at Midvale
17
Steel. Taylor began to establish the science in management by setting standards whereby
an organization could tool, staff, and measure output and production. Later theory
proposed that managers use experience, control of effort, and promotion of worker
effectiveness to help increase efficiency (Wren). The last point diverges from the
hierarchical models in that the approach promotes the workers’ physical and mental well
being while on the job. While many theorists added to the ideas of scientific
management, the Gilbreths did landmark work in time-and-fatigue studies, increasing
organizations’ abilities to produce through worker incentives, training, and systemization,
without increasing the workers’ pace (Wren).
The scientific management era evolved into the human relations movement
(Wren, 1994). Based on social theory and human relations, and as an outgrowth of the
parent discipline of philosophy (Wren), the movement’s central theme was that
organizations were based on the concept that social systems were complex and required
equilibrium and that when the equilibrium was disturbed, all would act in concert to
restore balance. Employee representation became a cornerstone in the scientific
management era, and unionization emerged as a way for workers to participate in
management decision-making. During the human relations movement, results from the
Hawthorne Studies helped researchers understand that worker behavior was highly
dependent on social circumstances (Wren). Mayo determined from the Hawthorne
Studies that the human relations-oriented leader must work through collaboration with his
or her employees (Wren). Using communication skills, maintaining equilibrium between
economic and social needs, and developing an understanding of logical and illogical
behaviors of workers enabled collaboration (Wren).
18
Leadership theory falls into four major subsections, which include power-
influence, leader behavior, leader traits, and situational factors (Bass, 1990). Within the
power-influence category are thinkers such as Machiavelli (as cited in Bass) who studied
the traits and behaviors of leaders to determine what was most effective, given particular
circumstances, most notably in a kingdom. Weber (1947) envisioned the leader as
encompassing the traits of a strong hierarchical head of an organization, directing and
controlling all the functions therein. Charismatic leaders possess traits that inspire
employees to follow their vision, thus influencing them through personal power (Rost,
1991).
Leadership can be described as a process that involves influence, occurs in a
group context, and leadership involves attaining goals (Northouse, 2004). Employees’ job
satisfaction is largely influenced by leaders’ actions, specifically through performance
appraisals, training, and the guidance the leaders provide (Rich, 1997). Bass and Avolio
(1988) distinguished between transactional and transformational leadership.
Transactional leaders depend on a system of rewards and punishments to motivate
employees, while transformational leaders rely on motivating them through appealing to
higher ideals and morals. Bass and Avolio developed the Multifactor Leadership
Questionnaire based on transformational and transactional leadership skills.
Debate abounds regarding whether leaders are born or made (Northouse, 2004).
Allio (2005) suggested that leadership cannot be taught, but it can be learned. Leaders
become competent through practicing leadership. Leadership literacy can be present, yet
leaders can lack in implementation skills if the necessary fundamental traits are not there.
Allio noted that teaching leadership could increase the historical perspective of learners
19
as well as teach leadership theory and new paradigm shifts. Simply attending leadership
workshops, classes, or conferences confers on employees a greater perceived authority
and endorsement from supervisors. Though employees can polish particular skills and
add resource information to their leadership libraries, practice is the only way to
strengthen leadership. The current study may act as a resource for potential or current
leaders by identifying the particular styles most conducive to job satisfaction and optimal
organizational culture. Until an individual practices leadership, the information on
effective styles may not be sufficient to cause administrators and owners to behave
differently.
Chapter 2 will include a discussion on a number of studies that have examined
relationships between leadership, job satisfaction, and organizational culture in industries
outside veterinary medicine. No scholarly studies were found that have examined
leadership in veterinary medicine or that have compared leadership to job satisfaction or
organizational culture. In chapter 5, the outcomes of the current study will be compared
to outcomes of similar ones in other industries, based on the literature review. The
comparisons may be useful by informing the generalizability of other research.
Definition of Terms
The definitions pertaining to leadership and organizational culture are derived
from the instruments that were used in this research. For the leadership definitions,
Avolio and Bass’s (2004) definitions are used. For organizational culture, Bass and
Avolio’s (1992) definitions are used. Bass (1985) delineated the differences between
transformational and transactional leadership:
20
General Terms
Employee turnover is defined by the number of employees who leave an organization
in a specified period of time. Employee turnover involves both direct and indirect costs.
Turnover can be calculated by dividing the number of employees at midmonth into the
number of separations during the same month and multiplying by 100 (Bohlander &
Snell, 2004). For example, if a veterinary practice has 30 employees at midmonth and
two left during that month, the turnover rate would be 6.67%.
Jepson and Bin Sheu (2003) described two forms of job satisfaction. General or
global job satisfaction refers to the employee’s attitude of liking or not liking his or her
job in general. Facet job satisfaction refers to an employee’s attitude of liking or not
liking a particular part of his or her job, for instance, his or her pay (Jepson & Bin Sheu).
A veterinary technician or technologist is an employee whose responsibilities are
similar to a human nurse’s. The veterinary technician will perform laboratory procedures,
anesthesia, radiological procedures, dental cleaning, and various other nursing duties.
Technologists often receive a bachelors degree in the field, and technicians an associates
degree, but there is little distinction between them in practice (U.S. Department of Labor,
2005).
Leadership Style Terms
Charismatic/inspirational leadership provides employees with a role model for a
vision and ethical standards to live by. The charismatic leader provides a clear sense of
purpose (Avolio & Bass, 2004).
Individualized consideration in leaders is recognized by a development
orientation toward followers that encourages them to grow to the followers’ fullest
21
potential (Avolio & Bass, 2004). The last transformational leadership factor is intellectual
stimulation, which causes followers to use their imaginations and insights in creative
ways, generate new thoughts, and question paradigms (Avolio & Bass).
A laissez-faire approach is similar, except that the leader does not care what
happens in the organizational setting and therefore, does not take responsibility for
followers’ actions or behaviors (Avolio & Bass, 2004).
Passive-avoidant leaders may avoid any decisions or, at the very most, take
corrective action only after problems have become serious (Avolio & Bass, 2004).
Transactional leadership is based on reinforcements that are contingent on
performance of followers. Transactional leadership manifests itself in contingent reward,
which defines expectations from employees and what will be received in return for
performance. Transactional leadership also manifests in active or passive management by
exception, which monitors performance and corrects problems when they arise, or does
nothing about them at all if the manager is passive (Avolio & Bass, 2004).
Transformational leadership includes idealized influence, inspirational
motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individualized consideration (Northouse, 2004).
Leaders display idealized influence when showing determination, taking risks,
engendering a sense of empowerment, displaying a faith in others, and applying creative
solutions (Avolio & Bass, 2004).
Organizational Culture Terms
Organizational culture refers to the shared history of a group that manifests itself
through stability, intangibility, and pervasiveness (Schein, 2004).
22
Nine types of organizational cultures can be defined, according to Bass and
Avolio (1992). The coasting organization is balanced between transformational and
transactional culture where external and self-controls are equally identified. In a garbage
can culture, little leadership exists so there is little consensus or vision. The high-contrast
organization is marked by a visionary approach, but also has transactional characteristics.
The loosely guided organization has few formal agreements, and the employees are
highly independent of each other. External and internal controls are balanced in the
loosely guided organization. In a pedestrian culture, the employee will not accomplish
tasks without specific instructions to do so, thus avoiding risk. The predominately and
moderately bureaucratic organization are two culture types that are internally
competitive. Employees work for their own self-interests and rules predominate. The
predominately transformational and moderately transformational organizations are two
culture types marked by visionary approaches. The culture is not highly dependent on
contracts and is not highly dependent on rewards (Bass & Avolio).
Assumptions
An assumption is made that all the survey participants answered the questions
truthfully even though the answers may have changed from day to day given changing
attitudes. The design is typical of a cross-sectional survey because the questions asked
required answers representing opinions at one point in time (Vogt, 2005). Another
assumption is that the participants volunteered their time and understood their answers
were confidential. Confidentiality disclosures were provided pertaining to all the
instruments to which participants were asked respond. The reliability and validity of the
survey instruments is assumed to remain the same throughout the study, as was reported
23
in previous literature. It is assumed that the responses to the surveys in the current study
provided a valid measure of leaders’ and employees’ opinions.
Limitations
The study is limited to the subjects who agreed to participate voluntarily, the
number of subjects surveyed, and the amount of time that was available to conduct the
study. Because the study was based on participants who chose to take part, it does not
reflect the views of those unwilling or unable to participate. The validity of the study is
limited to the reliability of the instruments used, which will be further discussed in
chapter 3.
Relationships do not indicate causation (Leedy & Ormrod, 2005). If particular
leadership styles are related to certain elements of job satisfaction and organizational
culture, the styles may only be indicators of phenomena that need further review.
Results were confined to the perceptions of leadership styles, job satisfaction, and
organizational culture expressed by survey participants and represent the “attitudes,
beliefs, opinions, or practices” (Creswell, 2002, p. 398) of leaders and employees at one
point in time. Any given day, these perceptions could change, and the outcomes could be
different. Limitations are represented by the honesty of the answers from the participants,
the time participants dedicated to answering the instruments before mailing them back to
the researcher, and the perceptions on the day the participants answered the questions.
Delimitations
The current study was confined to surveying veterinary practice leaders and
employees located in Hillsborough, Sarasota, Manatee, and Pinellas counties in Florida,
though the study could have been based on a population of practices anywhere in the
24
United States. The population was chosen for convenience to the researcher, as will be
explained in further detail in chapter 3. The study focuses on leadership styles, employee
satisfaction, and veterinary organizational culture. Only voluntary participants who were
veterinary hospital leaders and employees were included in the study
Summary
Chapter 1 has provided the framework for this research, including the background
of the study, the study’s purpose, the problem, and its significance in general and to
leadership. The purpose of this quantitative survey study is to determine if a relationship
exists between the leadership styles of veterinary hospital administrators or owners and
employee satisfaction and organizational culture within the practices the administrators or
owners lead in Florida. The independent variables are transformational, transactional, and
passive-avoidant leadership styles, as defined by the MLQ instrument (Avolio & Bass,
2004), and the dependent variables are job satisfaction, as measured by the JDI and JGI
(Balzer, Kihm, Smith, Irwin et al., 1997), and organizational culture, as measured by the
ODQ (Bass & Avolio, 1992). In the next chapter, the literature regarding leadership,
employee satisfaction, and organizational culture will be explored.
Chapter 2 contains an overview of literature regarding leadership, job satisfaction,
and organizational culture. A number of leadership theories are presented, and the basis
for job satisfaction and organizational culture is discussed. In chapter 3, the methodology
for the study is outlined.
25
CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
The purpose of this quantitative survey study is to determine if there is a
relationship between transformational, transactional, or passive-avoidant leaders’ styles,
and job satisfaction, and organizational culture within veterinary hospitals. The
independent variable is leadership styles, specifically transformational, transactional, and
laissez faire, and the dependent variables are job satisfaction and organizational culture.
There is a great deal of interest in leadership, job satisfaction, and organizational culture
as well as the relationships between them (Bass & Avolio, 1993: Kouzes & Posner, 2002;
Russell & Stone, 2002). Many studies have been conducted in varied industries in an
attempt examine these relationships, but none has been conducted in the veterinary
environment (Lok & Crawford, 2001; Morris & Bloom, 2002). The purpose of chapter 2
is to present the theoretical foundation upon which the current research is based. The
chapter will begin with the theoretical underpinnings that link leadership, employee
satisfaction, and organizational culture together and examine theories of leadership, job
satisfaction, and organizational culture separately.
Documentation
Searches were conducted on leadership, job satisfaction, and organizational
culture in libraries and on the Internet. Searches were done on specific subjects such as
leadership, veterinary management, healthcare management, job satisfaction, and
organizational culture, and searches were also done in various combinations of the terms.
Special attention was given to publications containing information concerning healthcare
professions. Much research has been conducted in the human healthcare professions as
well as industries unrelated to healthcare regarding leadership, job satisfaction, and
26
organizational culture, but no studies were found where the researchers examined these
variables in veterinary hospitals.
To assure all current research was accessed prior to publication of this research, a
subsequent search was conducted in three online databases and two veterinary peer
reviewed journals. Search words included veterinary, leadership, job satisfaction,
organization, and culture. Three additional articles were included because of the searches.
The searches netted the following: 99 scholarly articles, 17 dissertations, 35
books, and 4 websites for a total reference count of 155. Of the articles, 79 were
published in 2001 or after, and 10 of the older articles were germinal. Of the books, 19
were published in 2001 or after, and eight of the older ones were germinal. Seventy-seven
percent of the references are dated 2001 or later, and of the older references, 19 of the 36
are germinal. Many of the theories and concepts that underlie the current research are
central to the understanding of leadership, job satisfaction, and organizational culture.
The percentage of older references indicates a gap in the literature. As of this date, no
research has been done relating the variables in veterinary medicine and the current
research will attempt to fill that gap. Very little research has been conducted in the non-
medical aspects of veterinary practice. Extensive research has been conducted in the
human healthcare profession and other unrelated professions relating leadership styles to
job satisfaction and organizational culture, and representative samples from non
veterinary research are included in this literature review. However, the human healthcare
profession has limited association to leadership, job satisfaction, and organizational
culture in veterinary medicine because the business structures are different. Human
healthcare organizations tend to be large, centrally operated, bureaucratic structures
27
whereas veterinary hospitals are dominated by small entrepreneurial organizations.
Examples of research from outside the healthcare profession are less applicable, but
representative samples have been chosen because there may be some limited similarities.
Given the limited applicability of studies conducted outside the veterinary profession,
many of the concepts relating to leadership, job satisfaction, and organizational culture in
this literature review have been derived from germinal writings.
Linkages between Leadership, Job Satisfaction, and Organizational Culture
Strong leaders build a strong sense of community (Kouzes & Posner, 2002;
Russell & Stone, 2002). Part of being a strong leader requires leaders to not only honor
the diversity of constituencies but also to inspire them to share a common vision. Leaders
inspire by maintaining credibility in all they do and by modeling the way (Kouzes &
Posner, 2004). Bass and Avolio (2004) noted that “[t]here is a constant interplay between
culture and leadership. Leaders create mechanisms for cultural development and the
reinforcement of norms and behaviors expressed within the boundaries of the culture” (p.
113). The authors further pointed out that where the leaders focus attention, how they
react to crises, whom they hire, and the roles they model would control the cultural
norms. A leader’s vision inspires and unites members, promoting organizational integrity
and incorporating a value system (Russell & Stone). In a universal sense, Lok made the
point best in a study done with Crawford (Lok & Crawford, 2001) on 251 nurses, in
which the authors found that leadership had a significant impact on both job satisfaction
and organizational commitment.
Morris and Bloom (2002) found several important linkages between leadership
and organizational commitment and job satisfaction in their study of mental-healthcare
28
professionals. Organizational commitment appeared to increase when policies and
procedures were formalized. Organizational commitment also increased as the size of the
institution increased. Employees who held higher-level positions in the organization
tended to be more satisfied than lower level employees. A hypothesis was postulated that
the increased job satisfaction might be due to increased agency. The researchers posited
that if lower level staff members were allowed to participate in decisions more readily,
the employees might feel more satisfied with their jobs as well. Platonova’s (2005)
research confirmed Morris and Bloom’s findings that involvement in decision-making
among staff members increased job satisfaction. Amburgy (2005) found that length of
employment affected job satisfaction. K. Chen (2005) also noted that tenure and position
in the company affected job satisfaction positively. Employees who had been with a
company for up to six years experienced increasing levels of job satisfaction each year.
Between 6 and 10 years, there was a small decrease in job satisfaction, and after 11 years,
satisfaction grew again (Amburgy). Because job satisfaction could be a result of time
with a company, this demographic factor may be a mitigating one when examining
satisfaction because of leadership styles or organizational culture. Both Amburgy and K.
Chen found that gender and level of education did not affect levels of job satisfaction,
and K. Chen noted that marital status had no impact either. Morris and Bloom also found
that a decreased focus on profitability might result in increased job satisfaction in the
institutions studied, as would more use of technology. Finally, increased job satisfaction
might result in increased service quality and organizational performance (Dumdum,
Lowe, & Avolio, 2002; Morris & Bloom; Riketta, 2002; Walumbwa, Wang, Lawler, &
Shi, 2004).
29
Many studies have shown that linkages exist between transformational leadership,
organizational commitment, job satisfaction, productivity, and role clarity (Hanson &
Miller, 2002; Mackenzie, Podsakoff, & Rich, 2001; Viator, 2001). Research conducted
by Mackenzie, Podsakoff, and Rich indicated that transformational leaders have a
stronger effect on sales performance of workers than do transactional leaders. The
authors’ findings noted that transformational leaders not only encouraged better sales
performance, which the authors labeled in-role, but also prompted extra-roles, which
included sportsmanship, civic-virtue, and general overall helping characteristics. Viator
found that transformational leaders were highly correlated with organizational
commitment, role clarity, and job satisfaction and indirectly associated with job
performance. Hanson and Miller’s research indicated that employees who felt that the
leaders were attentive to their individual motivational needs and who employed the
workers’ knowledge and skills experienced higher levels of job satisfaction and were less
likely to leave their organizations.
Transformational leadership was highly correlated with a number of facets of job
satisfaction as well as with the measure of global satisfaction in police officers (Alarcon,
2005). Satisfaction with pay, opportunities for promotion, supervision, and coworkers
were all closely associated with high levels of transformational leadership. Satisfaction
factors were also highly associated with departmental tier within the organization.
Alarcon found that detention officers were less satisfied with each job facet and less
globally satisfied than their law enforcement counterparts. The author posited that
decreased satisfaction was because detention tasks were routine and mundane, as opposed
to the more creative, variable, autonomous, complex, and enriching tasks in enforcement.
30
Hiring into the detention tier and promoting out of it was suggested as a possible solution
to the problem as this might increase satisfaction. Such an approach might have
implications in veterinary medicine if some tasks are more mundane than others and
might decrease satisfaction. Perhaps hiring into mundane jobs and promoting from them
could be considered.
In a study of 150 employees representing 12 organizations in China, the results
showed that transformational leadership does not have a direct effect on job satisfaction,
according to Chen (2005), but only has an indirect effect through the modification of trust
between the leader and the subordinate. Transformational leadership was also found to
have a negative correlation with continuance of employment. Chen’s findings indicated
that if an employee were to be presented with a favorable job opportunity, having a
transformational leader would not influence the staff member’s intention to leave.
Transactional leadership, specifically contingent reward and exception-active
management, were significantly and positively related to job satisfaction in Chen’s
research, and management by exception and passive management significantly and
positively related to job continuance. The findings from Chen’s research were contrary to
those of some other researchers. Alarcon and Griffith (2004) stated that job satisfaction
was positively related to transformational leadership characteristics, so discerning what
leadership type might affect intention to leave and job satisfaction in general in small-
animal veterinary hospitals might be beneficial to small-animal veterinary hospitals.
Leaders affect the organization’s culture, and the culture affects the leader (Bass,
1998a). Leaders create a vision and engender dedication to that vision in a cultural
context (Bass & Avolio, 1992). Transformational leaders are likely to create a culture in
31
which the workers are considered trustworthy; there is a belief that everyone has a
meaningful contribution and that many employees are capable of handling complex
problems. Transformational leaders teach employees, encouraging them to reach the
employee’s fullest potential. The leaders also encourage creativity. To encourage, leaders
must create the mechanisms for employee development, reinforcement of norms, and
rewards for desired behaviors (Bass & Avolio).
Likewise, an organization’s culture can establish the boundaries in which leaders
can operate. For example, if an organization has been accustomed to autonomy and trust
at the middle-management levels, it may be harder for a leader to exert behaviors that
may increase his or her personal power. If a leader wishes to change cultural assumptions
and behaviors, he or she needs to recognize that desired changes must evolve over a long
period (Bass & Avolio, 1992).
Leaders’ effect on organizational culture was apparent in a study of multinational
organizations that focused on performance-oriented values, long-term employee
commitment, and continuous improvement (Rodsutti & Sweirczek, 2002). Companies
that focused on these values were shown to perform better than those that did not, in a
study of over 1,000 firms. The organizations were effective partly because they placed
leaders with nurturing personalities in supporting roles so that the organization had a
transformational feel. The practice maximized the employee satisfaction in the companies
studied (Rodsutti & Sweirczek).
The information gleaned from the linkage section of the literature review suggests
that leadership is related to job satisfaction and organizational culture (Bass & Avolio,
2004; Hanson & Miller, 2002; Lok & Crawford, 2001; Mackenzie, Podsakoff, & Rich,
32
2001; Morris & Bloom, 2002; Viator, 2001). It might be reasonable to assume that these
relationships exist in small-animal veterinary hospitals, and the current study will help
determine if this is true. Researchers have netted differing results from examinations of
leadership, job satisfaction, and organizational culture variables and the variables’ effects
on each other. The current research findings may generate outcomes that will help to
determine the variables’ relationships in small-animal veterinary hospitals. In the next
section of the literature review, leadership theory, as well as job satisfaction and
organizational culture theories will be examined. Germinal thinkers have informed 21st
century thought in many of these areas, and Bass and Avolio have been the current
theorists who have most influenced the direction of this research through their work on
leadership and organizational culture.
Leadership Theory
According to Bass (1990), the definition of leadership has changed from defining
a leader as one who is the head of state in an official way to one who is at the center of
group change. Leadership concepts evolved into a definition of a leader as a person who
holds his or her position as a result of great potential in the field in which he or she
functions. Certain theorists posited that leaders lead by virtue of their personalities or
through demanding compliance (Bass). Some felt that successful leaders exerted
influence to become successful, while others led through sheer power. Many stories, from
Homer’s tale of Achilles and Hector to the stories of Julius Caesar and war heroes like
Alexander and Patton, describe men who have overcome hardships and conquered their
enemies. Bass suggested that leadership might involve heroism, rulerism, and
management.
33
Management theory has evolved through time, beginning with scientific
management and then moving into the social-person era. From there, the modern era
began (Wren, 1994). The scientific movement involved time and efficiency foci, whereas
the social-person era represented the beginning of understanding human psychology and
how that affected work. The postmodern era combined an organizational focus with that
of human psychology. Many of the theories outlined in the literature review are products
of the last two eras and are interrelated in that the authors emphasize respect for all
workers, understand that workers have different needs, and recognize that relationships
between leaders and followers are critical to outcomes. While not directly used in the
current research, the theories serve as a background in understanding transformational
and transactional leadership styles, which are the underpinnings of this study.
