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Systems Thinking and SSM
Properties of systems “Hard” and “soft” approaches Introduction to Soft Systems Methodology Some SSM techniques
A systems typology Natural systems – living and non-living, from
subatomic to ecosystems and galaxies. Designed systems
Physical, e.g. train, chainsaw, dam Abstract, systems of knowledge or philosophy
Human activity systems – “purposeful wholes”, e.g. UNN, the gas industry, the City Council.
Social systems – overlap natural and human activity systems, e.g. family.
(Checkland, 1981)
Socio-Technical Systems Systems ideas have been applied to
organisational behaviour in many ways. For example, the concept of socio-
technical systems sees organisational systems as having Technical subsystem – formal processes, tasks,
machinery, programs, with official goals, etc. Social subsystem – human concerns & needs;
personal goals, views & interests; communications, motivation, job satisfaction etc.
Characteristics of Systems A boundary Hierarchy – parts which may themselves
be systems Emergence
Systems (and subsystems) have properties which their contituent parts do not possess
Examples of emergent properties? Communication – parts can interact Control processes – to ensure continuity
Control - Feedback
System activities
Controlmechanism
Input Output
Control
Feedback
Negative feedback corrects a tendencyPositive feedback enhances a tendency
Open & closed systems Open systems
Interact with their environment through inputs and outputs that cross the system boundary
Include organisational and living systems Closed systems
Don’t interact with their environment. (Or, take in only energy, e.g. the biosphere
or various mechanical gadgets.) These are best viewed as relative terms.
Two well known phrases
Reductionism. Simplification for
analysis Computer people
do this often!
Holism Dividing into parts
loses connectedness & emergent properties.
Example?
Divide and conquer! The whole is greater than the sum of its parts.
“Hard” and “soft” problems
Hard problems: Structured, clear when a solution is found, Subject to reasoning, problems about “how”. Often in engineering, science. Dealing with
blown fuse, designing a bridge, etc. Soft problems:
Unstructured, messy, no clear solutions. Questions about “what” to do. Often in organisations, social situations,
politics – situations involving people.
Hard and soft systems thinking
“Hard” systems thinking treats parts of the world as systems, and investigates/ engineers them. Systems taken to exist.
“Soft” systems thinking uses a process of enquiry which is systemic. This uses systems models to help find out about the real world, so we may explore the consequences of choosing to view elements as if they were systems, but the systems we model are notional, not representations of the world.
(See Checkland, 1999)
Experience teaches: “Hard” problems are susceptible to
“hard” approaches
“Soft” problems need “soft” approaches.
What is SSM? A systemic process of learning For exploring problem situations in
organisations For suggesting changes which will
be helpful and achievable
SSM - Basic Overview
-Perceived real-world
problem situation
Models of “relevant systems” of purposeful activity, each based
on a world-view
Action to improve…
(Adapted from Checkland & Scholes, )
Choose & build
Comparison of models with the
problem situation, to identify…
SSM Overview - activities
-
Finding out about the problem situation, including cultural/ political aspects
Choosing & building models of “relevant systems” of purposeful activity, each based on a world-
view
Taking action to improve ...
Debating the situation using the models (Comparison)
- Identifying desirable and culturally feasible changes
-Finding accommodations between conflicting interests that will enable …
Understanding of the organisation,
including cultural and political
analysis
Using SSM Not intended as a prescriptive set
of steps. Start anywhere, finish anywhere,
repeat ad lib. Adapt as necessary.
Why SSM? Practical and flexible approach to
managing change Holistic approach that takes a wide
range of factors into account, inc. social and political aspects
Aims to suggest change that is meaningful and feasible in the organisational context
Can be highly participative
Why SSM for IS? It’s NOT a complete development method. But has been extended with techniques for IS Useful for IS-related problem “solving.” Used in
Feasibility Requirements capture IS Planning
The aim is to have systems which are seen as relevant, fit the organisation, and are used.