Kantian leadership theory subscribes to the concept of dignity and respect for each
individual involved in an employee/employer relationship (Beauchamp & Bowie, 2004).
The work community is bound by rules that must be respected by everyone, including the
leader. All members of the community are equally subservient and sovereign
(Beauchamp & Bowie). In contrast to servant leadership (Greenleaf, 1977), the leader in
Kant’s moral philosophy could not be used as a means to an end by his or her followers.
The relationship is autonomous, with the expectation that followers can be transformed
into leaders (Beauchamp & Bowie). The leader can propose solutions and processes but
may not impose them on the basis of his or her power or position. In other words, the
leadership is participative (Beauchamp & Bowie).
The notion of servant leadership (Greenleaf, 1977) arose from the concept that a
true leader is motivated by a desire to help others. Greenleaf felt that helping others,
34
including employees, clients, and the community, is the leader’s greatest responsibility.
The servant leader’s most valuable assets are listening, empathy, healing, awareness,
persuasion, conceptualization, foresight, stewardship, commitment to the growth of
people, and building community (Spears, 2004). Smith, Montagno, and Kuzmenko
(2004) conducted research on the difference between transformational and servant leaders
and found that the leaders are different and are suited to different types of organizations.
The servant leader tends to use his or her strengths to develop an organizational culture
focusing on spirituality, preserving the status quo, and being somewhat passive. The
transformational leader engenders an organization that is more proactive, innovative,
empowered, and dynamic. The researchers suggest that servant leaders may do better in
religious, not-for- profit, or volunteer organizations (Smith, Montagno, & Kuzmenko).
Northouse (2004) offered an overview of leadership theories that included the
skills model, the style approach, the situational approach, the contingency approach, the
path-goal theory, and the leader-member exchange theory. The skills model was tested in
the early 1990s, using a military setting, and observers found that leadership capability
could be developed over time and with experience. The leadership capability begins with
general cognitive ability, motivation, and personality, advances to problem-solving skills,
social judgment skills, and knowledge, then pinnacles at effective problem solving and
performance.
The style approach may be most typified by the Blake-Mouton managerial grid,
whereby managers and leaders take a short test that nets results that can be placed on a
grid (Bass, 1990; Northouse, 2004). The grid is divided into five areas that label the
manager as taking a country club, team, middle-of-the-road, impoverished, or authority-
35
compliant approach to management. Each style comes with a specific definition, and the
ideal style is team management (Northouse).
The situational approach to leadership is best typified by the Hersey-Blanchard
Four Leadership Styles model (Bass, 1990; Northouse, 2004). Though called a styles
model, the theory delineates the types of people to be managed, based on the followers’
development and the behaviors best suited to manage them, including a delegating,
supporting, coaching, or directing environment. Few research studies have been able to
support Hersey and Blanchard’s model (Northouse).
Fiedler (as cited by Bass, 1990) developed the contingency theory of leadership
based on which styles of leaders were best or worst for a particular organizational
context. The styles are generally described as task- or relationship-motivated, and the
Least Preferred Coworker (LPC) scale was developed to measure the contingency theory
construct. Leaders who scored high on the scale were more relationship-motivated than
those who scored low. Three situations are considered in the model: position power, task
structure, and leader-member relations. Task structure is either rated high or low, position
power is rated strong or weak, and the leader-member relationship is either good or poor.
The three constructs, taken together, determine the preferred leadership style in a
particular organizational context. The Least Preferred Co-Worker instrument has received
much criticism because it does not correlate well with other leadership measures and the
instrument is difficult to complete correctly. Even Fiedler admitted something was
lacking because the theory does not explain some important phenomena (Northouse,
2004).
36
The relationship between the leader’s style and the follower’s work setting is
emphasized in the path-goal theory. Largely based on expectancy theory, the path-goal
theory assumes workers will be motivated if they believe they can do a good job, believe
they will be rewarded, and believe the outcomes from work will be fruitful. The theory
embraces four components: leader behaviors, subordinate characteristics, task
characteristics, and motivation. Leader behaviors are subdivided into achievement-
oriented, participative, supportive, and directive behavior. Subordinate characteristics are
based on employees’ desire to belong, their propensity to prefer a specific structure or
span of control, and the employees’ sense of his or her skills as related to the job.
(Northouse, 2004). Task characteristics include design, the formal authority system, and
the employee’s coworkers. In path-goal theory, particular leader approaches are
suggested for specific workers and tasks. In spite of the path-goals’ enormous scope, the
theory only enjoys partial support in research (as cited in Northouse).
The leader-member exchange theory (LMX) is based on the relationship between
leaders and followers. According to Bass (1990), some relationships are based on
contractual agreements or defined roles, and some are based on expanded or negotiated
agreements, or extra roles. How subordinates expand their extra roles helps to define the
quality of the relationship with their bosses, and the more the employees do, the more
they become part of the in-group. If subordinates are only interested in fulfilling
prescribed job descriptions, the employees tend to become part of the out-group. Being a
member of the in-group affords subordinates “more information, influence, confidence,
and concern from their leaders” (Northouse, 2004, p. 150) than out-group members
enjoy. In research conducted by Stringer (2006), Stringer maintained that when
37
employees have a high-quality LMX, there are also higher levels of job satisfaction, as
well as mutual trust, more support, more consideration, communication that is more
effective, and higher self-esteem. Such employees accomplish more and better help the
organization to prosper. Further, employees with a low-quality LMX may perceive their
supervisors as being unfair and will end up resenting them (Wech, 2002). Ambiguity and
low intrinsic job satisfaction may neutralize the correlation between LMX and
performance, as reported in research by Dunegan, Uhl-Bien, and Duchon (2002).
Conversely, low ambiguity and high intrinsic satisfaction actually enhances the LMX.
Low role conflict also enhances the LMX, and high conflict lessens the LMX effect, but
does not remove it (Dunegan et al.). The LMX theory, while contributing to the
understanding of the leadership process, does not allow reliable measurement of leader-
member exchanges (Northouse).
Lowe and Gardner (2001) found, in a content analysis in Leadership Quarterly,
that one third of the articles were about transformational leadership. A tremendous
amount of attention centers on transformational leadership style in academia, and the
instrument used to measure it is important in the current research. Bass and Avolio
(1988) developed seven leadership factors. The factors were based on underlying theories
including the reinforced-change theory, as posited by Bass (1960), in which “leadership
is the observed effort of one member in a group to change the motivation, understanding,
or behavior of other members…Motivation is increased by changing the members’
expectations of being rewarded or punished” (as cited in Bass, 1990, p. 46). The path-
goal theory of leadership was an attempt to explain how and why contingent reward
influences the motivation and satisfaction of subordinates (House, 1971). The leader-
38
member exchange theory, as originally set forth by Dansereau, Cashman, and Graen in
1973 (as cited in Bass) suggested that a positive relationship between a leader and his or
her subordinate(s) led to greater performance in the units in which they worked.
Leadership Construct
Transformational Leadership Factors
Bass and Avolio (1988) distinguished transactional leadership from
transformational leadership. The authors noted that transformational leadership helps to
motivate followers by emphasizing morals and ethics and that transactional leadership
relies on punishments and rewards for motivation. Northouse (2004) wrote that the
transformational leadership style inextricably links the leader and follower in a
transforming process.
Beginning with Burns’ definitions of transformational leadership, Bass and
Avolio (1988) developed the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) that helped to
identify the leaders’ styles and followers’ reactions to them. Research regarding the MLQ
showed that charismatic leadership was an important component of transformational
leadership, as were individualized consideration, orientation to development of
subordinates, intellectual stimulation, and inspirational leadership (Antonakis & House,
2002). The MLQ was further developed into the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire
(MLQ5X) to more fully cover the full range of leadership theories, as presented by Yukl
(2002) in the leader member exchange theory (LMX) and by Bennis and Nanus (2003) in
their visionary theory. As previously noted, the LMX suggested a reliance on rewards
between a leader and follower, based on in-group status, and the visionary theory
suggested four leadership strategies: attention through vision, meaning through
39
communication, trust through positioning, and deployment of self. The MLQ5X
incorporated the transformational leadership qualities, as the MLQ did, but also included
the constructs of employee perception of the organization, such as job satisfaction,
organizational commitment, and intention to leave or stay.
In a study of 255 veterinary hospital managers, results from the MLQ indicated
the managers’ styles were mostly transformational, meaning 45.9% tested purely
transformational, while an aggregate 91.3% showed transformational behaviors (Grey,
2005). The highest level of education of transformational leaders in Grey’s study was a
bachelor’s degree, meaning these leaders were not veterinarians. According to Bass
(1990) and Antonakis and House (2002), transformational leadership has five
components: charisma, idealized influence, inspirational leadership, intellectual
stimulation, and individualized consideration. Charismatic leadership and idealized
influence are often combined and characterize leaders who are role models, are
trustworthy and respectable, and act ethically. Inspirational leaders are visionary and
arouse a sense of team spirit in followers, causing them to feel excited and enthusiastic
about their work. Eliciting creativity and innovation characterizes the leader who
exemplifies intellectual stimulation. Leaders help subordinates develop themselves
socially and emotionally through the leaders’ style of individualized consideration
(Avolio & Bass, 2004). Bass (1985) argued that transformational leaders motivate
followers by encouraging them to understand the value of ideal goals, by helping them to
transcend the follower’s self-interest for the interests of the whole and by assisting them
in self-actualizing.
40
Seven leadership factors are noted in the transformational and transactional
leadership model. Four are transformational: idealized influence or charisma,
inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individualized consideration. Two
are transactional: contingent reward or constructive transactions and management by
exception or active and passive corrective transactions. The last factor is laissez-faire or
nontransactional leadership (Antonakis & House, 2002: Northouse, 2002). Bass (1998b)
stated that the most ideal leadership scores from the MLQ were over 3 for the
transformational scale, about 2.5 for the transactional scale, and under 1 on the laissez-
faire, or passive avoidant scale. Many transformational leadership factors are correlated
with increased job satisfaction and improved organizational culture (Alarcon, 2005:
Amburgy, 2005; K. Chen, 2005; Platonova, 2005). Interestingly, one study found
significant correlation between satisfaction with supervisor, a facet of job satisfaction,
and laissez-faire leadership (Alarcon). In the next section, each of the leadership factors
will be examined individually.
Idealized Influence
The idealized influence factor of transformational leadership is based on House’s
(1976) theory of charismatic leadership. Since the theory’s original publication, further
studies have expanded on charismatic theory (Conger & Kanungo, 1998). Weber (1947)
originally discussed charisma in writings on management, positing that the trait gave
leaders superhuman powers, perhaps of divine origin. House wrote that charismatic
leaders displayed a strong sense of self, were highly moral, dominant, and influential.
The idealized influence or charisma factor today defines leaders who are role
models for their subordinates. Their followers want to emulate them because of the
41
leader’s conduct and dependability. Charismatic leaders are highly respected and trusted
and provide a vision for the future (Northouse, 2004). Bennis and Nanus’s (2003) work
supported the successful effects of transformational-type leaders, who used vision, were
social architects, and created trust and who emphasized their strengths and minimized
weaknesses. Tichy and DeVanna (1990) found that transformational leaders recognized
the need for change, created a vision, and then institutionalized change. The leaders were
able to do this through a transformational process that caused the people around them to
see the vision and be inspired to follow it. Kouzes and Posner (2002) noted that
exemplary leaders model the way and inspire a shared vision, as defined in the
transformational leadership model. Bass and Avolio (2004) agreed when the authors
submitted that transformational leaders who build cultures based on inspiration and
vision also display a clear personal inspiration and vision that the leader can convey to
their followers.
Inspirational Motivation
Leaders who use inspirational motivation encourage followers by having high
expectations of them and convincing them that the shared vision in the organization is
worthwhile. The leaders often encourage followers through using symbols and other
appeals that cause subordinates to believe that they will accomplish more through team
work than through seeking self-interests (Northouse, 2004). Meaning and challenge is
provided, partially by using team spirit, partly through inspiring enthusiasm and
optimism (Bass, Avolio, Jung, & Berson, 2003). Kouzes and Posner (2002) noted that
leaders inspire a shared vision through being forward looking and envisioning the future.
The leaders enlist the help of others through a shared sense of destiny.
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Intellectual Stimulation
Transformational leaders encourage their followers to examine their own beliefs,
values, and perceptions of their leaders’ capabilities (Northouse, 2004). Problem solving
is the hallmark of the transformational approach, and followers are allowed the leeway to
be creative in reframing problems without ridicule or criticism (Bass et al, 2003:
Northouse). Followers are included in decision-making and problem solving.
Transformational leaders will encourage subordinates to challenge the process, make the
challenge meaningful, and take risks (Kouzes & Posner, 2002).
Individualized Consideration
Individualized consideration is the last factor in the transformational leadership
construct. Based on Maslow’s (1943) hierarchy of needs, the leader acts as a coach,
mentor, or advisor in his or her attempt to allow the follower to self-actualize (Northouse,
2004; Bass et al., 2003). Leaders will often create venues or opportunities in which the
followers can exercise new skills. Enabling others to act through collaborating to improve
performance, creating a climate of trust, supporting face-to-face interactions, and
facilitating positive interdependence help to ensure success (Kouzes & Posner, 2002).
Kouzes and Posner also pointed out that leaders can help to strengthen individuals
through assuring that power is equally distributed, that people can lead themselves, are
provided with choices, develop competence and confidence, and recognize their
interdependence through fostering accountability.
Transactional Leadership Factors
Yukl (2002) noted that transactional exchanges between leaders and followers
involved interactions from which both parties derive something of value. The relationship
43
is one of mutual dependence, and both sides acknowledge the benefits and rewards.
There are two transactional leadership factors, contingent reward and management by
exception. The Grey (2005) study of veterinary hospital managers found that 3.1 % were
transactional, with 7.06% showing transactional behaviors. High school was the highest
level of education among the leaders with these scores. Given Grey’s findings for
transformational and laissez-faire leadership and the associated education levels, there
may be a correlation between education and leadership style in small-animal veterinary
hospitals.
Contingent Reward
Podsakoff, Todor, and Skov (1982) found in a metastudy that effective
subordinate performance was correlated with positive rewards from the subordinates’
leaders. When leaders used negative reinforcement, performance suffered or there was no
correlation between the negative reinforcement and performance. Contingent reward
involves the leader attempting to gain agreement on benefits to followers that will be
awarded for the work that needs to be done. Rewards can be in the form of salary,
benefits, time off, recognition, and boosted esteem, and the rewards must outweigh the
costs.
Hollander (1987) noted that exchanges are thought to be fair if leaders give a
sense of direction and recognition, are responsive, and help the follower feel a sense of
self-esteem (as cited in Bass, 1990). Both leaders and followers enter into a psychological
contract that employs a number of expectations, both written and assumed (as cited in
Bass). When followers fulfill the psychological contracts in ways that the leaders expect,
positive rewards follow, or at the least, the employee avoids punishment.
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Management by Exception
Management by exception can be active or passive. Management by exception
involves overt criticism, negative feedback, and negative reinforcement. Active
management by exception occurs when a manager or leader gives feedback to a follower
on a routine basis. Passive management by exception will be exhibited only after
standards have not been met, problems have occurred, or deviations from expectations
have happened. A manager will often give negative feedback at performance evaluation
time (Northouse, 2004; Bass, 1990).
Management by exception will be accompanied by an outward action or reaction
from a manager including anything from disapproval to discharge (Bass, 1990). Negative
feedback typically does not net high follower satisfaction or leader effectiveness (Bass,
1985); however, there is more satisfaction and effectiveness with the active than with the
passive type (Waldman, Bass, & Yammarino, 1990).
Laissez-Faire or Nonleadership
Laissez-faire represents the absence of leadership. Derived from the French, the
term refers to a hands-off approach, where a leader abdicates his or her responsibilities in
decision making, giving feedback, or helping followers to fulfill their needs (Northouse,
2004).
Bass (1990) pointed out that there might be two types of laissez-faire leaders:
those who show no leadership by avoiding it and those who do not lead because
leadership is not necessary. Those who avoid leadership actually may be shirking
responsibilities by burying themselves in paperwork, avoiding subordinates, setting no
goals, and letting things drift. Laissez-faire supervisors whose subordinates are self-
45
motivated, achievement oriented, and highly independent may not need the intervention
other subordinates do. The latter should not be confused with participative management
or delegation because laissez-faire is not active leadership. Active leadership remains
concerned with follow-up, whereas laissez-faire does not (Bass, 1990). The Grey study
(2005) found that 11% of the responding members of the Veterinary Hospital Managers
exhibited laissez-faire leadership. Thirty-five percent of the laissez-faire leaders were
veterinarians. The number of laissez-faire leaders should be contrasted with
transformational and transactional leadership in the Grey study, in which neither
represented any veterinarians as respondents.
Transformational Leadership in Practice
Even though the transformational leadership concept appears to be one based on
trait characteristics rather than on behavioral ones (Northouse, 2004), Bass (1999) stated
that when leaders have made the effort and have received training regarding how to
improve transformational leadership abilities, the leaders have experienced generally
positive results. The specific training that precedes improvement includes education
regarding leadership theory. Leaders in collectivist cultures tend to have an easier time
adopting or learning transformational leadership concepts and behaviors (Bass). Further,
women have shown more transformational leadership qualities than men, which have
resulted in greater employee satisfaction and effectiveness of the organization (Bass).
In a study of platoon leaders done by Bass et al. (2003), both transactional and
transformational leadership were required for platoons to be effective. The authors
posited that transactional leadership was important because complex environments
require a higher level of transactional leadership than less complex ones do. The authors
46
also noted that when turnover is rapid, transactional leadership may provide a more stable
base for effective performance (Bass et al.). Also noted in the study was that sergeants’
transformational leadership ability was more important than the platoon leaders’. Three
reasons were offered. One was that the sergeants had more daily contact with the platoon
members; the second was that the sergeants had greater tenure and thus more respect. The
third was that the sergeants typically came up through the ranks of the military and so
were identified with more readily by platoon members (Bass et al.). However, in Julia,
Natalie, and Tony’s (2003) research, the authors found that transformational leadership
was a significant predictor of low turnover intent and trust in managers.
While specific leadership traits were not correlated to specific cultural traits,
overall, employees viewed the organizational culture more positively when their
supervisors were more transformational. Further, transactional traits augmented
satisfaction among employees when a supervisor was already transformational using
contingent reward (Block, 2003).
In a study of school principals, (Griffith, 2004) transformational leadership traits
netted higher job satisfaction and lower turnover among the staff members at the
principal’s school. Schools with transformational leaders also had higher student
achievement scores. Schools that housed more disadvantaged students experienced more
positive benefits in the form of staff satisfaction and progress in student achievement
when the schools had transformational principals (Griffith).
Consideration and initiating of structure are considered dichotomous factors of
leadership (Bass, 1990). The two factors led to the highest levels of job satisfaction in
teachers in Taiwan (Liu, 2006). The consideration factor correlated highly with
47
satisfaction with the employees’ supervision, advancement, and total job satisfaction, and
the initiating of structure correlated highest with the employees’ supervision, happiness
with coworkers, the working conditions, pay advancement, and total job satisfaction
(Liu). The teachers in the Liu study were most satisfied with the level of responsibility,
which included the degree of satisfaction with work, the ability to persuade students to
learn, and the ability to help make decisions. The teachers were least satisfied with the
recognition received, which included attention, appreciation, prestige, and the esteem of
their supervisors, colleagues, students, and parents (Liu).
In a qualitative study of nurses, (Leer, 2006) effective managers were considered
honest, trustworthy, respectful, and knowledgeable about the workload of the nurses they
lead, organizational policies, and the managers were perceived to be fair. The good
supervisors were competent mentors and communicators. Bad managers, on the other
hand, were not knowledgeable and did not follow up on the concerns of the workers. The
nurses in the study were happier when afforded opportunities to learn and develop skills,
were assigned to challenging cases, perceived they could make a difference, had a lot of
camaraderie and teamwork, and had substantial peer support (Leer). While the qualitative
review did not incorporate specific transformational leadership language, many of the
qualities nurses identified were similar to the qualities described in the literature.
Leadership styles are strong predictors of organizational culture, and the styles
can affect two types of culture that, in turn, affect productivity of organizations. The two
types of cultures that styles can affect are innovative culture and competitive cultures,
which are externally oriented cultures, but style has little effect on bureaucratic and
community cultures, which are internally oriented. The implication is that leadership
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style has an indirect effect on productivity through organizational culture (Ogbonna &
Harris, 2000). The researchers also found that transactional leadership was not linked to
superior performance. However, MacKenzie et al. (2001), found in a study of
salespeople, that transformational leadership directly related to performance.
There is significant concern regarding the four factors of transformational
leadership: idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and
idealized consideration. The constructs may not be clearly delimited and may be
measuring the same concept. Some of the transformational leadership factors have been
found to correlate highly with laissez-faire, which suggests that the factors may not be
unique to transformational leadership. The newest version of the MLQ may validate the
legitimacy of the factors (Northouse, 2004). The primary focus of the current study is to
determine what leadership quality relates with the highest levels of job satisfaction and a
functional organizational culture. The precise type of transformational leadership a leader
displays may not be critical. What is critical is whether a leader is transformational or
displays laissez-faire qualities, however, and the reliability and validity of the MLQ
seems to indicate that discerning these qualities will not be problematic (Avolio & Bass,
2004).
Criticisms of the Transformational Leadership Construct
The transformational leadership model seems to treat leadership as a personality
trait. If it is a personality trait, leadership may not be teachable. Many scholars, including
Weber (1947), House (1976), and Bass (1995), insist that transformational leadership
addresses behaviors and can therefore be taught, but the image of transformational
evokes a trait, and the term visionary does as well. Further, the model seems somewhat
49
elitist, placing the leader well above the followers in ability and power, almost in a hero’s
role. This is largely because the model focuses on the leader and not on any shared or
reciprocal leadership arrangement with followers. Another criticism is that the model is
based on qualitative data from CEO levels of companies. More recent studies are being
conducted that include leaders within organizations and not leaders of organizations, to
help substantiate the model (Northouse, 2004). The last criticism is that transformational
leadership can be frightening. Because part of the model involves charisma, a question
may arise regarding the wholesomeness of the leader’s vision and his or her ability to
evoke followership (Northouse).
Job Satisfaction
According to Schermerhorn, Hunt, and Osborn (2004), “Job satisfaction is the
degree to which individuals feel positively or negatively about their jobs” (p. 100). The
authors pointed out that job satisfaction is an emotional response to the tasks to which
one is charged as well as to the physical and social conditions with which one is faced. A
worker’s level of job satisfaction may also serve as a filter by which he or she sees the
situation at work overall. Depending on positive or negative feelings regarding overall
job satisfaction, work interventions may be viewed differently by different employees,
(Balzer et al., 1997). Employees who are more satisfied with their jobs are more likely to
stay with their employers (SRHM, 2004; Larrabee et al., 2003). Larrabee et al. elaborated
by noting that not only was job dissatisfaction the major indicator for intent to leave but
psychological empowerment was the greatest indicator for job satisfaction. Job
satisfaction can be measured in two ways: an overall measure of satisfaction, which is
50
labeled global job satisfaction, and separate, specific measures of areas within a person’s
work, called facet job satisfaction (Nagy, 1996).
The global measure is ascertained by asking individuals about the factors and
motivations that led to a perception of satisfaction. The global measure seems a simplistic
approach and, as such, has been subject to criticism. However, global job satisfaction has
been found to be a good initial investigation into the level of job satisfaction of an
individual (Nagy, 1996). Facet satisfaction reveals specific areas of a person’s job that
may or may not be satisfying. The facet measure can help a manager or leader address
specific intrinsic or extrinsic factors that might improve a worker’s perception of his or
her job.
In veterinary medicine, Ilgen et al. (2003) studied both global and facet job
satisfaction perceptions in 585 veterinarians. One global measure was described as
identification and was defined as how the individual related to his or her profession. The
premise was that in the professions, what a person does is who he or she is, and that his
or her profession influences how he or she behaves. Individuals who identify more with
their profession, tend to work harder to maintain it, are less likely to leave it, and are
more likely to advocate others to join it. Veterinarians in small-animal practice strongly
identified with the profession on a 5- point Likert-type scale, with the mean score just
over 4, with 4 equating to strongly agree. Veterinarians also identified strongly with their
workgroups and their organizations (4.2 and 4.3). Overall satisfaction was also measured,
and small-animal veterinarians’ jobs ratings on the Likert-type scale were 3.87. In a later
study (Johnson, Morgeson, Ilgen, Meyer, & Lloyd, 2006), many of the same researchers
51
who were involved in the Ilgen et al. study found that job satisfaction was predicted by
organizational, professional, and workgroup identification in veterinary medicine.
Areas of facet job satisfaction were also measured. Veterinarians strongly agreed
that autonomy was high and teamwork was good, and agreed or strongly agreed (3.6) that
their supervisors were supportive. The veterinarians were not as enamored with pay, with
a satisfaction rating of 3.64 (Ilgen et al., 2003). The Ilgen study was not conducted on
veterinary hospital staff, but employed associate veterinarians were included. The
employees are considered staff, and their satisfaction and intention to leave are critical to
the culture of the hospital and its productivity. While the study is not a comprehensive
analysis of all staff, the study provides an indication of the perceptions of a small portion
of it.
Rohlf and Bennett (2005) studied moral stress experienced by veterinary hospital
workers. The particular situation experienced in small-animal veterinary hospitals that
may cause moral stress includes euthanasia for human convenience rather than to relieve
animal suffering. Three social support systems may help relieve the moral stress small-
animal veterinary workers suffer. Support measures include peer support, affiliation with
companion animals, and the worker’s relationship with management (as cited in Rohlf &
Bennett). More than 70% of animal-care workers enter the field because they love and
respect animals, or because they feel empathy with them. Though the majority of animals
are euthanized for reasons other than convenience in small-animal veterinary hospitals,
both veterinary nurses and veterinarians perform euthanasia frequently.
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Table 1
Euthanasia Statistics
Reason for
euthanasia
Percentage of veterinarians who
perform euthanasia
Percentage of veterinary nurses
who perform euthanasia
Sick 97.4 100
Old 92.1 95.7
Behavioral 81.6 63.8
Unwanted 42.1 40.4
Note. Adapted from Rohlf & Bennett, 2005, p. 210.
The social support given to people performing euthanasia relates to feelings of
stress, and therefore to feelings of job dissatisfaction (Rohlf & Bennett, 2005). The
workers’ animals reportedly provided the highest level of social support, and employers
provided the lowest level of social support (Rohlf & Bennett).
Job satisfaction may be a result of innate personality characteristics. Huang
(2005) showed that fundamental personality traits, as measured by a personality-style
inventory, played an important role in perceptions of job satisfaction. Work stress is
related to turnover intention (Huang) and personalities measuring high in introversion,
intuition, feeling, and perceiving scored high in these areas. Specifically, low scores on
the intuition factor were directly and negatively correlated with high job satisfaction
scores. Personalities scoring high on sensing, thinking, and judging also had the longest
work experience, were the oldest, had the highest salaries, and rated highest on job
satisfaction (Huang). Huang suggests that while leadership and organizational culture
may play roles in job satisfaction, a worker’s personality may be a moderator. While
53
personality characteristics will not be examined in the current study, it should be noted
that Huang’s findings regarding stress, job satisfaction, and turnover intention relate to
Rohlf and Bennett’s (2005) findings.
Peer socialization and group dynamics, specifically cohesion of the work group,
play an important part in job satisfaction. Conversely, a lack of control over work
situations, lack of presence of a supervisor, and poor-quality leaders influence
dissatisfaction (Fletcher, 2001; Price, 2002). In the education sector, staff satisfaction
levels are enhanced when supervisors receive regular training to increase effectiveness.
Amongst nurses, dissatisfaction has been shown to affect patient mortality and burnout
(Aiken, Clarke, Sloane, Sochalski, & Silber, 2002). Further, nurses seemed happier when
supervisors worked side by side with them and did not simply manage (Santos et al.,
2003). In Platonova’s (2005) research, involving human resource management in human
hospitals, job satisfaction increased in the presence of several factors. Factors included
the fair handling of promotions, the selection of internal candidates for promotions,
conducting performance reviews fairly and in a timely way, the perception of job
security, and adequate staffing. The author also found that performance recognition was a
mitigating factor for satisfaction with current benefits and that employees were more
satisfied when involved in the decision making of the organization. Some of the factors
Platonova described align with transactional leadership traits, namely, promotions, job
security, performance reviews, and staffing, and some align with transformational
leadership, such as involvement with decision-making.
While it is possible that job satisfaction is not a causal factor for turnover,
behavior, or productivity in the workplace, the construct is still useful (Balzer et al.,
54
1997). Satisfaction measures may correlate with organizational dysfunction, intention to
stay, organizational change, cultural characteristics, values and goals, or reactions to
stress (Balzer et al.). While Balzer et al. did not see that turnover was directly related to
satisfaction, Barak et al. (2001) suggested that there were several antecedents to turnover,
namely, organizational commitment and job satisfaction as well as perceived fair
compensation and diversity. Silvestro (2002) produced research in the United Kingdom
that indicated that employee satisfaction and productivity, efficiency, and profitability
were inversely related. In Silvestro’s study of four large supermarket chains, the most
profitable stores were shown to have the least satisfied employees. Silvestro suggested
that four situations could be identified in which employee longevity, which was one of
the measures for satisfaction, may be important. Situations where customer contact was
high, where there was little opportunity for technological substitution, where staff contact
was critical to the value proposition, and where services carried with them a high labor
cost.
Pekala (2001) reported that 78% of workers would change jobs if the right
opportunity presented itself. Forty-eight percent of workers are actively looking for other
opportunities. Employee turnover is estimated to cost organizations about 5% of the total
annual operating budget (Waldman, Kelly, Arora, & Smith, 2004). In veterinary
medicine, the estimated cost was $22,360 each time a hospital employee leaves
(Veterinary Economics, 2006). Tumblin (2006) stated that unhappy employees yield
higher turnover. When a staff member leaves an organization, his or her knowledge,
skills, and experiences are lost. Newcomers take some time to become fully functional,
depending on how difficult the requirements of the position are to learn. Estimates for
55
full functionality range up to six months (Waldman et al.). The major predictor for
employees leaving jobs is not social but organizational and job-based (Barak et al., 2001).
When employees are not happy, outcomes for companies include higher turnover,
increased absenteeism, burnout, low commitment, stress, and decreased satisfaction while
on the job, leading to diminished performance (Barak et al., 2004).
Herzberg (1964) constructed an early conceptualization of job satisfaction in the
two-factor theory. The hygiene factor involved the environment in which the worker was
surrounded and included his or her supervision, salary, relationship with coworkers and
supervisors, and status. Other authors further included organizational policies under
hygiene factors (Hansen, Smith, & Hanson, 2002; Lunenburg & Ornstein, 2004).
Herzberg labeled the second dimension as motivation, relating to job tasks and content,
the need for recognition and achievement, and the worker’s ability to grow in his or her
job. While meeting the hygiene needs would not satisfy an employee, Herzberg felt the
hygiene needs would keep the employee from being dissatisfied. Satisfying the
motivators could cause job satisfaction, but the absence of them could not cause
dissatisfaction.
Increased job satisfaction for associate pastors in Korea was related to intrinsic
factors, such as increased self-esteem, opportunities for personal growth, and feelings of
accomplishment (Lee, 2005). The author noted that the motivating factors were closely
associated with the transformational leadership practices of the senior pastors in the large
churches that were studied. Conversely, dissatisfaction with the associate pastors’ jobs
was largely associated with hygiene-related factors, such as not understanding the job
expectations, unfair treatment from supervisors, and the amount of supervision received.
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A more popular and modern conceptualization of job satisfaction is one-
dimensional. The conceptualization makes the distinction between how much an
employee currently has and how much he or she wants. Called discrepancy theory,
(Locke, 1969), the distinction is thought to be a reasonable measure of job satisfaction,
although extremely hard to measure. However, multiple facets regarding a person’s job
can be measured, A worker may like some facets of his or her job but not others. For
example, a person may be very satisfied with pay, yet not satisfied with coworkers.
Overall, this coworker may score similarly to another who likes his or her coworkers but
is dissatisfied with his or her pay (Balzer et al., 1997).
The Gallup Organization recently published a book regarding what managers
might do to improve the job satisfaction of workers. Based on research involving more
than a million people in 114 countries, the study showed that 12 elements concerning job
satisfaction emerged. Employees said
1) I know what is expected of me at work, 2) I have the materials and equipment I
need to do my work right, 3) at work, I have the opportunity to do what I do best
every day, 4) in the last seven days, I have received recognition or praise for
doing good work, 5) my supervisor, or someone at work, seems to care about me
as a person, 6) there is someone at work who encourages my development, 7) at
work, my opinions seem to count, 8) the mission or purpose of my company
makes me feel my job is important, 9) my associates or fellow employees are
committed to doing quality work, 10) I have a best friend at work, 11) in the last
six months, someone at work has talked to me about my progress, and, 12) this
last year, I have had opportunities at work to learn and grow. (Gallup, 2006, p.1)
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Many of the comments relate to qualities that both transactional and transformational
leaders display as well as to the culture of the organization. Comments 1, 2, 4, and 11
relate to transactional-type leadership, comments 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 12 relate to
transformational-type leadership, and comments 9 and 10 relate to the organization’s
culture. The researchers at Gallup found that when employees feel job satisfaction
through having their needs met as identified, absenteeism was reduced by 72%, which led
to fewer accidents. Having employees’ needs met boosted productivity by 18% and
profitability by 12%, reduced turnover by 31-51%, and increased creativity. Customer
satisfaction scores increased by 12% (Gallup, 2006).
Satisfaction is measured in terms of the worker’s time and situational frame of
reference. A person may be satisfied with pay, especially relative to others in the family
or among coworkers. The time continuum is of equal importance in reporting satisfaction.
When asked how satisfied a worker is with his or her salary, he or she may be satisfied
while he or she is in college, or in the short term, but would not be satisfied with the job
as a long-term solution (Balzer et al., 1997).
Modern trends are affecting job satisfaction among workers. Trends can include a
growing number of Generation Y employees, defined as people born after 1981, more
women entering the workforce, the exit of baby boomers from the workforce through
retirement, and increased care of elderly parents (SRHM, 2004). Employers must gauge
their perception of employees’ needs against those of the workers to assure a better fit
(SRHM, 2004). In 2002, employees reported that the most important factor in job
satisfaction was security. Security was closely followed by benefits, communication with
management, work/life balance, and compensation. Also, in 2002, employees overall
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were highly satisfied with their jobs (SRHM). In 2004, 8 of 10 employees reported being
highly satisfied with their jobs. Yet, in 2004, rather than security being of utmost
concern, benefits and compensation rose to number one. Following pay came safety in
the workplace, job security, and work/life balance (SRHM). Female workers reported that
safety in the workplace was the main concern.
Gibson, Ivancevich, Donnelly, and Konopaske (2003) noted that job satisfaction
was correlated with performance. The authors further delineated five areas that are
critical for job satisfaction. The five areas are pay, which includes both the amount
received and the perceived equity, the extent to which the job is interesting and presents
opportunities to the worker, promotion opportunities, satisfaction with supervisors, and
the supportiveness, competency, and friendliness of the employee’s coworkers. Lok and
Crawford (2004) further noted that employees need to have opportunities for
advancement or the employee may become mentally or emotionally separate from work
and the organizational mission. Feeling distant affects morale and overall job satisfaction.
Liu (2006) reported that high job satisfaction among teachers in Taiwan was inversely
related to higher pay, which contradicts one of Gibson et al.’s findings. Liu posited that
the increased satisfaction at lower salaries might be caused by the difficulty in obtaining
jobs by new candidates. The researcher noted that the teacher feels fortunate to have the
position. The finding may not be unusual. It is possible that when applicants are hired in
their desired field for the first time, the applicant might experience similar satisfaction at
lower pay levels.
Ganzach (2003) found that workers who had a higher education level experienced
both more and less job satisfaction. Workers who experienced more tended to find more
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opportunities that were professionally and emotionally rewarding. Workers who found
less job satisfaction tended to expect higher rewards for education than they were
receiving in the form of salary and benefits. Lok and Crawford (2001) tested the age
relationship with job satisfaction and found no statistical correlation. Other studies
showed no correlation between either age or education and job satisfaction (Alarcon,
2005; Chen, 2005; Huang, 2005; Liu, 2006).
Several scales are available to measure job satisfaction. One is the Job Descriptive
Index (JDI) that was developed by Smith and colleagues in 1989. The JDI measures five
facets of satisfaction: the work itself, coworkers, the employee’s supervisor, his or her
pay, and promotional opportunities (Bowling Green State University, 2006). The JDI is a
popular measure for job satisfaction, being highly reliable and valid (Nagy, 1996;
Harwell, 2004). Nagy wrote that the JDI is not a conceptually strong measure of job
satisfaction in that the instrument emphasizes the characteristics of a job, not an
employee’s feeling about his or her job. The Job in General Scale (JIG) was developed,
in part, to help address the employee’s feelings about his or her job (Smith et al., 1989).
Organizational Culture
Organizational culture is typically a set of shared values and assumptions that are
a reflection of the founder’s beliefs (Bass & Avolio, 2004). In the 1980s, 83% of the
fastest growing companies were founded by the same CEOs that were either currently
there or who died running the companies (Bass & Avolio, 1993). Organizational renewal
is critical to survival and success. “[C]reativity, problem solving, risk taking, and
experimentation” (Bass & Avolio, p. 114) are key to organizational regeneration.
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An organization is structured to make sense of its external environment, and the
type of structure the organization adopts will largely determine how the organization will
receive and process information. The structure is represented by its culture, and the
structure also represents the patterns and learned behavior of the organization’s members.
The patterns are transmitted from one employee generation to the next through stories,
rituals, beliefs, expectations, and values (Bass & Avolio, 1992). Lund (2003) expanded
this shared belief system to include workers’ beliefs about the organization’s leadership,
its strategy, and the organization’s effectiveness. The larger the organization, the more
likely it is to have subcultures because one unique culture is difficult to maintain (Schein,
2004). Individuals will often learn to function in one or more subculture, within the
organization depending on need.
The strength of any given culture will depend on how long the culture has existed,
the group’s stability, and how member’s feel about their experiences within the culture.
(Schein, 2004). Schein outlines four characteristics of culture. It has structural stability,
depth, breadth, and patterning or integration. The stability is enforced by a sense of group
identity, and the identity provides meaning and predictability. Culture is largely
unconscious and therefore deeply seated. With culture come many assumptions that may
not be overt. Culture is all encompassing in that it controls all that the group does. All the
rituals, values, and behaviors implicit in a culture tie together to create a pattern that
defines that culture.
A distinction can be made between the visible and invisible components of culture
(Schein, 2004). The visible culture can be seen in the culture’s artifacts, such as the way
meetings are conducted, the dress code, or the office layout. The invisible culture is
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represented by shared values and implicit assumptions. Both the visible and invisible
cultures tend to persist over time, but the invisible culture is more persistent because
workers tend to be unaware that it exists (Parry & Proctor-Thompson, 2001). Though
both components are hard to measure, doing so is likely to have a positive impact on
profits if the results are used to improve effective organizational cultures (Parry &
Proctor-Thompson).
Understanding the organization’s culture requires an appreciation of its stated and
implied assumptions. The understanding cannot be reached through observations of
behavior alone because people are deeply embedded in the cultural fabric and cannot
articulate the culture’s assumptions and values. The worker’s understanding and behavior
is automatic and often undecipherable. As such, an understanding of the underlying
values that inform behaviors is imperative to understand culture (Bass & Avolio, 1992).
While other studies have shown an association between leadership style and
performance, Ogbonna and Harris (2000) found that organizational culture is a mediating
factor. In other words, the authors found that there is only an indirect link between
leadership and performance. Bureaucratic and community cultures, which are defined as
internally oriented cultures, were not found to be linked to good performance but
competitive and innovative cultures were (Ogbonna & Harris). Each type of cultures is
externally focused on positioning and responsiveness. Specifically, bureaucratic cultures
were negatively linked to performance. The authors suggested that shared values (Schein,
2004) are only an asset if the values are focused on the competitive environment.
Peterson (2002) found that school cultures tended to be either positive or toxic.
Positive cultures tended to have a strong vision and purpose, and the cultures fostered
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continuous improvement, while toxic ones did not have a clear mission or vision, and
employees tended to be adversarial. Peterson noted that leaders needed to identify the
existing culture and promote the positive but discourage the negative. The author
observed that cultural shifts are very hard to make and that the leader needs to understand
the organization’s history to attempt change.
Bolman and Deal (2003) outlined four types of framework to describe
organizational culture: structural, human resource, political, and symbolic. The structural
frame has its roots in Taylor’s (1911) and Weber’s (1947) works with regard to the power
and control that management exerts over the organization. The division of labor,
hierarchical structures, rules, controls, and policies are the cornerstones of the structural
frame. Often, the size of the organization dictates how complex the hierarchy is.
The human resource frame derives from McGregor’s and Argyris’s work.
McGregor defined theories X and Y in terms of whether an employee’s motivation arises
internally or externally. Argyris theorized that employees want to self-actualize instead of
being treated like immature adults (as cited in Bolman & Deal, 2004; Bass 1990;
Schermerhorn, Hunt, & Osborn, 2004). Bolman and Deal noted that the human resource
frame depends on the dual dependency between the employee and the organization. The
organization needs the employees’ talents, experience, knowledge, and abilities to run a
successful company. Conversely, the employee needs a salary and the benefits provided
by the company. The company operates more smoothly when the needs of organizations
and employees are aligned.
Individual and group interests comprise the political frame of an organization.
Power is the underlying force that drives the political workings of an organization.
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Coalitions have different goals and objectives, and each coalition is competing for scarce
resources. While the political maneuverings may seem counterproductive on the surface,
they are often the catalyst for positive change within companies.
The last frame is the symbolic one. Myths, indoctrinations, assumptions, stories,
and traditions comprise the symbols, some of which manifest as artifacts (Schein, 2004).
These symbols help create a bond between all employees to guide them through stressful
times and decision-making. Symbols also help orient new employees to become part of
the culture more quickly.
Lund (2003) studied organizational culture and its effects on job satisfaction. The
results of the author’s research indicated that cultures could be separated into four forms:
clan, adhocracy, hierarchy, and market. Job satisfaction was dependent on the cultural
form. Clan cultures demonstrated cohesiveness, facilitation of relationships, and the
development of people. Adhocracies tended to be entrepreneurial, creative, and risk-
taking. Employees were satisfied in the clan and adhocracy cultural types. Block (2003)
studied the relationship between leadership and culture in the private sector and found
that transformational leadership styles contributed to perceived favorable cultures more
than transactional leadership did.
Huang (2005) studied personality types that preferred particular cultures, as
measured by a personal style inventory. The author found that clan culture dominates the
other types that were shown as preferred and that people who liked that culture liked its
family-type atmosphere and the clan culture’s emphasis on teamwork because the
management was highly committed and because it focused on employee development
(Huang). Those preferring the clan culture demonstrated the highest scores in job
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satisfaction, the lowest turnover intention, and the lowest work stress. Specifically, the
personality traits’ order of prevalence among subjects studied were introverted, sensing,
thinking, and perceiving, at 83.3%; extroverted, sensing, feeling, and perceiving, at
76.9%; and introverted, sensing, feeling, and perceiving, at 72.7%. The other personality
types demonstrated prevalence at less than 70%. Overall, the highest scores in feeling and
perceiving and the lowest scores in thinking correlated with a strong preference for a clan
culture, and high scores in extroversion, sensing, thinking, and judging correlated with a
strong preference for the moderate clan culture (Huang). Huang’s research indicated that
leadership and job satisfaction may be moderated by personality type when perceptions
of organizational culture are being studied. Personality types may be a subject for further
research in small animal veterinary hospitals.
Waris (2005) found that employees preferred a market culture, as defined by
Lund (2003). Though Huang (2005) stated that employees preferred the family
orientation that promoted teamwork and employee development, Waris’ research showed
that employees felt pride and satisfaction when working together to improve and ensure
customer satisfaction. The market orientation, which focuses on customer satisfaction,
was correlated with less employee tardiness, lower turnover and absenteeism, and higher
organizational productivity.
Transformational leaders engender transformational leadership cultures (Bass,
1998a). Bass and Avolio (1992) stated that transformational cultures have a sense of
family and shared feelings among members. Employees in transformational cultures tend
to transcend immediate needs and attempt to understand and meet the organizational
goals. Alternatively, transactional leadership culture focuses more on the contractual
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relationships between the organization and the employees. Transactional cultures
engender individualism rather than organizational goals. The status quo tends to be
valued, and flexibility is not encouraged (Parry & Proctor-Thompson, 2001). No culture
is strictly transformational or transactional, but often a clear tendency toward one or the
other is apparent.