Example SSM IS projects Recording the activities of
community health workers Decision support in a marketing
company Providing mission briefings for
fighter pilots Managing assignment submission
for distance learners
SSM Overview - activities
-
Finding out about the problem situation, including cultural/ political aspects
Choosing & building models of “relevant systems” of purposeful activity, each based on a world-
view
Taking action to improve ...
Debating the situation using the models (Comparison)
- Identify desirable and culturally feasible changes
-Find accommodations between conflicting interests that will enable …
Understanding of the organisation,
including cultural and political
analysis
Entering the problem situation “A situation in which there are
perceived to be problems” Don’t concentrate on “the”
problem We may enter the problem
situation as external consultants, or work on our own problem situations.
What to put in a rich picture
Structure, e.g. departmental or organisation boundaries, geographical considerations, people and institutions.
Process - activities, information or material flows. Climate - the relationship between structure and
process, and any associated problems. ‘Soft facts’ - concerns, conflicts, views. Environment - external interested bodies, factors
affecting the organisation.
Commonly used symbols
Conflict
Concerns,views
PeopleExternal observers / interested parties
A boundary
How can I….?£
Flows
SSM Overview - activities
-
Finding out about the problem situation, including cultural/ political aspects
Choosing & building models of “relevant systems” of purposeful activity, each based on a world-
view
Taking action to improve ...
Debating the situation using the models (Comparison)
- Identify desirable and culturally feasible changes
-Find accommodations between conflicting interests that will enable …
Understanding of the organisation,
including cultural and political
analysis
Thinking about the problem situation What important tasks are taking
place? What issues have you identified? Name “relevant systems” (of
human activity)
Relevant systems Relevant to exploring, debating and
changing the problem situation Relevant from some “world view” -
Weltanschauung More than one - choose a variety of
views, ideas Phrase as “A system to ….” Identify the W that makes them
meaningful and the main transformation.
Relevant systems (2) Primary task systems deal with
the main task of the organisation, from some viewpoint.
Issue-based systems deal with issues, problems etc.
Not always a clear-cut distinction, but aim to include both!
SSM Overview - activities
-
Finding out about the problem situation, including cultural/ political aspects
Choosing & building models of “relevant systems” of purposeful activity, each based on a world-
view
Taking action to improve ...
Debating the situation using the models (Comparison)
- Identify desirable and culturally feasible changes
-Find accommodations between conflicting interests that will enable …
Understanding of the organisation,
including cultural and political
analysis
Root definition (1) Short definition of a relevant system Defines who would be involved,
purpose, viewpoint from which it’s defined,
“A system to….” Remember: NOT a description of what
happens in the real world. We usually work with several
definitions
Root definition (2) “Who is doing what for whom, to whom
are they answerable, what assumptions are being made, and in what environment.”
(Checkland) However, we use the CATWOE
terminology
CATWOE
Customers beneficiaries/victims Actors those who do T Transformation input output Weltanschauung world view, makes T meaningful Owner responsible (who could stop T?) Environment “givens”, constraints
TInput Output
Building RD & using CATWOE
Either: Write a root definition, Validate it using CATWOE as a checklist Define any missing elements Rewrite RD to include them
Or: Define CATWOE Write a RD that includes all of them. Some leading practitioners criticise this
approach.
Root Definition Example A Department of Computing owned
system by which academic staff define a unit syllabus in accordance with university standards for unit definition such that the unit will make the expected contribution to the route, provide clear learning objectives for students and be deliverable in practice within the constraints on staff time and other resources within the department.
CATWOE for unit planning example
C Students A Academic staff T Route’s requirement for unit requirement
met by unit syllabus meeting criteria stated (i.e. objectives, deliverable in practice)
W Importance of clear definition of units to route planning and student learning; units should
have a defined place within the route. O Department E University standards for unit definition, time
and resource constraints
Another RD example A system to provide regular checkups,
advice and treatment to diabetic adults in the Southdown & Downsville area by means of outpatient appointments at Southdown General Hospital in order to empower them to control their diabetes.