Conclusion
Leadership may affect job satisfaction and organizational culture in important
ways. Evidence that leadership may affect performance of an organization exists, with
organizational culture being a mitigating factor (Ogbonna & Harris, 2000). The
satisfaction of employees with leaders and working environments can affect productivity
because evidence shows that satisfaction affects turnover rates as well as morale (Gallup,
2006).
While numerous leadership theories and instruments to measure them are
available, Avolio and Bass’s (2004) transformational leadership instrument seems to
collate many of them into one. Similarly, a number of job satisfaction and culture
instruments are used in research and more than one may be appropriate for the current
study. Job satisfaction is solely based on the unique perspective of the individual
reporting his or her feelings. The feelings may be molded by his or her relationship with
coworkers, pay, supervisors, or intrinsic rewards. What is important is to measure the
variables in a consistent and reliable manner so that understanding relationships between
them is possible. The assumption made is that studying how leadership affects employee
satisfaction and organizational culture in veterinary hospitals may be an integral
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component to increasing satisfaction and productivity in small-animal veterinary
hospitals.
Several research studies specific to veterinary medicine were available, namely,
that of Grey (2005), which correlated leadership traits and values among hospital
managers, and the Ilgen et al. (2003) and Johnson et al. (2006) studies that examined how
veterinarians related to the profession and workgroups. Further, a study was found that
examined stress caused by euthanasia (Rohlf & Bennett, 2005), which could affect
employees’ intention to leave. More generalized theory related to the current research
includes Avolio and Bass’s (2004) approach to transformational and transactional
leadership, Bass and Avolio’s (1992) work on organizational culture, and the Smith et al.
(1989) research on job satisfaction.
Small-animal veterinary hospitals have an average of 2.63 veterinarians per
hospital (AVMA, 2008) and 1.15 employees per veterinarian (Brown & Silverman,
1999). Studies done in healthcare organizations generally occur in large hospital settings
that may not translate into small business venues. No studies have been done that relate
leadership styles to either job satisfaction or organizational culture in veterinary
medicine. Because veterinary hospitals are different from human healthcare businesses in
organizational structure, the findings from the current research may be significantly
different.
Summary
In the preceding literature review examined prominent leadership, job
satisfaction, and organizational culture theories. The three domains are interdependent,
with leadership influencing the other two and culture possibly being the intervening
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factor (Ogbonna & Harris, 2000). Instrumentation exists for researchers to examine each
of these domains within organizations to determine how the domains are affecting one
another. Understanding the nature of the relationships between them may help to
influence employee’s job satisfaction and organizational culture. The research may
inform veterinary hospital leaders’ behaviors, helping small animal veterinary practices
to become more productive.
Chapter 3 will include a discussion of the methods that will be used in the current
study and why the methods were chosen. The research design, the validity and reliability
of the proposed instruments, the design’s appropriateness, the study population, the
proposed geographical location, and the proposed data collection techniques will also be
discussed.
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CHAPTER 3: METHOD
Chapter 3 will contain a discussion of the methods, design, population, data
collection techniques, the instrumentation proposed, and the instrumentations’ validity
and reliability. The purpose of this quantitative survey study is to determine whether
transformational, transactional, or passive-avoidant leadership styles relate to job
satisfaction and organizational culture in small animal veterinary hospitals.
The quantitative method is appropriate for the current study because values can be
assigned to variables using four survey instruments, and the results of each can be
compared to the others to determine if relationships exist. A cross-sectional survey design
is appropriate because “attitudes, beliefs, opinions, or practices” (Creswell, 2002, p. 398)
of small-animal veterinary hospital leaders and employees will be measured at one point
in time. The surveys contain specific questions relating to leadership, which represents
the independent variable as well as job satisfaction and organizational culture, which
denote the dependent variables, enabling the researcher to focus on the relationships
between all the variables in a large population. The relationships between leadership, job
satisfaction, and organizational culture are well understood in non-veterinary fields, as
was discussed in the literature review in chapter 2. To date, no research relating the
factors has been conducted in the veterinary field, though, and a large population of
respondents is required to gain the information needed to establish the relationships in the
veterinary industry. Qualitative design is appropriate when the study of a subject is hard
to quantify (Vogt, 2005). Leadership, job satisfaction, and organizational culture are
quantifiable using the instruments chosen for the current study. Qualitative research is
69
appropriate where little existing research is available on a subject (Creswell), which is not
the case when comparing leadership, job satisfaction, and organizational culture.
The research design identifies the set of instructions for gathering and interpreting
evidence (Vogt, 2005). The cross-sectional survey design for the current study is
appropriate because the dependent and independent variables were defined and the values
were determined through aggregate scores derived from surveys within small-animal
veterinary hospitals (Vogt). The surveys represented the “attitudes, beliefs, opinions, or
practices” (Creswell, 2002, p. 398), at one point in time, of a population of veterinary
hospital leaders and employees in a four-county region in Florida. A longitudinal survey
design was not chosen because it is intended to ascertain changes in people or their
attitudes and beliefs over time (Creswell), which is not the focus of the current study.
The leadership instrument (MLQ) was completed by the owners or administrators
of participating veterinary practices in a four-county area in Florida who were actively
involved in the daily functions of the hospital. The MLQ was completed by all the
participating employees of participating hospitals. The owners and/or administrators also
completed the organizational description questionnaire (ODQ). The employees
completed the job satisfaction instruments (JIG and JDI) as well as the ODQ. The
relationships observed between the variables measured by the instruments will help
managers and owners understand how leadership styles affect job satisfaction and
organizational culture in small-animal veterinary hospitals.
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Research Method and Design Appropriateness
Research Method
Quantitative survey research is used in an attempt to understand concurrent events
and how events relate to each other. In the case of the current research, relationships
were analyzed between leadership styles, specifically transformational, transactional, and
passive-avoidant, and job satisfaction, and culture within veterinary hospitals, using
existing survey instruments. Quantitative correlational research is designed to describe
“the degree of association between two or more variables” (Creswell, 2002, p. 361).
Characteristics of populations can be determined through surveys in the form of
interviews or paper surveys, and in cross-sectional survey design, the results are obtained
at one point in time (Vogt, 2005). Longitudinal design is not appropriate because the
design studies changes in people over time (Leedy & Ormrod, 2005 rather than people’s
current attitude and practices .
Relationships were determined between variables without attributing one
variable’s effect on another (Creswell, 2002). Transformational, transactional, and
passive-avoidant leadership styles, as represented by the MLQ, were related using the
Pearson product-moment correlation to all possible outcomes in the JIG, JDI, and ODQ.
The correlation measure is appropriate because the instruments in the research are being
measured at the interval level (Sweet & Grace-Martin, 2003). Multiple regression
analysis was used to determine the correlations between job satisfaction as measured by
the JDI, JIG and demographic variables as measured by the demographic survey to a
significance level of p < .05.
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Cronbach’s alpha was used to determine the internal reliability, and was run on
each survey instrument with a significance level set at p < .05. Internal reliability is
assumed if the alpha is 70% or higher (Sweet & Grace-Martin, 2003). Table 2 outlines
the research question or variable tested, the source for the data, and the test statistics that
were used for analysis.
Table 2
Summary of Variables and Statistics Used
Research question/supporting data Source of data Test statistic
What is the relationship between
transformational, transactional,
and passive-avoidant leadership
styles, as defined in the MLQ, and
employee satisfaction, as defined
in the JIG and JDI?
Items 1-36 on leader
and rater MLQ forms
and all items on the
JDI/JIG forms that
employees complete
Pearson product-moment
correlations, frequencies
What is the relationship between
transformational, transactional,
and passive-avoidant leadership
styles, as defined in the MLQ, and
organizational culture, as defined
in the ODQ?
Items 1-36 on leader
and rater MLQ forms
and all items from the
ODQ forms as
completed by all
respondents
Pearson product-moment
correlations, frequencies
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Table 2 (cont)
Summary of Variables and Statistics Used
Research question/supporting
data
Source of data Test statistic
Internal consistency for MLQ,
JDI/JIG, and ODQ
Items 1-36 on leader and rater
MLQ forms, and all items from
the JDI/JIG and ODQ
Cronbach’s alpha
Relationships between
demographic data and job
satisfaction
All items from the
demographic survey and all
items from the JDI/JIG
Multiple regression
Design Appropriateness
The independent variables in the current research are transformational,
transactional, and passive-avoidant leadership in veterinary hospitals and the MLQ
survey instrument was used for that determination. Bass and Avolio (2004) supported the
notion of leadership as the independent variable for culture by noting that leaders’ traits
are the basis for cultural norms. Lok and Crawford (2001) also noted that leadership had
a significant impact on both job satisfaction and organizational commitment. Rodsutti
and Sweirczek (2001) found that leadership directly affected satisfaction and culture in
multinational firms. Transactional and transformational leadership were both found to be
related to job satisfaction and productivity in a study of platoon leaders done by Bass et
al. (2003). Block (2003) found that transformational leadership qualities affected
employees’ views of the organizational culture. Job satisfaction was shown to be
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positively affected in studies done by Griffith (2004), Liu (2006), and Leer (2006).
Transformational leadership, as demonstrated by idealized attributes, idealized behaviors,
inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individualized consideration was
measured. Transactional leadership, as indicated by contingent reward and active
management by exception, was also measured. The last leadership dimension calculated
was passive-avoidant leadership, as measured by passive leadership-by-exception and
laissez-faire. Each leadership dimension represents the independent variables, and the
leaders in participating veterinary practices rated themselves. The hospital employees
also rated the leaders.
The independent variables were related to the dependent variables, as represented
by the employee satisfaction scales and organizational description scales. The Job
Descriptive Index (JDI) measured work on present job, present pay, opportunities for
promotion, supervision, and attitude towards coworkers. Each of these facets uses nine to
eighteen questions in a yes/no/? format to determine workers’ satisfaction in each of
these areas. The Job in General (JIG) scale measures global job satisfaction in a yes/no/?
format. Together with the JDI, the tests give an excellent overview of an employee’s job
satisfaction, performance outcomes, and intentions about staying or leaving (Bowling
Green State University, 2006).
Missing information was treated as the JDI and JIG user’s manual suggested
(Balzer et al., 1997). If three or fewer questions are not answered on the 18-items scales,
the data should be treated as a “?”. On the 9-item scales, the treatment should be for
scales with two or fewer items left unanswered. If more than two or three answers are left
blank, the authors suggest that the entire scale be left unscored.
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The final dependent variable is organizational culture, and the Organizational
Descriptive Questionnaire (ODQ) measured the construct. The ODQ measures two
factors, the transformational leadership culture and the transactional leadership culture.
The questionnaire contains 24 questions, 12 for each culture type, with the option of a
true, false, or undecided response (Parry & Proctor-Thomson, 2001). Learning about the
assumptions that frame employees’ views of the culture in which the employee work
helped the researcher place the organization in one of nine categories that reflected the
level of transactional and transformational behavior within that organization. There is an
optimal organizational approach called “moderately transformational” (Bass, 1998, p.
69), in which companies tend to operate most effectively.
The Administration Manuals for the MLQ (Bass & Avolio, 2004) and the ODQ
manual (Bass & Avolio, 1992) did not outline a standard procedure for handling missing
responses in the surveys. As such, if two or fewer responses were missing in a particular
scale, the mean responses for the other items in that scale were used as substitutes. If
three or more responses were missing, that scale was not scored.
The study was post hoc because no there were no interventions, and results were
based on historic data. The intent was to study what is occurring daily in small-animal
veterinary hospitals without interventions, which would cause an interference with the
behaviors as they are occurring. Qualitative analysis could have been chosen, but using
survey instruments in larger populations of workers allows the researcher to examine
more data from more subjects than individual interviews would have allowed. The
purpose of the quantitative survey study was to examine styles of leaders in veterinary
hospitals and relate them to particular facets of satisfaction and culture. The examination
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was not necessarily subjective and could be measured through the administration of
commercially available, validated instruments.
Population and Data Collection
The population of veterinary hospitals were represented by the members of the
Florida Veterinary Medical Association (FVMA) who operated in Pinellas, Hillsborough,
Manatee, and Sarasota counties in Florida. Postal requests were sent to member hospitals
in the four identified counties, and all practicing small animal respondents were used.
The population was chosen because the proximity of the researcher allowed
communication with hospitals, which increased the probability of participation. The
researcher also attended local association meetings to promote participation among
hospitals in the selected areas. Small animal hospital owners and administrators who
were actively involved in their clinics were the subjects for the MLQ and ODQ, and the
employees at those same hospitals participated in the MLQ-rater, JIG, JDI, and ODQ.
Hospitals were recruited through direct mailings and visits to local association meetings,
where participation was requested.
Veterinary hospitals typically consist of at least one veterinarian, who may or may
not be a specialist, at least one receptionist, and at least one assistant. Other positions in
veterinary hospitals are managers, technicians, groomers, and kennel helpers. Managers
may be office managers who typically supervise the reception activities, a hospital
manager who typically oversees the entire hospital staff, with the exception of the
veterinarians, and who does not typically handle contractual relationships, or an
administrator who typically supervises all staff, including the doctors, and is involved in
contracts (Veterinary Hospital Managers Association [VHMA], n.d.). The administrator
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may be the owner and is often the leader. Technicians in veterinary hospitals are similar
to nurses in human hospitals, and most states have credentialing requirements for them.
Some people call themselves technicians without having the credentials, making it
difficult to determine the difference without specific questioning. If the person is not
credentialed, he or she is generally referred to as an assistant. Credentialed technicians
typically have graduated from a 2 or 4-year veterinary technology school and perform a
wide variety of clinical duties. Groomers typically handle the aesthetically important
aspects of a pet, and some veterinary hospitals employ them, but many do not. All
veterinary hospitals have cages to house pets but not all have kennels. Some kennels are
used for long- or short-term boarding, and some are only used for medical patients.
Kennel workers attend to the pets in the kennels.
The primary municipalities in the four-county region for the study were Tampa,
Saint Petersburg, and Sarasota. Between these cities, and not including the 70 others that
were in the four counties or the unincorporated regions, there were approximately 340
veterinarians, of which 65% represented exclusively small animal practices (AVMA,
2007). If the average per hospital is 2.63 veterinarians, the three major cities provided a
population of 84 veterinary hospitals. Letters describing the study and requesting
participation were sent to practices. Favorable responders were asked to indicate the size
of the practice in terms of numbers of employees and veterinarians and state whether the
owner works in the practice. Veterinary hospitals were also recruited through visits to
local county association meetings and through direct mailings.
Estimated times for completion of all the instruments were provided to potential
participants, along with an explanation of the benefit for completion. The benefit for the
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hospitals included receiving the results of the study. The benefit for completion to
individuals participating was to better understand the leadership styles that may improve
the participants’ job satisfaction and culture in the organization in which they work. Each
hospital was informed that participation from employees was not mandatory and that the
owners or administrators will not be informed of whom on the staff did and did not
participate. All completed instruments were mailed directly to the researcher with self-
addressed and stamped envelopes.
Validity and Reliability
Selection bias and causal ambiguity are two internal validity threats implicit in the
study. Selection bias exists because all the participants were volunteers. Because of the
voluntary participation, and because there were no effective ways to decrease the threat,
the threat remains a limitation (Vogt, 2005). Causal ambiguity remains a threat and a
limitation because it is not possible to unconditionally state that leadership styles affect
job satisfaction and organizational culture or the reverse, and also because the study was
cross-sectional rather than longitudinal and was not time-ordered (Vogt).
Results from 84 or fewer veterinary hospitals in the four counties in central
Florida may not be sufficient to say with 95% certainty that the results from the current
research will be repeatable if an infinite number of people participated in the same study.
A confidence interval of 5-10% is considered acceptable at the 95% confidence level
(Agrressi & Finlay, 1999). To determine the confidence interval that was acceptable in
this study, a survey of ten dissertations was conducted, and their confidence intervals
averaged (Table 3). The average confidence interval of the ten dissertations was 8.343%
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at the 95% confidence level, so this confidence interval will be the standard in the current
study.
79
Table 3
Response rates and confidence intervals in recent dissertations
Study University/year
Type of
research/
population
Author
Response rate /
confidence
interval
Leadership Practices
of School Nutrition
Professionals
East Tennessee
State University/
2007
Quantitative/
survey/
194
Linda Gail
Dycus 40.7%/8.51%
The Invisible
Majority: Perceptions
of Community
College Adjunct
Faculty
Walden/ 2007
Quantitative/
mixed/
survey/49
Susan A.
Holmes 29%/21.3%
A Correlational
Analysis of Servant
Leadership and Job
Satisfaction in a
Religious Educational
Organization
University of
Phoenix/ 2005
Quantitative/
survey/
254
Kelly
Preston
Anderson
78%/ 3.28%
80
Table 3 (cont)
Response rates and confidence intervals in recent dissertations
Study University/
year
Type of
research/
Population
Author
Response rate/
confidence
interval
Transformational
Leadership and Job
Satisfaction of
Advanced Practice
Nurses in Public Health
Settings
University of
Phoenix/ 2007
Quantitative/
survey/
1287
Mary
YimLing
Wong
40.5%/3.31%
Managerial Ethics: A
Quantitative,
Correlational Study of
Values and Leadership
Styles of Veterinary
Managers
University of
Phoenix/ 2005
Quantitative/
survey/
945/
Cynthia
Ann
Kawolics
Grey
27%5.25%
81
Table 3 (cont)
Response rates and confidence intervals in recent dissertations
Study University/year
Type of
research/
population
Author
Response rate/
confidence
interval
Employee Perceptions
of Collaborative
Leadership/Manageme
nt in Higher Education
Institutions
University of
Nebraske/2007
Quantitative/
survey/554
Keith A.
Butler
30.7/
6.26%
A National Survey of
Athletic Training
Educators’ Academic
Role Strain, Role
Orientation, and Intent
to Leave
University of
North Carolina
at Greensboro/
2007
Quantitative/
survey/
250/
Robert S.
Charles
Liscombe
26%/10.48%
82
Table 3 (cont)
Response rates and confidence intervals in recent dissertations
Study University/year
Type of
research/
population
Author
Response rate/
confidence
interval
Differences in
Perceptions of
Organizational Culture:
Executives,
Administrators, and
Faculty at North Texas
Community Colleges
University of
Phoenix/ 2007
Quantitative/
survey/
304
David John
Gregory
Foster
36.2%/7.48%
Diffusion of
Innovations: Factors
Predicting the Use of
E-Learning at
Institutions of Higher
Education in Germany
University of
Phoenix/ 2004
Quantitative/
survey/2000
Bernd
Heesen
4%/10.74%
83
Table 3 (cont)
Response rates and confidence intervals in recent dissertations
Study University/year
Type of
research/
population
Author
Response rate/
confidence
interval
A Comparison of North
Carolina's State,
Private, and
Community Colleges
and Universities
Regarding Assistive
Technology and
Services for Students
With Disabilities
East Tennessee
State
University/2007
Quantitative/
survey/110 Chris Cain
65%/6.82%
Using Cronbach’s alpha as a measure of reliability, the Multifactor Leadership
Questionnaire resulted in .86 for idealized influence attributed to the leader, .87 for
idealized influence that the leader displays, .91 for inspirational motivation, .90 for
intellectual stimulation, .90 for individualized consideration, .87 for contingent reward,
.74 for active management by exception, .82 for passive management by exception, and
.83 for laissez-faire (Avolio & Bass, 2004). The Cronbach’s alpha for the five facets of
job satisfaction as measured by the Job Descriptive Index and the Job in General scale
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ranged from .86 to .91 (Balzer et al., 1997). The Cronbach’s alphas for the Organizational
Description Questionnaire measured .88 for the transformational scale and .74 for the
transactional scale (Parry & Proctor-Thomson, 2001).
Data Collection
A letter of request was sent to small-animal veterinary hospitals in the four-county
area in Florida, specifically Hillsborough, Pinellas, Manatee, and Sarasota counties, and
the letter asked for participation from the owner/administrator of the hospitals as well as
all the employees. The letter included a section indicating willingness to participate, and
the number of employees. The first letter of request is in Appendix A. The package that
was sent to potential participants included the cover letter (Appendix B), an Informed
Consent form (Appendix C), a demographic survey (Appendix D), the Leadership
Survey, both for leaders and raters of leaders (Appendix E), the Job Descriptive Index
(Appendix F), the Job in General Scale (Appendix G), the Organizational Description
Questionnaire (Appendix H), and an addressed and postmarked return envelope. Each
survey was labeled with a tracking number, so individual responses were grouped
together by hospital so that employees and leaders could be matched. Confidentiality was
guaranteed to the parties as a whole and individually. The research results was offered to
participating hospitals once completed.
Each of the instruments used, as represented by Appendices E-H, are survey
instruments that have been previously validated. The answers to them represented the
leaders’ and employees’ “attitudes, beliefs, opinions, or practices” (Creswell, 2002, p,
398), such as are appropriate for a cross-sectional survey design. The leadership survey
(MLQ) is answered on a Likert-type scale, and questions on job satisfaction (JIG and
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JDI) as well as organizational culture (ODQ) are answered as a Yes/No/? or a
True/False/?. Pearson product-moment correlation is appropriate for analyzing these
results because the results reflect a comparison of interval variables (Sweet & Grace-
Martin, 2003).
Each participant completed paper surveys, and the surveys were sent back to the
researcher in self-addressed, stamped envelopes. After the surveys were analyzed on a
password-protected, non-networked computer, they were kept in a locked file cabinet at
the researcher’s home, and will continue to be for three years, after which they will be
shredded. Surveys that are internet-based were also available but were not be used
because the results would be limited to people who are comfortable with computers, who
spend time on the Internet (Leedy & Ormrod, 2005), and who do not fear the online
venue. Such parameters could have possibly skewed the results.
Confidentiality was guaranteed to each surveyed participant through assigning
numbers rather than names to him or her. The numbers were used on all scoring sheets
and testing materials (Salkind, 2005). The researcher assured that no coercion was used
to force participants to take part in the surveys (Appendix C).
Data Analysis
Specific participants in this study were anonymous to the researcher, but practices
were bundled together and the leader and employees were identified by number.
Participants were encouraged to complete all instruments and return them within a two-
week time frame. If surveys were not returned, two follow-up phone calls were made to
serve as reminders. The cover letter requested that participants return uncompleted
surveys to the researcher if they chose not to participate. The researcher’s contact
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information was included in the cover letter for questions or concerns. During analysis,
the data were stored on the researcher’s hard drive, which was password-protected and
nonnetworked. Once the research was completed, the data were transferred to an external,
password protected nonnetworked hard drive for archival purposes.
The Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) was used for data analysis.
Data were analyzed through the use of descriptive statistics, frequencies, and percentages.
The transformational, transactional, and passive-avoidant leadership styles, which
represent the independent variables, were related to job satisfaction and organizational
culture, which are the dependent variables, to better understand the effects of particular
leadership styles on facets of job satisfaction and types of organizational culture. Pearson
product-moment correlations were derived relating the three leadership outcomes:
transformational, transactional, and passive avoidant (Avolio & Bass, 2004) to the
numerous facets of job satisfaction and organizational culture. The facets of job
satisfaction are work on present job, pay, opportunities for promotion, supervision,
people on your present job, and job in general (Balzer et al., 1997). The organizational
culture descriptors are predominately transformational, moderately transformational, high
contrast, loosely guided, coasting, moderately bureaucratic, garbage can, pedestrian, and
predominately bureaucratic (Bass & Avolio, 1992). Multiple regression analysis was used
to determine if any demographic factors significantly affected employees’ reports of
perceived job satisfaction.
Confidentiality
Participants were assured of confidentiality in the consent forms signed
(Appendix C). Individual results were not shared with practice owners, administrators, or
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supervisors, nor was individual participation discussed. Participants returned the surveys
to the researcher in self-addressed, stamped envelopes to help ensure confidentiality.
Participants were coded as employees or leaders at a particular hospital. Hospitals were
numbered consecutively in a spreadsheet based on their alphabetical placement. The
number of employees for the hospital determined the number for each employee. If a
hospital had 20 employees, an employee number ranging from 1-20 followed the number
of the hospital. The codes referred to individual surveys that are locked in a safe at the
researcher’s home for three years, at which point, the paper copies will be destroyed.
Instrumentation
Three instruments were used in the current research, the Multifactor Leadership
Questionnaire, the Job Descriptive Index and Job in General Scales, and the
Organizational Description Questionnaire. A fourth instrument, created by the researcher
to delineate the demographics of each participant, was also used. Each is detailed below.
Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire
The Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) is based on Bass and Avolio’s
(1988) theory of transformational and transactional leadership and further developed by
Avolio and Bass (2004). The questionnaire has been validated over the last two decades
(Avolio & Bass). The leadership styles will represent the independent variable in the
research. The MLQ consists of 45 questions that combine into nine scores: idealized
influence that is attributed to the leader, idealized influence that the leader displays,
inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, individualized consideration, contingent
reward, active management by exception, passive management by exception, and laissez-
faire (Mental Measurements, 2004b). The first five are grouped into transformational
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leadership, the next two into transactional, and the last two are grouped into passive
avoidant leadership (Avolio & Bass). The survey is answered in a 5-point Likert-type
scale, representing the frequency of each behavior.
Validity and reliability have been established through testing 2080 respondents in
nine samples. The divergent and convergent validity of all the factors netted generally
positive results (Avolio & Bass, 2004). The LISREL VII was chosen to test validity;
however, the sample size was very large, and this test is not considered useful alone
because slight differences are too hard to detect between the matrices. Therefore, the
goodness of fit index (GFI) and the root mean squared residual (RSMR) were used. The
GFI was .91, which was above the .90 criterion recommended, and the RSMR was .04,
which satisfied the below .05 criterion. The GFI measures for one, two, three, four, five,
and seven factors were less than for the six factors, and only the seven factor would be
acceptable, with the GFI measuring .90 and the RSMR measuring .04.
Reliability was reported, using factor loading by scale, with idealized influence
attributed to the leader at .86, idealized influence that the leader displays at .87,
inspirational motivation at .91, intellectual stimulation at .90, individualized
consideration at .90, contingent reward at .87, active management by exception at .74,
passive management by exception at .82, laissez-faire at .83, extra effort at .91,
effectiveness at .91, and satisfaction at .94 (Avolio & Bass, 2004). Any measure under .3
or .4 is not considered meaningful (Vogt, 2005).
External validity has been established through many studies, both domestic and
foreign, including studies conducted in Spain, Portugal, Italy, France, Germany, Norway,
Sweden, Israel, Turkey, China, Thailand, and Korea (Avolio & Bass, 2004). External
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validity has also been established over numerous organizational venues, including the
military, health-related companies, educational institutions, financial institutions, and oil
producers. The MLQ has been used in over 300 research programs, dissertations, and
theses (Avolio & Bass). In all cases, transformational leaders have been shown to
generate higher commitment from followers and higher effectiveness and satisfaction.
Job Descriptive Index and Job in General Scale
The Job Descriptive Index (JDI) was first developed in 1959 and had a second
revision in 1997, and the Job in General Scale (JIG) was developed in 1989 (Mental
Measurements, 2004a). The JDI requires the respondent to answer 72 questions that are
divided into five areas of job satisfaction. Work on present job represents 18 questions
and focuses on the job itself. The employee’s present pay represents nine items.
Opportunities for promotion is represented by nine questions, which concentrate on
promotion policy and its administration. The supervision that the employee receives is
represented by 18 questions, and questions on satisfaction with coworkers are answered
in the people on present job section. The Job in General (JIG) scale has 18 questions that
ascertain the employee’s overall satisfaction. Respondents answer “yes,” “no,” or “?” to
short and easy-to-read questions (Balzer et al., 1997; Mental Measurements).
As from 1959, the JDI was compared to four other measures of job satisfaction to
test for validity. Using cluster and factor analyses, the instrument was found to have high
levels of discriminant and convergent validity (Balzer et al., 1997). The Cronbach’s alpha
for the five facets, using 1600 respondents, ranged from .86 to .91, with numbers above
.70 suggesting that items are measuring the same thing (Vogt, 2005). The JDI has
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correlated with other job-satisfaction scales as well as with job attitudes and behaviors,
indicating the reliability of the instrument (Mental Measurements; Balzer et al.).
The JIG scale was developed to measure global job satisfaction. Not only was the
JIG intended to measure the main five facets of job satisfaction but the instrument also
was intended to measure facet interactions and contributions to longer term factors that
contributed to a person’s feelings about his or her job (Balzer et al., 1997). As a result, 18
questions, which are posed using adjectives, are asked that help the respondent to
evaluate his or her feelings regarding the job. Coefficient alpha reliability estimates of the
JIG exceeded .90 in a test population of 3,566 people. Testing with other measures of
satisfaction showed convergent validity. Three scales were used, and the correlations
ranged from .66 to .80.
Organizational Description Questionnaire
Based on Bass and Avolio’s leadership theories (1988), the goal of the
Organizational Description Questionnaire (ODQ) instrument is to identify the employees’
assumptions, processes, and expectations that cause particular behavior and feelings
(Bass, 1998a). The measures of organizational culture will be a dependent variable on the
leader styles identified in the MLQ. The Organizational Description Questionnaire is a
28-item survey designed to be completed by members of an organization. Fourteen items
represent the transformational aspects of the business, and 14 represent the transactional.
The odd-numbered questions, which represent the transactional aspect, explore concepts
such as “You get what you deserve, no more, no less; [e]veryone bargains with everyone
else for resources; and specific rules afford little opportunity for discretionary behavior”
(Bass, 1998, p. 67). The even-numbered questions, which represent the transformational
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aspects, explore concepts such as whether “people go out of their way for the institution,
whether individual initiative is encouraged, and [whether employees] believe in trusting
each other to do the right thing” (Bass, p. 67).
The 14 items questioning the transactional aspects of the organization are
answered as +1 for true, -1 for false, and 0 for undecided. As a result, the scores on the
transactional scale can range from -14 to +14. The outcome of the survey allows for the
categorization of nine types of organizations, as defined by Bass and Avolio (1992):
highly transformational, moderately transformational, high contrast, loosely guided,
coasting, moderately bureaucratic, garbage can, pedestrian, and predominately
bureaucratic.
A highly transformational organization receives high transformational scores, or
+6 to +14, and low transactional scores, or -6 to -14. Teamwork is essential in a
transformational organization where vision, purpose, and values are discussed often. The
organization is flat and decentralized, and expressiveness is accentuated. Creativity is
high, and newcomers are confused regarding what to expect and/or what it means to be
effective (Bass, 1998a).
A moderately transformational organization has transformational scores between
+6 and +14 and transactional scores between -5 and +5. Similar to the transformational
culture described above, a moderately transformational organization incorporates many
of the transactional elements that help employees know the expectations, so there is less
confusion. The moderately transformational type of organization is very adaptive and is
perhaps the most desirable (Bass, 1998; Parry & Proctor-Thomson, 2001).
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The high contrast organization is both highly transformational and highly
transactional. The transformational scores are +6 to +14 and the transactional scores are -
6 to -14. There is conflict between the transformational and transactional approaches in
high contrast organizations, but there is a great deal of trust because of the
transformational components, so the conflict is generally constructive. Elite military
groups such as the Navy Seals and the Army Rangers tend to be the best examples of
high contrast organizations (Bass, 1998a).
The loosely guided organization is not highly transformational, but the employees
can do what they please, and the organization is not transactional at all. The
transformational scores for the loosely guided organization are -5 to +5 and the
transactional scores are -6 to -14. Examples of an organization like this are university
departments or a consultancy firm (Bass, 1998a).
The coasting organization is neither highly transformational nor highly
transactional. The coasting type of organization is most prevalent, with both
transformational and transactional scores ranging from -5 to -15. The organization does
not maximize the use of its resources or opportunities. A great deal of dissatisfaction is
found among the employees, yet change is not sought (Bass, 1998a).
In the predominately bureaucratic organization, employees are controlled
through contracts, bureaucratic control is high, turfdom is prevalent, discretion is
discouraged, and employees cannot identify the vision or the mission of the organization
(Bass, 1998; Parry & Proctor-Thompson, 2001). There is a price on everything. Large
civil service agencies are examples of the predominately bureaucratic type of
organization (Bass).
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Scores on the transactional scale of -6 to -14 and scores on the transformational
scale of -5 to +5 characterize the pedestrian organization. The organization does not
allow even its leaders much discretion, and there is only a general sense of structure and
procedure. Some volunteer associations are good examples of pedestrian organizations
(Bass, 1998a).
The last type of organization is referred to as the garbage-can culture. Garbage-
can culture scores are the lowest on each scale, or -6 to -14. Consensus is not present, and
all workers do what they want without any coordination. While the garbage-can type of
organization has no form, is confused, and has no purpose and no values, few
organizations exhibit this structure. However, some committees within organizations may
display these characteristics (Bass, 1998a).
The Cronbach’s alpha’s internal consistency indicator was used to test the
reliability of each of the scales. The transformational scale measured a .88 and the
transactional scale was .74. Descriptive statistics for the transformational characteristics
were M = 8.76 and SD = 6.5. For the transactional characteristics, the M = -1.07 and the
SD = 6.16. Adequacy was determined at over .70 (Parry & Proctor-Thomson, 2001;
Vogt, 2005). A factor analysis was conducted using Principle Component Analysis with
promax rotation. This assumes that the starting variables are correlated and, in this case,
that the transformational and transactional items are negatively correlated at r = -.61, p <
.001. A verimax and promax rotation were used and both provided the same explanation
of variance over four factors, 45.3%; however, the promax rotation provided a clearer
factor structure. Only 4 of the 28 factors did not clearly load on the other factors, which
suggests a robust instrument (Parry & Proctor-Thomson).
94
The ODQ measure of transformational leadership positively correlated with the
nine items operationalizing the social processes of leadership, and the same social
process negatively correlated with transactional leadership (Parry & Proctor-Thomson,
2001). When workers observe leadership being displayed by colleagues, the workers
perceive the organization to have a transformational culture, which provides convergent
validity (Parry & Proctor-Thomson). Similarly, transformational culture was correlated
with organizational effectiveness, r = .39, p < .01 but transactional culture was not, r = -
.34, p < .01. Role conflict, or an organizational structure where there is a hierarchy yet
the employee must take commands from more than one boss, correlated significantly
negatively (r = - 32) with transformational culture and significantly positively (r = .35)
with transactional culture (Parry & Proctor-Thomson).
Demographic Survey
The demographic survey is an instrument that was created by the researcher to
acquire specific information on the participants regarding employment type, length of
time working in that particular hospital, length of time working in veterinary medicine in
general, level of education, age, full- or part-time status, and gender. The leader of the
practice is further asked questions regarding the practice revenue, if the leader is a
veterinarian, his or her average client transaction and clients seen per week, and finally,
the doctor-to-staff ratio at the hospital. The participants were asked to mark an X beside
the appropriate response to each item.
Alternative Instruments
Other considerations for the leadership instrument included the Leadership
Practices Inventory by Kouzes and Posner and the Situational Leadership assessment by
95
Hersey and Keilty (Mental Measurements, 2004a). The Kouzes and Posner instrument,
while scoring well in reliability and validity, was rejected because the instrument needed
to be used in a workshop-type environment. The instrument measures five practices,
including challenging the process, inspiring a shared vision, enabling others to act,
modeling the way, and encouraging the heart. The Situational Leadership instrument
identified four styles of leadership: (1) high task-low relationship (telling), (2) high task-
high relationship (selling), (3) low task-high relationship (participating), and (4) low task-
low relationship (delegating), as based on the Hersey-Blanchard situational leadership
model (Bass, 1990). The situational leadership instrument was rejected because it was not
tested adequately for reliability and validity.
Not many reliable or valid options for job-satisfaction instruments were available.
According to Saane, Sluiter, Verbeek, and Frings-Dreson (2003), the JDI is the most
widely used and the JIG is the best measure of employee responsiveness. The Measure of
Job Satisfaction (MJS) is another multidimensional scale used to measure job
satisfaction, and the MJS’s construct validity and test-retest reliability are also high. The
instrument uses 38 questions, measured on a Likert-type scale for determining employee
attitudes on five work factors. These factors include personnel satisfaction, workload,
professional support, salary, and prospects and training (Saane et al.).
The Organizational and Team Culture Indicator was examined as an
organizational culture instrument. The instrument was rejected because the developers
required test administrators to undergo specific training to use the instrument. The
developers tried to find a mentor who would help in the training for the current research
project but were not able to do so. The Organizational Culture Indicator (OCI) was also
96
examined, and not only has it not been tested adequately for reliability and validity
(Mental Measurements, 2004a) but measuring with the OCI is also very expensive
(Human Synergistics, 2005).
Summary
The purpose of this quantitative survey study is to examine the relationships
between the transformational, transactional, and passive-avoidant styles of leaders of
small-animal veterinary hospitals in Florida and the organizational culture and job
satisfaction among the employees in the hospitals in which the leaders work. The data
collection techniques, reliability and validity of the instruments, and data analysis
techniques have been identified. The independent variables are the transformational,
transactional, and passive-avoidant leadership styles, as defined in the MLQ (Avolio &
Bass, 2004), and the dependent variables are the job satisfaction and organizational
descriptors, as defined in the JDI, JIG (Balzer et al., 1997), and ODQ (Bass & Avolio,
1992). The research was conducted through the use of surveys sent to small-animal
veterinary hospitals in a four-county area in Florida, and all survey results were used.
Chapters 4 and 5 will outline the results from the research and the analysis and
implications derived from the findings. The hope is that the results from the current
research will help inform leaders in the veterinary industry regarding the behaviors that
are possibly associated with higher employee satisfaction and effective organizational
culture.
97
CHAPTER 4: PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA
Chapter 3 presented an overview of the research methods used in the current
study, which included the research design, the sample population, the instruments to be
used, and the data collection and analysis. Chapter 4 presents the findings of the
quantitative correlational study, which compares leadership styles with job satisfaction
and organizational culture.
The purpose of this quantitative survey study is to determine if there is a
relationship between transformational, transactional, and passive avoidant leadership
styles and job satisfaction and organizational culture for leaders and employees in small
animal veterinary hospitals in a four-county region in Florida. The independent variable
is defined as leadership styles, specifically transformational, transactional, and passive-
avoidant and the dependent variables are defined as job satisfaction and organizational
culture.
The Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) was used to determine the
leadership styles as reported by the leader and as reported by the leaders’ followers, or
employees. The MLQ consists of 45 questions that reflect the leaders’ transformational,
transactional, and passive-avoidant leadership styles. Transformational leaders tend to
recognize followers’ needs, and develop them through raising their level of awareness,
encouragement, and development (Avolio & Bass, 2004). Transactional leaders tend to
recognize their followers’ roles and tasks that will lead to desired outcomes in the form of
rewards (Avolio & Bass). Passive-avoidant leadership is characterized by providing little
to no leadership, avoiding responsibility, absence from the work environment when
needed, and squelching freedom of expression (Bass & Avolio, 2000).
98
The following research questions guided this quantitative, correlational study.
Research Question 1 is, what is the relationship between transformational, transactional,
and passive-avoidant leadership styles, as defined in the MLQ, and employee satisfaction,
as defined in the JIG and JDI? Research question 2 is, what is the relationship between
transformational, transactional, and passive-avoidant leadership styles, as defined in the
MLQ, and organizational culture, as defined in the ODQ?
Chapter 4 includes a description of the sample population, analysis of the
demographic data, correlation analyses between leadership styles and job satisfaction and
organizational culture, and regression analyses to understand demographic factors that
affect job satisfaction. The chapter concludes with a summary of the results of the study.
Data Collection
The population for this quantitative, correlational analysis included 340
veterinarians representing approximately 84 hospitals in the four-county region of Florida
consisting of Pinellas, Manatee, Sarasota, and Hillsborough counties. The Florida
Veterinary Medical Association (FVMA) provided the mailing list for these
veterinarians. According to the American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA),
about 65% of all veterinarians are exclusively small animal (AVMA.org, 2008); so
approximately 221 of the 350 veterinarians who were mailed requests were qualified to
participate. Because there is only one leader per hospital, the 30 responding leaders
represented 36% of qualified leaders. Brown and Silverman (1999) reported that in 1999,
the employee/doctor ratio was 1.15/1. The ratio translates to 254 qualified employees of
which 137 participated for response rate of 54%.
99
A letter describing the study was sent to each veterinarian on the mailing list, and
a self addressed, stamped envelope was included for a reply that indicated willingness to
participate, number of employees, and name of the leaders (Appendix A). Survey
packages were then sent to participants. The packages included a cover letter (Appendix
B), survey packets for employees, and a survey packet for the leader. Each survey packet
included a self addressed and stamped envelope for return. The leader packet included an
informed consent form (Appendix C), a demographic questionnaire (Appendix D), the
Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) (Appendix E), and the Organizational
Description Questionnaire (ODQ) (Appendix G). The employee packets included an
informed consent (Appendix C), a demographic questionnaire (Appendix D), the MLQ
(rater) (Appendix E), the Job Descriptive Index (JDI) and the Job in General Scale
(Appendix F), and the ODQ (Appendix G).
Hospital and employee numbers were assigned to each participant. Each page of
the returned surveys was marked with the identifying numbers. A total of 30 hospitals
participated, which accounted for 30 leaders and 137 employees, representing a 36%
response rate from leaders and a 54% response rate from employees. Leedy and Ormond
(2005) stated that if the population is under 100, the entire population must respond for
valid results. Because there were not enough leader responses to analyze with a high
enough degree of confidence, only employee responses have been used for the
correlational analysis. The research questions do not require that leaders’ responses be
included.
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Analysis of Data
All data were entered on Excel spreadsheets. Separate sheets were used for the
JIG/JDI, the MLQ and ODQ, and then data were summarized on another spreadsheet,
which included the demographic information. A similar process was used for the leader
data, only the job satisfaction surveys were not used on the leaders. While analysis of
leader demographic data is included in chapter 4, no correlations were analyzed using the
leader outcomes. One of the original intents of the research was to determine leaders’
perceptions of their own leadership skills and compare those perceptions with employee
satisfaction and organizational culture. Populations under 100 require a 100% response
rate to yield valid results (Leedy & Ormrod, 2005). There were 84 leaders in the
population for the current research, and 30 responded. Because the response rate was
36% for leaders, the number of leaders was not adequate for a valid analysis. The
population of employees totaled 254, of which 137 responded, yielding a 54% response
rate. In chapter 3, a confidence interval under 8.343% using a 95% confidence level was
established as adequate. An employee population of 254 with a sample size of 137 yields
a confidence interval of 5.59% at the 95% confidence level, which is within the limits
established in chapter 3. As a result, the current research will focus on employee
responses.
Demographic Findings - Employees
Employees were asked to answer a number of demographic questions including
employee type, ethnicity, the length of time they had worked in the hospital being
101
studied, the length of time they have worked in the veterinary field, their education level,
the number of hours they work each week, their age, and their gender.
The mean and median age for employees was 25-40 years old. The next most
common age was 18-25 (Table 4).
Table 4
Employee Age
Age Responses Percent
18-25 years 37 27
25-40 years 51 37
41-55 years 29 21
Over 55 years 6 4
Missing 13 10
Total 137 100
The median education level was some college. Most respondents had more than a
high school education (Table 5),
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Table 5
Employee Education
Level Responses Percent
Not graduated from high school 1 1
High school graduate 17 12
Some college 47 34
Graduate of veterinary-related technical
school
17 12
Four-year degree 27 20
Graduate degree 15 11
Missing 13 10
Total 137 100
The majority of employees work over 33 hours a week. Both the mean and
median for hours worked indicated that nearly all the employees were full time (Table 6).
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Table 6
Employee Hours worked/ week
Hours/week Responses Percent
0-20 1 1
21-32 20 15
Over 33 103 75
Missing 13 9
Total 137 100
The majority of the employee respondents were non-veterinary staff, meaning
they had no formal veterinary education. The respondents in the second largest group
were credentialed technicians (Table 7).
Table 7
Employee Type
Type Responses Percent
Non-veterinary staff member 59 43
Credentialed technician 36 26
Hospital manager 11 8
Veterinarian 11 8
Hospital administrator 4 3
Owner 2 2
Missing 14 10
Total 137 100
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Most of the employee respondents worked at their present job for two to seven
years (59%), while those who worked at the study hospital 0-1 years totaled 41%. The
mean and median for this statistic suggested that most employees worked in their present
positions for 2-3 years (Table 8).