CATWOE from clinic RDC - diabetic adults in the Southdown & Downsville
areaA - ? T - patients with current level of support --> patients
with the necessary support, advice and treatment to enable them to manage their diabetes
W - O/P care can provide support that will enable people to control their diabetes. Patients as responsible managers of their own treatment, not passive recipients
O - ?E - SGH, O/P clinic, Southdown & Downsville area
Revised CATWOE for clinic RD
C - diabetic adults in the Southdown & Downsville area
A - medical, nursing & admin staff of the clinic. T - patients with current level of support -->
patients with the necessary support, advice and treatment to enable them to manage their diabetes
W - O/P care can provide support that will enable people to control their diabetes. Patients as responsible actors in their own treatment, not passive recipients
O - SGH managementE - SGH, O/P clinic, Southdown & Downsville area,
HA budget and staffing constraints.
Revised clinic RD An SGH-management-owned system, staffed by
medical, nursing and clerical staff of the hospital and operating within the Health Authority’s constraints on budget and staffing, to provide regular checkups, advice and treatment to diabetic adults in the Southdown & Downsville area by means of outpatient clinic visits at Southdown General Hospital, in order to ensure that all are empowered to control their diabetes.
SSM Overview - activities
-
Finding out about the problem situation, including cultural/ political aspects
Choosing & building models of “relevant systems” of purposeful activity, each based on a world-
view
Taking action to improve ...
Debating the situation using the models (Comparison)
- Identify desirable and culturally feasible changes
-Find accommodations between conflicting interests that will enable …
Understanding of the organisation,
including cultural and political
analysis
Conceptual modelling Identify minimum necessary set of activities
Define topics & time allocation Document unit to university standards Appreciate university standards for unit definition Appreciate unit’s expected contribution to route Define learning objectives Decide method of delivery Appreciate time & resource constraints
Conceptual model
2Document unitto university
standards
1Appreciate unit’s
expected contribution to route
7Define topics
& time allocation
5Decide method
of delivery
6Define
learning objectives
3Appreciate time& resource constraints
4Appreciate universitystandards for unit definition
8Define
assessmentcriteria
9Monitor
1-7
10 Take control
action
The 3 (or 5) E’s Efficacy: does the means work, does it
actually achieve the transformation? Efficiency: does it use the minimum
necessary resources? Effectiveness: is the transformation
meeting the longer term aim? Also Ethicality and Elegance.
SSM Overview
-
Finding out about the problem situation, including cultural/ political aspects
Choosing & building models of “relevant systems” of purposeful activity, each based on a world-
view
Taking action to improve ...
Debating the situation using the models (Comparison)
- Identify desirable and culturally feasible changes
-Find accommodations between conflicting interests that will enable …
Understanding of the organisation,
including cultural and political
analysis
What else? Your workbook tells you about:
Comparing models with the real world/rich picture
Debating desirable and feasible changes Cultural analysis (Analysis 1-3)
Don’t neglect these: they may not have characteristic techniques, but they’re vital
To Do. Workbook. Sections 1-5 to be
completed before week 5’s seminar; The rest, including the seminar
preparation in section 7, by week 6’s seminar.
Reading: Another SSM overview (see workbook) Systems ideas from Bennett et al
(2002/2005) §1.3
References / More SSM books
Bennett, S., McRobb, S. & Farmer R. (2005), Systems Analysis and Design using UML, 3rd edn., McGraw-Hill. (An earlier edition will do for this.)
Checkland, P. (1999), Soft Systems Methodology: A 30-year Retrospective, Chichester: Wiley.P. Checkland & J. Scholes (1991), Soft Systems Methodology in Action. Wiley.
Wilson, B. (1990), Systems: Concepts, Methodologies and Applications.
Patching, D. (1990), Practical Soft Systems Analysis. Pitman. (Try this only if you don’t get on with the others.)