Table 8
Employee length of time in current hospital
Years Responses Percent
0-1 42 31
2-3 29 21
4-7 30 22
8-15 16 12
Over 15 7 5
Missing 13 10
Total 137 100
Only 15% of the employee respondents worked in the veterinary field less than
one year, and more than half (62%) of them worked in the field two to seven years. The
median for the current analysis was 4-7 years, and the mean was slightly higher (Table
9).
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Table 9
Employee length of time in field
Years Responses Percent
0-1 15 11
2-3 20 15
4-7 42 31
8-15 29 21
Over 15 17 12
Missing 13 10
Total 137 100
The majority of employees reporting were white (Table 10). Most of the
employees responding were female (85%) (Table 11).
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Table 10
Employee ethnicity
Ethnicity Responses Percent
White 111 81
Other 11 9
Missing 15 10
Total 137 100
Table 11
Employee gender
Gender Responses Percent
Female 116 85
Male 7 5
Missing 14 10
Total 137 100
Demographic Findings - Leaders
Although the leader statistics were not analyzed to answer the research questions,
the outcome of the analysis of them is reported. Leaders were asked to answer a number
of demographic questions including employee type, ethnicity, the length of time they had
worked in the hospital being studied, the length of time they have worked in the
veterinary field, their education level, the number of hours they work each week, their
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age, and their gender. The leaders also answered questions regarding the hospital’s
revenue, the number of full-time equivalent veterinarians employed by the hospital, the
veterinarian’s average client charge, the number of clients the veterinarian saw each week
if they were also the leader, and the full time doctor to full time staff ratio.
Most leaders were between the ages of 25 and 55. The median age was 41-55
(Table 12).
Table 12
Leader Age
Age Responses Percent
18-25 years 0 0
25-40 years 12 40
41-55 years 13 43
Over 55 years 5 17
Total 30 100
The majority of the leaders (58%) had a graduate degree. The mean education was
a four-year degree, and the median was a graduate degree (Table 13).
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Table 13
Leader Education
Level Responses Percent
Not graduated from high school 0 0
High school graduate 2 6.7
Some college 6 20
Graduate of veterinary-related technical school 4 13.3
Four-year degree 1 3.3
Graduate degree 17 56.7
Total 30 100
Most leaders worked over 33 hours a week a represented by the mean (Table 14).
Table 14
Leader Hours worked/ week
Hours/week Responses Percent
0-20 0 0
21-32 1 3.3
Over 33 29 96.7
Total 30 100
Most of the leaders were veterinarians (40%) followed closely by hospital
administrators (33%) (Table 15).
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Table 15
Leader Type
Type Responses Percent
Non-veterinary staff member 0 0
Credentialed technician 1 3.3
Hospital manager 7 23.3
Veterinarian 12 40
Hospital administrator 10 33.3
Total 30 100
The mean time the leader had been at the study hospital was 4-7 years. The
median time at the current hospital was 8-25 years (Table 16).
Table 16
Leader length of time in current hospital
Years Responses Percent
0-1 7 23.3
2-3 4 13.3
4-7 2 6.7
8-15 10 33.3
Over 15 7 23.3
Total 30 100
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The leaders spent an average of 8-15 years in the field of veterinary medicine
(Table 17).
Table 17
Leader length of time in field
Years Responses Percent
0-1 1 3.3
2-3 0 0
4-7 3 10
8-15 11 36.7
Over 15 15 50
Total 30 100
As with the employees, the leaders were mainly white (93%) (Table 18), and
mostly female, though the percentage of females was about 58% in contrast to the
employees who were well over 90% (Table 19).
Table 18
Leader ethnicity
Ethnicity Responses Percent
White 26 93
Other 2 7
Total 28 100
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Table 19
Leader gender
Gender Responses Percent
Female 17 56.7
Male 13 43.3
Total 30 100
The next set of tables show the demographics for the hospitals reporting. The
median number of veterinarians in a hospital was two, but the mean was three (Table 20)
Table 20
Full time equivalent veterinarians
Number Responses Percent
1 11 36.7
2 8 26.7
3 3 10
4 2 6.7
5 3 10
7 1 3.3
9 2 6.7
Total 30 100
The mean and median revenue for the hospitals was between $800,001 and
$1,200,000. The highest number of hospitals reported $500,001 and $800,000 (Table 21).
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Table 21
Hospital revenue
Dollars/year Responses Percent
0-200,000 0 0
200,001-500,00 4 14
500,001-800,000 8 29
800,001-1,200,000 5 18
1,200,001-2,000,000 4 14
Over 2,000,002 7 25
Total 28 100
The mean amount a client was charged in the study hospitals was $101-150 per
visit (Table 22).
Table 22
Average client charge
Dollars Responses Percent
50-100 5 21
101-150 14 58
151-200 1 4
201-250 1 4
Over 251 3 13
Total 24 100
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The mean number of clients seen per week was 51-75 (Table 23). The ratio of
doctors to staff mean was slightly lower than one doctor to four staff members (Table
24).
Table 23
Clients/ Week
Number Responses Percent
0-50 5 33
51-75 8 44
76-100 3 17
101-125 1 6
151-200 1 6
Total 18 100
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Table 24
Doctor to staff ratio
Ratio Responses Percent
1:1 1 3
1:2 5 17
1:3 7 25
1:4 7 25
1:5 5 17
1:6 1 3
1:7 2 7
1:8 1 3
Total 29 100
Outcomes from the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ)
The Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) is based on Bass and Avolio’s
(1988) theory of transformational and transactional leadership and further developed by
Avolio and Bass (2004). The questionnaire has been validated over the last two decades
(Avolio & Bass). The leadership styles will represent the independent variable in the
research. The MLQ consists of 45 questions that combine into nine scores: idealized
influence that is attributed to the leader, idealized influence that the leader displays,
inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, individualized consideration, contingent
reward, active management by exception, passive management by exception, and laissez-
faire (Mental Measurements, 2004b). The first five are grouped into transformational
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leadership, the next two into transactional, and the last two are grouped into passive
avoidant leadership (Avolio & Bass). The survey is answered in a 5-point Likert-type
scale, representing the frequency of each behavior.
The 136 employees and the 30 leaders who responded to the leader rater survey
that is part of the MLQ reported mean values for transformational leadership at 2.8 and
2.7 respectively. The mean values for transactional leadership were 2.0 and 1.7
respectively. The mean values for passive-avoidant leadership were 0.7 and 0.7
respectively (Figure 1). The means, standard deviations, and skewness of each leader
style as reported by leaders and employees are presented in Table 25.
Means for leader styles
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
Transformational Transactional Passive-avoidant
Employee meanLeader Mean
Figure 1. Histogram of means of styles as reported by leaders and employees
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Table 25
Descriptive statistics for leadership styles
Leader style M SD Skewness
Leader transformational 2.69 1.159 -1.661
Leader transactional 1.71 .753 -1.471
Leader passive avoidant .69 .869 1.757
Employee transformational 2.81 .818 -1.680
Employee transactional 2.0 .637 -1.510
Employee passive avoidant .73 .786 1.543
Avolio and Bass (2004) report that population means for the transformational
style at 2.85, the transactional style at 2.27, and the passive avoidant style at 0.84.
Typically, the leaders’ ratings of themselves are lower than the raters’ (Avolio & Bass).
Values of over three constitute transformational behavior, over two indicate transactional
behavior, and over one indicates passive-avoidant
(http://www.mindgarden.com/products/mlqr.htm). Using these standards, leaders often
fell into one or more behavior categories, and they are labeled here as transformational
(TF), transformational/transactional (TF/TC), transformational/passive-avoidant (TF/PA),
transactional (TC), transactional/passive-avoidant (TC/PA), passive-avoidant (PA),
leaders who display no solid leadership behavior (NONE), and those who display all of
them (ALL). Based on this identification scheme, the most common style was
transformational/transactional (Figure 2).
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Leader styles
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
tf tf/tc tf/pa tc tc/pa pa none all
Figure 2. Pareto chart representing reported leader styles by employees. n = 133
Cronbach’s Alpha was used to determine the internal reliability for
transformational, transactional, and passive-avoidant leadership styles. Alpha scores can
range from 0 to 1.0, with 1.0 representing 100% reliability (Vogt, 2005). An alpha score
of 0.70 is acceptable for any instrument. The alphas for the factors of the MLQ ranged
from 0.45 to 0.93 (Table 26). Avolio & Bass (2004) reported that the alphas for each
leadership style exceeded .70 for a sample population of over 2000. Given that the MLQ
is a generally accepted instrument and large population samples exceed an alpha of .70, it
is assumed that the lower alphas in the current study were a result of lower sample size.
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Table 26
Cronbach’s Alpha Coefficients for Leadership Styles
Leader style Cronbach’s Alpha
Leader transformational .85
Leader transactional .59
Leader passive-avoidant .69
Employee transformational .93
Employee transactional .45
Employee passive-avoidant .79
Outcomes from the Job Descriptive Index and Job in General Scale
The Job Descriptive Index (JDI) was first developed in 1959 and had a second
revision in 1997, and the Job in General Scale (JIG) was developed in 1989 (Mental
Measurements, 2004a). The JDI requires the respondent to answer 72 questions that are
divided into five areas of job satisfaction. Work on present job represents 18 questions
and focuses on the job itself. The employee’s present pay represents nine items.
Opportunities for promotion is represented by nine questions, which concentrate on
promotion policy and its administration. The supervision that the employee receives is
represented by 18 questions, and questions on satisfaction with coworkers are answered
in the people on present job section. The Job in General (JIG) scale has 18 questions that
ascertain the employee’s overall satisfaction. Respondents answer yes, no, or ? to short
and easy-to-read questions (Balzer et al., 1997; Mental Measurements, 2004a).
119
The JIG scale was developed to measure global job satisfaction. Not only was the
JIG intended to measure the main five facets of job satisfaction but the instrument also
was intended to measure facet interactions and contributions to longer term factors that
contributed to a person’s feelings about his or her job (Balzer et al., 1997). As a result, 18
questions, which are posed using adjectives, are asked that help the respondent to
evaluate his or her feelings regarding the job.
For each scale, the maximum score is 54, so the neutral point is 27, which is
exactly in the middle. Scores well above 27 indicate high satisfaction, and those under 27
indicate high dissatisfaction (Balzer et al., 1997).
One hundred thirty four employees responded to the JDI and JIG instruments.
Employees rated above neutral their satisfaction with their work, supervisors, and co-
workers (Table 27).
Table 27
JDI and JIG descriptive statistics
Facet M SD Skewness
Work 43 10 -1.2
Pay 30 12 -.43
Promotion 25 16 .4
Supervisor 43 11 -1.23
People 41 12 -1.11
Job in General 28 7.7 1.25
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Cronbach’s Alphas ranged from the low of 0.62 for satisfaction with pay to a high
of 0.90 for the JIG scale (Table 28). Vogt (2005) stated that an alpha of 0.70 was
generally acceptable to establish reliability. Alphas as reported by Balzer et al, (1997)
exceeded .85 in all job satisfaction facets in a sample population of 1629, so it is assumed
that the lower alphas in the current study were the result of smaller sample size.
Table 28
Cronbach’s Alphas for the Job Satisfaction Scales
Job satisfaction facet Alpha
Work .84
Pay .62
Opportunities for promotion .86
Supervisor .87
People .88
Job in General .90
Multiple regression analysis was used to determine if any of the employee
demographic factors affected the job satisfaction factors. Several demographic variables
had a statistically significant, yet slight, effect on some of the factors. Employee’s
satisfaction with the people with whom they work is negatively associated with the time
they have worked at the study hospital, meaning the longer they have worked at the
hospital, the less satisfied they are with their co-workers. Their satisfaction with fellow
employees is positively associated with the participant’s age. An employee’s satisfaction
with their supervisor is positively associated with the employment type, meaning the
121
more responsible their position, the happier they were, and negatively associated with
their education level, meaning the less education they had, the less they were happy with
their supervisor. An employee’s satisfaction with the work they do is positively
associated with the number of years they have spent in the profession (Table 29).
Table 29
Betas of Job Satisfaction Facets and Demographic Information
Time with
hospital
Age
Employment
type
Education
Time in
profession
Work β =2.73*
People β = -2.2* β =3.1*
Supervisor β =2.14* β =-2.57*
* p < .05
While not related to the research questions or hypotheses, several outcomes
arising from the analysis of the data can be noted. First is the relative satisfaction
employees reported, keeping in mind that a score of 27 represents neutral, 54 perfectly
satisfied, and 0 as not at all satisfied. The facets with which employees appeared most
satisfied were supervisors with a mean of 43, the work they do at 43, and their co-
workers at 41. The mean scores for employees’ satisfaction with their pay were 30, with
their opportunities for promotion at 25, and their jobs in general at 28 (Table 27). Low
pay and a job with no upward mobility appear to decrease employees’ abilities to be
completely satisfied with their work. Tumblin (2006) and Veterinary Economics (2006)
122
supported the findings that employees’ pay, opportunities for promotion, job satisfaction,
and intention to leave were related.
Outcomes for the Organizational Description Questionnaire (ODQ)
Based on Bass and Avolio’s leadership theories (1988), the goal of the
Organizational Description Questionnaire (ODQ) instrument is to identify the employees’
assumptions, processes, and expectations that cause particular behavior and feelings
(Bass, 1998a). The measure of organizational culture is a dependent variable on the
leader styles identified in the MLQ. The Organizational Description Questionnaire is a
28-item survey designed to be completed by members of an organization. Fourteen items
represent the transformational aspects of the business, and 14 represent the transactional.
The odd-numbered questions, which represent the transactional aspect, explore concepts
such as “You get what you deserve, no more, no less; [e]veryone bargains with everyone
else for resources; and specific rules afford little opportunity for discretionary behavior”
(Bass, 1998, p. 67). The even-numbered questions, which represent the transformational
aspects, explore concepts such as whether “people go out of their way for the institution,
whether individual initiative is encouraged, and [whether employees] believe in trusting
each other to do the right thing” (Bass, 1998, p. 67).
Based on Bass and Avolio’s leadership theories (1988), the goal of the
Organizational Description Questionnaire (ODQ) instrument is to identify the employees’
assumptions, processes, and expectations that cause particular behavior and feelings
(Bass, 1998a). The measures of organizational culture will be a dependent variable on the
leader styles identified in the MLQ. Members of an organization complete the 28-item
Organizational Description Questionnaire. Fourteen items represent the transformational
123
aspects of the business, and 14 represent the transactional. The odd-numbered questions,
which represent the transactional aspect, explore concepts such as “You get what you
deserve, no more, no less; [e]veryone bargains with everyone else for resources; and
specific rules afford little opportunity for discretionary behavior” (Bass, 1998, p. 67). The
even-numbered questions, which represent the transformational aspects, explore concepts
such as whether “people go out of their way for the institution, whether individual
initiative is encouraged, and [whether employees] believe in trusting each other to do the
right thing” (Bass, 1998, p. 67).
The 14 items questioning the transactional aspects of the organization are
answered as +1 for true, -1 for false, and 0 for undecided. As a result, the scores on the
transactional scale can range from -14 to +14. The outcome of the survey allows for the
categorization of nine types of organizations, as defined by Bass and Avolio (1992):
highly transformational, moderately transformational, high contrast, loosely guided,
coasting, moderately bureaucratic, garbage can, pedestrian, and predominately
bureaucratic. The scores for each organizational culture are noted in Table 30. Bass
identified the most functional organizational culture as the moderately transformational.
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Table 30
Culture Types and Scores
Culture type Score (transactional / transformational)
Predominately or Moderately Transformational -14 to +6 / +7 to +14
High Contrast +7 to +14 / +7 to +14
Loosely Guided -14 to -7 / -6 to +6
Coasting -6 to +6 / -6 to +6
Predominately or Moderately Bureaucratic +7 to +14 / -14 to +6
Garbage Can -14 to -7 / -14 to -7
Pedestrian -6 to +6 / -7 to -14
Thirty leaders and 136 employees answered the questions on the Organizational
Description Questionnaire. All were asked to complete the ODQ. The mean leaders’
reports of organizational culture were -2 on the transformational scale, and 10 on the
transactional scale, which translates to the predominately or moderately bureaucratic
cultures. The employees reported a mean for organizational culture of -.63 on the
transformational scale, and 8.86 on the transactional scale, or also predominately to
moderately bureaucratic.
The leaders’ transformational mean was about -2, and has a slight negative skew
of -0.148. The transactional mean was about 10, with a stronger negative skew of 2.012.
Employees’ mean transformational culture score was about -1 with a slight positive skew.
Their transactional mean was about 9 with a negative skew (Table 31).
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Table 31
Descriptive Statistics for Organizational Culture Scores
Leader type M SD Skewness
Leader Transformational -1.88 4.013 -.148
Leader Transactional 10.5 5.572 -2.012
Employee transformational -.6 4.4 .9423
Employee Transactional 8.76 6 -1.016
Combinations of scores on the transactional and transformational scales identified
the nine organizational styles (Table 29). Using these combinations, employees identified
five organizational culture types and the leaders reported three. Employees identified
transformational, high contrast, bureaucratic, coasting, and loosely guided while leaders
reported bureaucratic, high contrast, and coasting (Figure 3 and 4). Both groups reported
bureaucratic organizations more often than any other.
126
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
Bureaucratic High Contrast Coasting
Figure 3. Histogram of leader reported culture types
0
5
10
15
20
25
Bureaucratic High Contrast Coasting Transformational Loosely Guided
Figure 4. Histogram of employee reported culture types
Cronbach’s Alpha was used to determine the reliability of the ODQ. Vogt (2005)
explained that an Alpha over 0.70 indicated that an instrument displayed internal
127
reliability. The transformational culture scales as reported by employees and leaders were
.91 and .69 respectively. The transactional culture scales were .45 and .46 respectively.
Parry & Proctor-Thomson (2001) determined that the alpha for the transformational
culture scale was .88, and the transactional culture scale was .74. It is assumed that the
alphas in the current study for both types of culture are lower as a result of small sample
size.
Findings
The statistical outcomes for the demographic, leadership styles, job satisfaction
levels, and organizational culture were presented for this quantitative study. The
Multifactor Leadership Questionnaires (MLQ), the Job in General and Job Description
Indexes JIG and JDI), and the Organizational Description Questionnaire (ODQ) were
used as instruments to measure these outcomes. The results from the data help to answer
the two research questions in the study.
Correlations Between Leadership Styles and Job Satisfaction
Research Question 1: What is the relationship between transformational, transactional,
and passive-avoidant leadership styles, as defined in the MLQ, and employee
satisfaction, as defined in the JIG and JDI?
Transformational leadership as reported by the employees positively correlated
with three of the six facets of job satisfaction, which included their work, opportunities
for promotion, and their supervisors. Transactional leadership did not correlate with any
of the facets of job satisfaction. Passive avoidant leadership negatively correlated with
three facets, employees’ opportunities for promotion, satisfaction with their supervisor,
and satisfaction with their co-workers (Table 32).
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Table 32
Correlations between Leadership Styles and Satisfaction Facets According to Leaders
Satisfaction facet Transformational
leadership
Transactional
leadership
Passive-avoidant
leadership
Work n=131
Pay n=132
Promotion n=130
Supervisor n=133
People n=133
JIG n=133
PR
.261*
.15
.440*
.602*
.163
.037
PR
-.010
-.045
.076
.004
-.075
.052
PR
-.047
-.030
-.257*
-.499*
-.244*
-.093
*p < .05.
Scores for transformational, transactional, and passive avoidant leadership are
considered together to determine the overall leadership style. If the transformational score
was over 3, the leader was labeled transformational. If the transactional score was over 2,
the leader was labeled transactional. If the passive-avoidant score exceeded 1, the leader
was labeled passive-avoidant. Many leaders fell into more than one category, and some
did not fall into any. Each leadership style is compared to the means for each facet of job
satisfaction in Table 33.
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Table 33
Leader styles and job satisfaction means
tf
n=1
tf/tc
n=77
tf/pa
n=3
tc
n=16
tc/pa
n=6
pa
n=3
none
n=3
all
n=9
average
n=133
Work 45 44 46 37 41 44 34 44 42
Pay 32 31 33 22 34 33 33 28 31
Promotion 27 28 14 16 12 17 11 24 19
Supervisor 45 48 38 31 32 24 41 40 37
People 45 42 47 36 25 48 41 39 40
General 30 29 29 28 25 26 24 25 27
Total 224 222 207 170 169 192 184 200 196
Average Mean 37 37 35 28 28 32 31 33 33
tf – transformational; tc – transactional; pa – passive-avoidant; none – no style; all – all styles
Any leadership style that included transformational behaviors rated highest. The
highest average means were associated with the transformational style, and
transformational/transactional style. These means were followed closely by the
transformational/passive-avoidant style and when all leadership styles were used. The
only two types of leader styles that exceeded the average mean in all job satisfaction
categories were transformational, and transformational/transactional.
The correlations between leadership styles and job satisfaction resulted in the
rejection of the first null hypothesis, H01: No relationship exists between
transformational, transactional, or passive-avoidant leadership styles, as measured by the
MLQ, and employee satisfaction, as measured by the JIG and JDI in small animal
130
veterinary hospitals in a four-county region in Florida. It also resulted in supporting the
directional hypothesis, H11: A relationship exists between transformational, transactional,
or passive-avoidant leadership styles, as measured by the MLQ, and employee
satisfaction, as measured by the JIG and JDI in small animal veterinary hospitals in a six-
county region in Florida. Specifically, there is moderate support for H11 where
satisfaction with supervisor and opportunities for promotion are correlated with
transformational leadership. Using Creswell’s (2002) definitions of strength of
correlations, there is slight support for the positive correlation between satisfaction with
the work and transformational leadership, and a slight negative correlation between
satisfaction with co-workers and passive avoidant leadership (Table 32).
While employees reported being generally satisfied with their work, it appears
that they are happier when a leader exhibits a transformational style (Table 33). If leaders
attempt to be more transformational in their behaviors, satisfaction may increase in
veterinary hospitals. Because more satisfied employees will generally result in lower
turnover (Gallup, 2006; Tumblin, 2006), there may be financial and stability benefits to
veterinary hospitals if a leader can train to become more transformational in his or her
behavior. Bass (1999) stated that when leaders have made the effort and have received
training regarding how to improve transformational leadership abilities, the leaders have
experienced generally positive results.
Correlations Between Job Satisfaction and Organizational Culture
While not associated with the research questions or hypotheses, correlations were
found between job satisfaction scores as reported by employees and organizational
culture scores. Using Creswell’s (2002) and Leedy and Ormrod’s (2005) definitions of
131
strength of correlations, there was a negative correlation between transformational culture
scores and all six facets of job satisfaction, and two of those correlations were moderate;
satisfaction with employees’ supervisors and co-workers. A slight negative correlation
existed between transformational culture and satisfaction with pay. Positive correlations
were shown between transactional culture scores and all job satisfaction scores, and the
correlation was moderate with the employees’ work at present job, employee’s
opportunities for promotion, satisfaction with employees’ supervisors and co-workers.
The correlation between transactional culture was slight positive when compared to the
employees’ work on the present job and their jobs in general (Table 34).
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Table 34
Correlations between job satisfaction and organizational culture scores
Transformational culture Transactional culture
Work r = -0.263* .368*
Pay r = -0.196* .196
Promotion r = -.169 .450*
Supervisor r = -.432* .560*
People r = -.415* .461*
General r = -.040 .227*
* p < .05
Upon comparison, it appears that leadership styles that result in transformational
leadership behaviors net the highest overall job satisfaction (Table 33) Likewise,
organizational cultures that are more transactional net higher job satisfaction (Table 35).
Because job satisfaction facets for supervisor, work on present job, and co-workers are
already high in veterinary hospitals, a focus on behaviors and cultures that cause an
increase in satisfaction in pay, opportunities for promotion, and job in general might be
beneficial. An analysis of the data suggests that a transactional culture is correlated with
slightly higher satisfaction with pay, and opportunities for promotion than is
transformational leadership (Table 35). Transactional culture is more highly correlated
with the job in general than transformational behaviors.
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Table 35
Correlations between certain job satisfaction facets and leader styles and organizational
culture
Satisfaction facets Pay Promotion General
Transformational Leadership correlation .150* .440* .037
Transactional Leadership correlation -.045 .076 .052
Passive Avoidant Leadership Correlation -.030 -.257* -.093
Transformational Culture correlation -.096* -.169 -.040
Transactional Culture correlation .196* .450* .227*
* p < .05
Correlations Between Leadership Styles and Organizational Culture
The Organizational Description Questionnaire (ODQ) nets several outcomes.
There is an overall transformational score and an overall transactional one. These scores
indicate the general nature of the culture and can vary from -14, which represents that the
culture being tested is not at all present, to 14, which represents that the culture being
tested is pervasive. Bass and Avolio (1992) combine the scores for nine organizational
types, which can be helpful to understand how the culture feels. Both the independent
scores and the combined ones are important. Because most of the leaders and employees
described their cultures as bureaucratic, which is represented by scores on the
transactional scale of 7-14, and the transformational scale of -14 to 6, it seems that
increasing the transformational component could help increase the satisfaction with their
jobs in general. The transformational component, according to Bass (1998) will be
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affected by exhibiting more transformational behaviors. Considering the means of the job
satisfaction scales overall, the only two facets that might benefit from a cultural change
are pay and promotion. Bass and Avolio asserted that the moderately transformational
culture is the most ideal. Its scores are represented by -14 to 6 on the transactional scale,
and 7-14 on the transformational. The mean reported for transformational culture in the
current research was near -1 and the mean for transactional was near 9. The scores
indicate that the transformational component is very low while the transactional
component is slightly high, so the cultures as reported in the current study might be more
effective if the transactional score were reduced and the transformational scores were
increased.
Research question 2: What is the relationship between transformational,
transactional, and passive-avoidant leadership styles, as defined in the MLQ, and
organizational culture, as defined in the ODQ?
Scores on transformational leadership correlated negatively with transformational
culture, and positively with transactional culture (Table 36). This finding is contrary to
Bass’ (1998) assertion that transformational leaders engender transformational cultures.
No correlations existed between the identified leader styles as reported by employees and
any of the nine culture styles that were calculated from the combined transformational
and transactional scores.
Because transformational leadership styles correlated with both culture styles, the
findings result in rejecting of the null hypothesis, H02: No relationship exists between
transformational, transactional, or passive-avoidant leadership styles, as measured by the
MLQ, and organizational culture, as measured by the ODQ in small animal veterinary
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hospitals in a four county region in Florida. The analysis supports the directional
hypothesis, H12: A relationship exists between transformational, transactional, or passive-
avoidant leadership styles, as measured by the MLQ, and organizational culture, as
measured by the ODQ in small animal veterinary hospitals in a four county region in
Florida. Using Creswell’s (2002) definitions for strength of correlations, the correlation is
slight negative between transformational leadership and transformational culture, and
moderately positive between transformational leadership and transactional culture.
Table 36
Leadership styles and culture
Leader style Transformational culture
scores - employee
Transactional culture
scores- employee
Employee reported transformational
Employee reported transactional
Employee reported passive-avoidant
r = -.193*
r =.152
r =.093
r = .504*
r =.088
r = -.290*
* p < .05
Considering the eight leadership behaviors that include transformational (TF),
transformational and transactional (TF/TC), transformational/passive-avoidant (TF/PA),
transactional (TC), transactional and passive avoidant (TC/PA), passive-avoidant (PA),
no leadership behaviors (none), and all leadership styles (all), the TF/TC style most
closely matches the population mean for culture scores of -.60, 8.76 (Table 37).
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Table 37
Means of culture types for each leadership combination
Leader style Transformational culture mean Transactional culture mean
tf -1.2 11.55
tf/tc -0.95 8.85
tf/pa 2.5 7
tc -2.29 9
tc/pa 0 7.67
pa -1.67 8.67
none -1.6 9.65
all -3.5 12.75
tf – transformational; tc – transactional; pa – passive avoidant
Summary
Chapter 4 presented the data collected in this quantitative correlational study.
Several instruments were used for data collection, and the scores and outcomes from
them were recorded in Excel and SPSS. Demographic data on leaders and employees was
examined, and then multiple regression was used to determine if any demographic data
affected job satisfaction. Leadership styles were determined through the leader and rater
forms of the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ), however because of low
response rates for leaders, only employee ratings were considered in the analysis. Job
satisfaction was determined through the use of the Job Descriptive Index and Job in
General Scales. Leaders’ and their followers’ leadership scores were correlated with the
outcomes of the job satisfaction instruments. Finally, the Organizational Description
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Questionnaire was used to determine organizational culture type. The identified culture
was correlated with leadership styles as identified by the MLQ.
The predominant leadership style as reported by employees was transactional
using the raw scores from the MLQ. When assessing the behaviors of the leaders, it
appeared that the leaders most commonly showed transformational and transactional
leadership behaviors. The predominate culture type was bureaucratic. Employees exceed
the neutral score for satisfaction on five of the six scales, meaning they are satisfied with
most aspects of their work. Opportunities for promotion was the only scale where
employees reported less than neutral satisfaction. The job satisfaction scores for pay and
the job in general were only slightly above neutral.
Chapter 5 will review the research problem, purpose, and research methodology.
The following chapter will review the research questions from the study, and then review
the data in relation to the hypotheses of the research. Chapter 5 will then focus on
conclusions, implications, and recommendations arising from the data.
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CHAPTER 5: SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Chapter 4 presented the findings and analysis of the data for this quantitative
correlational study that compares leadership styles with job satisfaction and
organizational culture. The analysis in chapter 4 included text, charts, and figures that
were used to describe summary information. Chapter 5 provides the conclusions,
implications, and recommendations based on the summaries.
The AVMA-Pfizer study (Brakke Consulting, 2005) indicated that the personal
income of veterinarians was $34,470 higher for veterinarians who employed practices to
promote their employees’ longevity. Given that veterinarians rank among the lowest paid
of nine measured professionals (Brown & Silverman, 1999), the added income from
promoting longevity of employees may improve the economics of veterinary practice.
The cost to veterinary hospitals when each employee leaves were estimated to total
$22,360 (Veterinary Economics, 2006), and the turnover is, at least in part, caused by
unhappy employees (Tumblin, 2006).
Nonveterinary staff-member compensation typically accounts for 23% of the total
revenues of a veterinary hospital (Wutchiett, Tumblin, Flemming, & Lawson, 2005).
Because such a large portion of the hospital’s revenues are spent on lay and
paraprofessional salaries, the staff’s general satisfaction and intention to remain in the
practice can have a significant financial and cultural impact.
The purpose of this quantitative correlational study is to determine if there is a
relationship between transformational, transactional, and passive avoidant leadership
styles and job satisfaction and organizational culture for leaders and employees in small
animal veterinary hospitals in a four-county region in Florida. The independent variable
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is defined as leadership styles, specifically transformational, transactional, and passive-
avoidant, and the dependent variables are defined as job satisfaction and organizational
culture.
The study was limited to the subjects who agreed to participate voluntarily, the
number of subjects surveyed, and the amount of time available to conduct the study.
Because the study is based on participants who choose to take part, it does not reflect the
views of those unwilling or unable to participate. The response resulted from an initial
letter to the participating practices, a follow-up letter, and a phone call. The study was
promoted at two local veterinary meetings as well, and through a notice in the veterinary
association’s quarterly newsletter.
The results from the current research were confined to the perceptions of
leadership styles, job satisfaction, and organizational culture expressed by survey
participants and will represent the “attitudes, beliefs, opinions, or practices” (Creswell,
2002, p. 398) of leaders and employees at one point in time. Any given day, these
perceptions could change, and the outcomes could be different. Limitations are
represented by the honesty of the answers from the participants, the time participants
dedicate to answering the instruments before mailing them back to the researcher, and the
perceptions on the day the participants answer the questions.
Chapter 5 presents conclusions based on the data analysis. Following the
conclusions, implications for leaders and employees based on the two research questions
are presented, and recommendations are made for further research and future actions.
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Conclusions
Leadership may affect job satisfaction and organizational culture in important
ways. The satisfaction of employees with leaders and working environments can affect
productivity because evidence shows that satisfaction affects turnover rates as well as
morale (Gallup, 2006; Tumblin, 2006; Veterinary Economics, 2006). The assumption
made is that studying how leadership affects employee satisfaction and organizational
culture in veterinary hospitals may be an integral component to increasing satisfaction
and productivity in small-animal veterinary hospitals as well as decreasing staff turnover.
Job satisfaction is solely based on the unique perspective of the individual
reporting his or her feelings. The feelings may be molded by his or her relationship with
coworkers, pay, supervisors, or intrinsic rewards. Satisfaction measures may correlate
with organizational dysfunction, intention to stay, organizational change, cultural
characteristics, values and goals, or reactions to stress (Balzer et al., 1997). Barak,
Nissley & Levin (2001) suggested that there were several antecedents to turnover,
namely, organizational commitment and job satisfaction as well as perceived fair
compensation and diversity. The major predictor for employees leaving jobs is not social
but organizational and job-based (Barak, et al., 2001). When employees are not happy,
outcomes for companies include higher turnover, increased absenteeism, burnout, low
commitment, stress, and decreased satisfaction while on the job, leading to diminished
performance (Barak et al., 2004). Employee turnover is estimated to cost organizations
about 5% of the total annual operating budget (Waldman et al., 2004), and in the case of
veterinary hospitals, $22,360 per departing employee (Veterinary Economics, 2006).
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According to Bass (1998), transformational leaders engender transformational
leadership cultures. The current research did not net that finding; rather the analysis
suggested that transformational leadership engendered transactional cultures. Bass and
Avolio (1992) stated that transformational cultures have a sense of family and shared
feelings among members. Employees in transformational cultures tend to transcend
immediate needs and they attempt to understand and meet the organizational goals.
Transactional leadership culture, on the other hand, focuses more on the contractual
relationships between the organization and the employees. Transactional cultures
engender individualism rather than organizational goals. The status quo tends to be
valued, and flexibility is not encouraged (Parry & Proctor-Thompson, 2001). No culture
is strictly transformational or transactional, but often a clear tendency toward one or the
other is apparent.
Ilgen et al. (2003), Cron et al. (1998) and the authors of the Brakke study (2005)
recognized the technical skills necessary for becoming a successful veterinarian; these
authors affirmed that business expertise and leadership were among the skills that are
desirable but not emphasized in veterinary practice. As a result, Ilgen et al. studied
several facets of nontechnical matters in veterinary work that may positively affect the
economics of veterinary practice. Among the nine most important factors, just behind
direct treatment of animals and working with their owners, was personnel management.
The economic health of veterinary practices is important for viability of the
business, but economic health is also critical for effective personnel management. In May
of 2004, veterinary technologists and technicians, defined as individuals with 2 and 4-
year degrees in veterinary technology, earned a median income of $11.90 an hour (U.S.
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Department of Labor, 2006). Other animal-care service workers earned a median income
of $8.39 an hour. The poverty level in 1996 was $15,911 for two adults with two
children. Assuming an inflation rate of 3%, the poverty rate would be $20,155 in 2004
and the veterinary technician with a college education would be earning just over poverty
level, at $23,800, if he or she worked 40 hours a week for 50 weeks a year. The animal-
care worker would earn under poverty level, or $16,780. If the owners of the hospitals are
not able to increase the efficiency of their hospitals through increased business acumen or
improved behavior, hospital staff will continue to experience a high rate of turnover as
employees seek better wages elsewhere.
Job satisfaction is influenced in part by pay (Tumblin, 2006). Other influences
include time to do the job assigned, confidence in one’s abilities, and the tasks assigned
(Ernst et al., 2004). In research conducted by Harmon et al. (2003), high-involvement
work systems were shown to increase employee satisfaction and to significantly reduce
costs for an organization. High-involvement work systems include “involvement,
empowerment, development, trust, openness, teamwork, and performance based rewards”
(p. 393). Many of these components, namely empowerment, development, and
performance-based rewards, stem from the leadership styles defined by Avolio and Bass
(2004).
The intent of the current study is to determine if leadership styles correlate with
job satisfaction of employees. The intent is also to determine if leadership styles correlate
with organizational culture within the veterinary hospitals the same way leadership styles
affect these variables in other venues. If correlations exist, leadership styles might be
modified within veterinary hospitals to increase satisfaction and to improve culture.
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Comparison with Previous Research
The demographic findings are comparative with the Well Managed Practice Study
(WMPS) (Wutchiett et al., 2005). Practices having three or fewer veterinarians totaled
58% in the WMPS study compared to the current study that netted 62%. The WMPS
reported 33% of practices had 3-5 veterinarians, and this research showed about 28%.
The WMPS reported 19% of practices had over five veterinarians, and the current study
had 20%. Doctors had about 3200 transactions a year according to the WMPS, and the
average in the current research was 3900.The WMPS reported an average client charge of
$128 and the outcomes of the demographics studied here resulted in most veterinarians
reporting between $101-150. The Veterinary Hospital Managers Association (VHMA)
conducted a salary and benefits survey in 2005, and the only demographic measured there
that was also measured in the current study was time with the practice. The VHMA’s
study reported that 44% of the staff worked at the present hospital 0-2 years, 29% 3-5
years, 15% 6-10 years, and 12% over 10 years (Veterinary Hospital Managers
Association, 2005). The current study divided tenure into smaller time periods. Through
extrapolation of the data, it appears that about 41% had tenure of 0-2 years, 28% had 3-5
years, 16% had 6-10 years, and 15% had over 10 years. Brown and Silverman (1999)
conducted the last comparable study where veterinarians generated 85 transactions per
week. Demographics from the current survey report 3900 per year, and assuming a fifty-
week work year, veterinarians reported in this study that they had 78 transactions per
week. The demographic comparisons are presented in Table 38.
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Table 38
Demographic comparisons to other studies
Demographic Study WMPS VHMA Brown Silverman
3 or less vets 62% 58%
3-5 vets 28% 33%
Over 5 vets 20% 19%
Transactions per week 78 64 85
Average charge $101-150 128
0-2 years in hospital 41% 44%
3-5 years in hospital 28% 29%
6-10 years in hospital 16% 15%
Over 10 years in hospital 15% 12%
WMPS – Well Managed Practice Study; VHMA – Veterinary Hospital Managers
Association
Vogt (2005) stated that generalizability is defined by the “extent to which you can
come to a conclusion about one thing based on information about another” (p. 131).,
Because the demographic findings from other veterinary studies appear to be similar to
the findings in the current study, generalizability to the greater population of small animal
veterinary hospitals may be possible. Further, because the confidence interval, or margin
of error, is 5.7%, and less than the limit set in chapter 3 of 8.343%, generalizability to the
population in the four county region of small animal veterinary hospitals is likely. Small
animal hospitals in the United States are fairly similar in size and composition of
employees, so the findings from this study may be generalized to the U.S. population of
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small animal hospitals. Researchers should be cautious about generalizing to populations
outside of the United States, and professions that are not related to the veterinary
industry.
Morris and Bloom (2002) reported that higher position levels within an
organization net more satisfied employees due to increased agency. This finding was
similar in the current study when employee demographics indicated that the higher the
level of employee, the more satisfied they were with their supervisor. Amburgy (2005)
found that employees were more satisfied the longer an employee had been in a particular
place of employment. The current study netted mixed results relating to time in a venue.
One finding indicated that the length of time in a hospital was negatively related to the
employee’s satisfaction with co-workers, but the more time they were in the profession,
the more satisfied they were with the type of work they did. Amburgy and Chen (2005)
found no relationship between gender and satisfaction, which was true in the current
study, but they found no relationship between level of education and satisfaction unlike
outcomes here, which related education level to dissatisfaction with the employee’s
supervisor.
Many authors found that transformational leadership was positively correlated
with job satisfaction (Alarcon, 2005; Hanson & Miller, 2002; Viator, 2001) similar to the
results of the current study. Alarcon further found that department tier related to
satisfaction, meaning that the more mundane jobs netted less satisfaction than the jobs
that were more interesting. Outcomes showing employees’ dissatisfaction with their
opportunities for promotion may be similar to Alarcon’s. It may be that if employees
knew they could improve their position in the veterinary hospital, and knew how to
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accomplish that, they may be more satisfied. Chen (2005) found that transformational
leadership had no direct effect on satisfaction, and a negative correlation with the
continuance of employment. Chen’s findings were not supported in the current research.
It is important to note that Chen’s research was performed in Taiwan where the culture is
significantly different than in the United States.
Two studies relating to leadership and satisfaction have been reported. Grey
(2005) studied members of the Veterinary Hospital Managers Association, and found that
the predominant leadership style was transformational, whereas outcomes analyzed in the
current study found leaders to be transformational/transactional. There may be a
difference between members of an association who are interested in veterinary hospital
management and leaders who are responsible for the veterinary hospital. It also appears
that Grey’s method for identifying leadership types was different from the method used
here. The Grey study identified leaders as one of three types; transformational,
transactional, or passive-avoidant, and anyone who did not fit one of these three
categories was labeled an outlier. The outliers represented 40% of the managers in Grey’s
study (p. 94). The analysis of measurements of leadership styles used in the research here
determined that leaders who did not fit into the criteria Grey used were not outliers, but
exhibited a combination of styles that could be identified.
In a study conducted by Ilgen et al. (2003), veterinarians’ job satisfaction was
measured through a series of questions to which they agreed or disagreed. The
veterinarians reported satisfaction with their supervisors, but they were just above neutral
in their satisfaction with their pay. The satisfaction of the non-leaders who were also
veterinarians in veterinary hospitals, and the average satisfaction with the employees’
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supervisors was very high, and satisfaction with pay was just above neutral. Similarities
between Ilgen’s study and the current one are limited to one kind of employment type,
the veterinarian, and that employment type was not well represented here.
Research Questions and Hypotheses
Most of the leaders in the current research demonstrate the transactional style of
leadership according to the raw scores from the MLQ as reported by employees, (Figure
1 and Table 25) but displayed transformational and transactional behaviors (Figure 2). No
demographic characteristics correlated with any leadership style. Most of the cultures
were bureaucratic (Figures 3 and 4). Employees were more satisfied with
transformational leaders than transactional ones when the raw scores were analyzed
(Table 32), and the means for job satisfaction were higher for all leadership styles that
included transformational (Table 33). No correlations existed between the cumulative
culture scores that result in the nine culture styles identified by Bass and Avolio (1992)
and leadership styles reported by leaders and employees. However, transformational
leadership positively correlated with transactional culture as reported by employees when
the raw scores for each type of culture were analyzed (Table 36). Though not specifically
identified as a research question, it is important to note that transactional culture
positively correlated with all six job satisfaction facets (Table 34). The data analysis,
based on a 54% response rate, resulted in the rejection of the null hypotheses H01 and
H02 that were:
H01: No relationship exists between transformational, transactional, or passive-
avoidant leadership styles, as measured by the MLQ, and employee satisfaction, as
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measured by the JIG and JDI in small animal veterinary hospitals in a four-county region
in Florida.
H02: No relationship exists between transformational, transactional, or passive-
avoidant leadership styles, as measured by the MLQ, and organizational culture, as
measured by the ODQ in small animal veterinary hospitals in a four-county region in
Florida.
There is moderate (Leady & Ormrod, 2005) support for H11 where satisfaction
with opportunities for promotion and supervisor are correlated with transformational
leadership. There is slight (Leady & Ormrod) support for the positive correlation between
satisfaction with the work and transformational leadership. There is a moderate (Leady &
Ormrod) negative correlation between passive-avoidant leadership and satisfaction with
supervisor, and a slight negative correlation with opportunities for promotion and
satisfaction with co-workers.
There is a moderate (Leady & Ormrod, 2005) positive correlation between
transformational leadership and transactional culture, and a slight (Leady & Ormrod)
negative correlation with transformational culture. There is also a slight negative
correlation between passive-avoidant leadership and transactional culture.
Implications
The implications of the current research study of leadership and job satisfaction
and organizational culture in small animal veterinary hospitals in a four-county region in
Florida indicates that most leaders in the study are transactional/transformational (Figure
2), and most employees are satisfied with their supervisors, co-workers and work on the
present job, but would like more pay, and more or better opportunities for promotion
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(Table 27). The employee satisfaction measure for the job in general was 28, which is
slightly above neutral (Table 27), suggesting that pay and opportunities for promotion
may drive overall satisfaction lower. The analysis of the data also suggests that leadership
behaviors that include transformational leadership net the highest overall job satisfaction
for employees (Table 33), so leaders’ ability and willingness to train to become more
transformational could benefit job satisfaction. The cultures of the hospitals as reported
by employees were mostly bureaucratic (Figure 4), and could be improved upon with
more transformational leadership behaviors and better leader articulation of what is
necessary to secure higher pay and meaningful promotions, which are related to
particular transactional characteristics. Because no leadership type correlates to
satisfaction with pay, and a transactional culture correlated with pay and opportunities for
promotion (Table 35), a focus on cultural characteristics that may increase opportunities
for promotion and satisfaction with pay may be required. The analysis of the data found
that the means for organizational culture as reported by employees were too high on the
transactional scale (8.76) and too low on the transformational scale (-.6) (Table 31)
compared to what Bass and Avolio (1992) found was ideal. It may be beneficial for
leaders to understand better what aspects of transactional culture are beneficial, and how
leaders can behave more in a more transformational manner to better balance the
transactional culture within their practices.
Leaders of veterinary hospitals have the opportunity to provide a service that
enhances and sustains the human-animal bond. As in any business, the quality of services
a veterinary hospital provides is, at least in part, a result of a financially robust business.
It has been established that veterinary hospitals have probably maximized the financial
150
gains that are available through price increases, so continued financial health will be
possible mostly through increases in efficiency (Cron et al., 1998). Efficiency, in part, is
accomplished through controlling costs. A balance between the cost of losing an
employee and providing satisfactory pay and promotions should be considered to help
increase efficiency.
Maslow’s Hierarchy (Maslow, 1949) established that individuals have basic
needs. The need for food, water, and shelter are most fundamental, and then the need for
security comes next. The pay a person receives satisfies these two levels. Maslow’s
Hierarchy then identifies love, belonging and esteem as the next most important needs.
Opportunities for promotion help satisfy the security, belonging, and esteem needs of an
individual, so between pay and promotion, the first four levels of needs that the Hierarchy
identifies are met. A transactional culture, which institutionalizes pay through a distinct
scale that applies to everyone, and outlines positions and requirements to fill them, will
establish the foundation for a satisfied individual as outlined in Maslow’s Hierarchy.
Leaders who behave in a transformational manner will help employees experience the
last two levels of Maslow’s Hierarchy through experiencing meaning and purpose in their
jobs, and reaching a level of self-actualization where employees feel they are reaching
their full potential.
Because price increases in veterinary hospitals have been maximized to increase
revenue (Brakke, 2005), increases in efficiency related to lowering employee turnover
and increasing job satisfaction will be the next important step in the veterinary
community to sustain or increase profitability. To earn higher salaries and opportunities
for promotion, employees should perform work at the veterinary hospital that they are
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qualified to do; thus freeing the veterinarian to do more of the work only he or she is
qualified to do (Cron, et al., 1999). Assuming that a veterinary practitioner can garner
more clients, the overall effect of delegating more responsibilities to the staff will be to
increase revenue because the veterinarian is now able to see more clients. The increased
revenue will enable the hospital to increase wages, and will enable employees to perform
more diverse and interesting tasks. As employees gain more responsibility, it may be
possible to establish specialized areas in which the employees may work, thus providing
opportunities for promotion into and out of the specialized areas.
Recommendations
Based upon the data analysis from the current study and comparisons with
previous research, the researcher made several recommendations regarding study
replication and calls for action for leaders. These recommendations can be disseminated
in the veterinary profession through public speaking, articles pertaining to the results of
the study, and publication of sections of chapter 5 in veterinary-refereed journals.
Study Replication
The first recommendation would be to repeat this research with a higher number
of hospital and employee respondents so that the research may be more generalizable to
larger populations. A 54% response rate in the current study resulted in a 5.7%
confidence interval, and new studies might target a 3- 5% confidence interval for
increased generalizability. Garnering participants in the study required much time
because the requests for participation preceded the actual mailing of the surveys.
Recruiting more hospitals will require more time than was available. While there were
well over 150 study participants, they represented only 30 hospitals. The demographics
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from the hospitals in the study closely matched the demographics from other larger
studies, implying that the results are generalizable to small animal veterinary hospitals,
but a larger number of hospitals in the study might yield more comprehensive and
dependable results.
A better description of ideal transformational, transactional, and passive-avoidant
leadership scores is needed so that when the styles are compared with other outcomes
such as job satisfaction, the researcher does not need to assume ranges for each style. In
the current research, leadership was examined two ways. One was on the raw scores for
transactional, transformational, and passive-avoidant leadership, and the other was the
behavior leaders displayed as defined by a transformational score of over 3, a
transactional score of over 2, and a passive-avoidant score of over 1.
Actions
Recommendations for actions include the use of the Multifactor Leadership
Questionnaire (MLQ) in practices. The leaders would complete the leader questionnaire,
and the employees the rater questionnaire. Differences can be noted between how the
leader perceives him/herself and how the aggregate employees perceive the leader. From
the ratings and the differences between the leaders’ and employees’ perceptions, the
leader may embark on a course of personal development. The current study did not
produce large discrepancies between leaders’ and employees’ perceptions of leadership
types within their practices (Table 25). The personal development can include identifying
if a more transformational or a more transactional approach might net better job
satisfaction results. Likewise, leaders might benefit from understanding what aspects of
transformational and transactional culture are beneficial.
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In a qualitative study conducted by Mase, Lloyd, and King (2003), study
participants identified the need for more leadership training. The second of three
recommendations for future actions included “Develop leadership courses specifically
targeted for the veterinary profession. Professional trainers with cross-functional
experience should teach these courses. Veterinarians must learn to allow outside experts
to teach and help them.” (p. 1517). These leadership courses might include training on
transformational leadership and transactional culture, and where each is important to an
effective veterinary practice because each of these characteristics positively correlated
with higher satisfaction with pay and opportunities for promotion (Table 35).
If a veterinary hospital owner plans to hire someone who will fill a leadership role
in the hospital, it may be useful to have him or her take the MLQ leader questionnaire to
determine the likely approach the new leader will take. Scores above or near 3.0 for
transformational, around 2.5 for transactional, and less than 1 for passive avoidant would
be ideal (Bass, 1998b) for a well-balanced leader. The leadership construct as reported by
employees in the current study netted a mean score for transformational leaders of 2.81,
transactional leaders at 2.0, and passive-avoidant leaders at 0.73 (Table 25).
Employees should be encouraged to take the Job Descriptive Index and the Job in
General Scale to determine if they are satisfied. Scores for each facet should exceed 27.
Repeating the satisfaction scales every year could net an updated understanding of how
employees are feeling at any given time. Job satisfaction scores in the current study
exceed the average of 27 in all facets except opportunities for promotion. Satisfaction
with pay and the job in general only slightly exceeded neutral of 27, and satisfaction with
opportunities for promotion rated under neutral, at 25 (Table 27).
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As determined by the means of the job satisfaction scores, promotional
opportunities and perception of fair pay appear to be the single most important job
satisfaction facets that can be improved in small animal veterinary hospitals by
modifications on leadership styles and organizational culture (Table 35). Increasing
satisfaction in these areas might help to improve employee’s satisfaction with their jobs
in general (Balzer, et al., 1997). The nature of a small animal veterinary hospital
concerning opportunities for promotion may be somewhat limited because they are small
businesses with little ability to provide upward mobility through the typical hierarchy.
Veterinarians must have a doctor of veterinary medicine (DVM) degree and credentialed
technicians undergo some combination of college level schooling and certification. Most
others in the hospital have no specific veterinary medical training, nor is it required. Even
with this limitation, leaders should think creatively about how tasks and responsibilities
may be distributed to allow employees more diversity in their jobs, and attempt to reward
them fairly for their work.
Underutilization of staff members in small animal veterinary hospitals causes
turnover, and a clear career path is vital to retention (Veterinary Economics, 2006). In a
survey conducted by VetMedTeam.com, the number one reason staff members leave
veterinary practices was that the new job offered more opportunities to use their skills or
gave them more responsibility. The second most cited reason by employees for leaving is
lack of leadership. Seventy-seven percent of veterinarians surveyed stated that
appreciation of employees is related to job turnover (Veterinary Economics).
A transactional culture positively correlates with employees’ satisfaction with
their work on the present job, pay, opportunities for promotion, satisfaction with the
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supervisor, satisfaction with co-workers, and satisfaction with the job in general (Tables
36 and 37). Transformational leadership styles yield the highest satisfaction levels in all
facets as well. Both transactional culture and transformational behaviors help satisfaction
levels, and transactional culture helps more than transformational behavior in the problem
areas of pay and opportunities for promotion as well as satisfaction with the job in
general (Table 35). Because outcomes demonstrating satisfaction with pay and
opportunities for promotion are low, a focus on improving these facets is important. The
means for transactional cultures in the veterinary hospitals studied are higher than the
ideal (Bass & Avolio, 1992), so it is recommended that the leaders improve the
institutionalized aspects of a veterinary hospital such as pay and opportunities for
promotion, but discourage the negative aspects of transactional culture like focus on short
term goals, limitations on employee discretion, and self-interest (Bass & Avolio, 1992).
To moderate the negative aspects of transactional culture, the leader should become more
transformational which will help to engender longer-range goals, more employee
discretion, and less self-interest. Through training, a leader’s understanding of leader
styles and organizational culture aspects will help map the behaviors and focus required
to maximize employee satisfaction.
Because the transformational leadership style correlated positively with
transactional culture, and negatively with transformational culture, it may be that
effective transformational leaders have solidified the important transactional aspects of
their culture (Table 36). Transformational leaders exhibit specific characteristics
including charisma, stimulation for employees, consideration for employees’ needs and
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wants, and the ability to motivate, however, to be more effective, the leader may need to
enhance some of the transactional aspects of the practice’s culture.
An important aspect of maximizing employee satisfaction as measured by the Job
Descriptive Index (JDI) is to institutionalizing pay in veterinary hospitals, which can be
accomplished several ways. A pay scale that is well understood by employees and fairly
applied can help in the attempt to institutionalize the pay facet. For instance, the tenure of
an employee at the hospital, his or her education level, and previous veterinary
experience can be rewarded in a point system. Additional points may be earned through
assuming new responsibilities in the hospital, learning new skills, willingness to work full
rather than part time, and accessing more continuing education. When the pay system is
communicated and adhered to, employees may feel more fairly compensated. It is
assumed that they will also understand what is necessary to increase their compensation
and promotional opportunities. Once a fair pay scale is implemented along with the
requisite promotional opportunities implicit in it, a leader has established a firmer
foundation for a satisfied employee as measured by the pay, opportunities for promotion,
and job in general facets of the JDI and JIG. The leader’s transformational behaviors will
add to an employee’s satisfaction by helping him or her to develop both personally and
professionally.
One example of promotional opportunities among paraprofessionals is specialty
training for veterinary technicians. According to a study conducted in 2005 by Laforcade,
Morrissey, Rowell, and Schwartz, veterinary technicians felt that their job satisfaction
would be greatly increased if they were afforded opportunities to work in specialized
areas of a veterinary hospital. Ninety three percent stated they would be interested in
157
pursuing a technical specialty, while only 64% of veterinarians stated they would be
willing to hire a specialty technician. Veterinarians further reported that they would be
willing to hire a specialty technician at $16.13 per hour. Veterinarians’ perception of fair
pay for specialty technicians contrasted with the $20.51veterinary technicians felt they
should earn as specialty technicians. There is a discrepancy between the number of
technicians wanting specialty training and the veterinarians willing to hire them, as well
as the discrepancy between pay expectations. Factors like these will need addressing as
additional promotional opportunities are considered.
A conceptualization of these findings is presented (Figure 5). Similar to Maslow’s
Hierarchy, there is a hierarchy of needs in a veterinary hospital. The transactional culture
characteristics that institutionalize pay and opportunities for promotion are fundamental
to an employee’s satisfaction. When these needs are met, the leader’s transformational
behavior will enhance an employee’s satisfaction by helping him or her to develop
professionally and personally.
Figure 5. Model for leadership behaviors and cultural characteristics leading to increased
job satisfaction
158
New Studies
Job satisfaction and turnover rate in businesses are closely related (Harris &
Brannick, 1999). New studies in small animal veterinary hospitals that help determine
behaviors of leaders and managers most suited for the highest job satisfaction might be
helpful. The studies could be accomplished by using different leadership instruments, or
instruments that focus on how the values of leaders and employees match.
An experimental study may be helpful to better understand the relationships
between leadership style, job satisfaction, and culture. Baseline leadership styles,
employee satisfaction, and organizational culture could be measured. Training would
then be administered to the leaders and employees regarding transformational and
transactional leadership as well as transformational and transactional culture. After a
time, the subject hospitals would complete the leadership, satisfaction, and culture
instruments again to determine if the training had any effect on employee’s job
satisfaction. Comparing the tasks performed by employees at the beginning of the study
and at the end will determine if leadership and culture training have affected the
delegation of tasks within a hospital. The study might be able to determine if pay and
opportunities for promotion are improved that relate to the increased delegation.
A qualitative study that uses interviews with employees concerning their job
satisfaction may be helpful. Using any particular job satisfaction instrument limits the
researcher’s ability to gain an understanding of factors that are not predefined in the
instrument. A qualitative study might help to understand interrelationships of feelings
regarding job satisfaction, and nuances that might be missed in a rigid survey.
159
A study to test the model proposed in the current study would help to further the
understanding of how employees rank satisfaction facets in veterinary hospitals from
most important to least important, or from most critical to least critical. The model
proposes that pay is fundamental to employee’s satisfaction, then opportunities for
promotion is next most important, then professional and personal development can build
on the foundation created by pay and promotion. The model was created as a result of the
conclusions that employees were least happy with pay and opportunities for promotion,
and that they were happiest when their leader displayed more transformational behaviors.
The model’s creation was also reflective of Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs. The study did
not rank the importance of job satisfaction facets, and for the model to be further
supported, an examination of these rankings is necessary.
Summary
Based on the results of this quantitative, correlational study, leaders and
employees report that the most common type of leadership style is transactional, the most
desirable leadership behavior is any combination of leadership that includes the
transformational style The most common organizational culture type is bureaucratic, and
employees are generally satisfied with their jobs with the exception of opportunities for
promotion, pay, and their jobs in general. It is theorized that institutionalizing some
transactional aspects of culture, namely pay and opportunities for promotion is a key
factor to maintaining satisfied employees. Leaders need to apply more transformational
behaviors within the cultures to help moderate some of the aspects of a transactional
culture. Leaders can modify their behaviors to become more transformational through
160
articulating and living their vision, motivating employees, considering each employee’s
needs for development and growth, and through stimulating employees intellectually.
161
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APPENDIX A: INITIAL LETTER OF REQUEST
Dear Colleagues,
I am writing to ask your assistance in a research project being conducted to
analyze the relationships between leadership styles and job satisfaction of employees and
organizational culture in small-animal veterinary hospitals. This is an independent study
conducted as part of the doctoral requirements of my degree at the University of Phoenix
in Business Administration.
Your small-animal veterinary practice is being requested to participate in this
research by completing a total of three questionnaires. The leader(s) of your practice will
complete two, one on the perceptions of his or her own leadership styles and the other on
the perceptions of the organizational culture at his or her hospital. Employees in the same
hospital will be asked to complete three questionnaires. One will be on the employee’s
perceptions of the styles of the leader(s), one on his or her perceptions of job satisfaction,
and the last on his or her perceptions of the organizational culture. Because I will need to
know how many leader and employee questionnaires you will need, I will follow this
letter with a phone call to inquire about your willingness to participate and your
questionnaire needs.
The benefits of this study include identifying leaders’ behavioral styles that may
be most conducive to decreasing employee turnover, increasing general job satisfaction,
increasing productivity, and improving the general culture of small-animal veterinary
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hospitals. Overall, improving these factors in veterinary hospitals may help improve care
to pets, improve wages, and free capital for investment into newer and better equipment
and facilities.
Be assured that all participants’ information will be held in the strictest
confidence and will only be released in summary form. Each questionnaire will have
tracking numbers so questionnaires can be grouped appropriately by hospital. The
tracking number is not used for personal identification. Participation in the research must
be completely voluntary, so no party in your hospital should be forced to take part.
I look forward to contacting you within 2 weeks to ascertain your willingness to
participate.
Warmest regards,
Carol Schubert
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APPENDIX B: FOLLOW UP/COVER LETTER
Dear Colleague,
Thank you for your willingness to participate in the research project as outlined in
the previous letter and as discussed on the phone. Please find enclosed the appropriate
number of leader, rater, job-satisfaction, and organizational-description questionnaires
and a short demographic survey. Please distribute the leader questionnaires to the leaders
in your practice, and the rater and job-satisfaction questionnaires to the rest of the staff.
The organizational-description questionnaires, the demographic survey, and informed
consent letters are to be given to everyone. Note that the demographic survey comes in
two formats, one for the leaders and one for the staff members. Please ensue that the
proper individuals complete each.
I have enclosed the proper number of self-addressed, stamped envelopes for
everyone to return the documents directly to me. No member of the staff, owner,
supervisor, or owner is to know whether a staff member participated, and participation
should not be made mandatory. Please encourage everyone to return the forms to me
even if they do not plan to participate. Upon completion of the research, I will send my
findings to each hospital that participated.
In advance, I sincerely thank you for your participation in this important project.
Warmest Regards,
Carol Schubert
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APPENDIX C: INFORMED CONSENT
Dear Research Participant,
Carol Schubert, a doctoral student at the University of Phoenix, is conducting
research to analyze the relationships between leadership styles and job satisfaction and
organizational culture in small-animal veterinary hospitals.
You are being asked to participate in this research by completing two or three
questionnaires and a demographic survey. Completing the surveys should not take longer
than about 20 minutes. A return envelope has been provided for collection of the
questionnaires. Please know you are not required to participate and that if you choose to
take part, you may cease participation once you begin or may omit items that you are not
comfortable answering. Your answers will remain completely confidential, and your
supervisor, the owner, or your peers will not know whether you participated in this
project.
The benefits of this research include learning about possible leadership behaviors
that may help improve job satisfaction, decrease employee turnover, increase
productivity, and improve the work climate in small-animal veterinary hospitals. These
improvements may, in turn, improve the care provided to pets.
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By returning the questionnaire, and signing the bottom of this letter, you are
indicating that you are at least 18 years of age, and your consent to participate in the
study. If you choose not to participate, please return the uncompleted surveys if possible.
Should you have questions or concerns, please contact the researcher at the above
address, or phone, or email. Most of all, thank you so much for your participation.
Warmest Regards,
Carol Schubert
“By signing this form I acknowledge that I understand the nature of the
study, the potential risks to me as a participant, and the means by which my identity
will be kept confidential. My signature on this form also indicates that I am 18
years old or older and that I give my permission to voluntarily serve as a participant
in the study described.”
Signed: ____________________________________________________
Dated:______________________________________________________
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APPENDIX D: QUESTIONNAIRES
Demographic Survey–General Employee
Demographic Questionnaire--General
Carol Schubert–Researcher
Leadership styles and employee satisfaction and organizational culture in small-
animal veterinary hospitals
Your answers will remain completely confidential.
Mark ONLY ONE ANSWER. If more than one applies, choose the one BEST
SUITED.
1. Employment type
o Non-veterinary staff member
o Credentialed technician
o Hospital manager
o Veterinarian
o Hospital administrator
o Owner
2. Ethnicity (optional)
o White
o Hispanic
o Asian
o Pacific-Islander
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o Black
o Other
3. Zip code (hospital) ___________
4. Length of time working at present hospital
o 0-1 year
o 2-3 years
o 4-7 years
o 8-15 years
o over 15 years
5. Length of time in veterinary field altogether
o 0-1 years
o 2-3 years
o 4-7 years
o 8-15 years
o over 15 years
6. Highest level of education
o Have not graduated from high school
o High school graduate
o Some college
o Graduate of a veterinary-related technical school
o Four-year degree
o Graduate degree
7. At this job, I work
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o 0-20 hours per week
o 21-32 hours per week
o over 33 hours per week
8. I am
o Under 18 years old
o 18-25 years old
o 25-40 years old
o 41-55 years old
o over 55
9. I am
o Female
o Male
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Demographic Survey–Leader
Demographic Questionnaire--Leader
Carol Schubert–Researcher
Leadership styles and employee satisfaction and organizational culture in small-
animal veterinary hospitals
Your answers will remain completely confidential.
Mark ONLY ONE ANSWER. If more than one applies, choose the one BEST
SUITED.
1. Employment type (may mark more than one)
o Nonveterinary staff member
o Credentialed technician
o Hospital manager
o Veterinarian
o Hospital administrator
2. Owner Ethnicity (optional)
a. White
b. Hispanic
c. Asian
d. Pacific-Islander
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e. Black
f. Other
3. Zip code (hospital) ___________
4. Length of time working at present hospital
a. 0-1 year
b. 2-3 years
c. 4-7 years
d. 8-15 years
e. over 15 years
5. Length of time in veterinary field altogether
a. 0-1 years
b. 2-3 years
c. 4-7 years
d. 8-15 years
e. over 15 years
6. Highest level of education
a. Have not graduated from high school
b. High school graduate
c. Some college
d. Graduate of a veterinary-related technical school
e. Four-year degree
f. Graduate degree
7. At this job, I work
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a. 0-20 hours per week
b. 21-32 hours per week
c. over 32 hours per week
8. I am
a. Under 18 years old
b. 18-25 years old
c. 26-40 years old
d. 41-55 years old
e. over 55
9. I am
a. Female
b. Male
10. This hospital’s revenue is
o 0-$200,000/year
o $200,001-500,000/ year
o $500,001-800,000/year
o $800,001-1,200,000/year
o $1,200,001-2,000,000/year
o over 2,000,001/year
11. There are _____ full-time equivalent veterinarians in this practice (estimate the
closest whole number)
o 1
o 2
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o 3
o 4
o 5
o 6
o 7
o 8
o 9 or more
12. My average client charge is (if you are a veterinarian)
o $50-100
o $101-150
o $151-200
o $201-250
o over $251
13. I see (if you are a veterinarian)
o 0-50 clients a week
o 51-75 clients a week
o 76-100 clients a week
o 101-125 clients a week
o 126-150 clients a week
o 151-200 clients a week
o over 201 clients a week
14. Our full-time doctor to full-time staff ratio is (doctor:staff)
o 1:1
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o 1:2
o 1:3
o 1:4
o 1:5
o 1:6
o 1:7
o over 1:8
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APPENDIX E: MULTIFACTOR LEADERSHIP QUESTIONNARES
Sample Leader and Rater Surveys MLQ
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189
190
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APPENDIX F: SAMPLE JDI/JIG
192
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APPENDIX G: ODQ SAMPLE
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APPENDIX H-MLQ PERMISSION
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APPENDIX I-JDI/JIG PERMISSION
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APPENDIX J- ODQ PERMISSION