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PROJECTSYNOPSES
RenewableEnergyTechnologiesLong Term Research in the
6th Framework Programme 2002 I 2006
ISSN 1018-5593
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Renewable EnergyTechnologiesLong Term Research in the
6th Framework Programme 2002 I 2006
2007 EUR 22399
Directorate-General for ResearchSustainable Energy Systems
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3
Table of Contents
Foreword......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5
Photovoltaics........................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 7
Thin Film Technologies .......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 8
New and Emerging Concepts ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 20
Wafer-Based Silicon ................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 30
Pre-normative Research and Co-ordination Activities ............................................................................................................... 36
Biomass.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 41
Biofuels for Transport............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 42
Energy from Crops...................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 46
Gasification and H2-production................................................................................................................................................................................ 50
Biorefinery ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 64
Combustion and Cofiring .................................................................................................................................................................................................. 68
Pre-normative Research and Co-ordination Activities ............................................................................................................... 74
Other Renewable Energy Sources and Connection to the Grid ...................... 83
Wind .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 84
Geothermal........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 90
Ocean............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 98
Concentrated Solar Thermal .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 106
Connection of Renewable Energy Sources to the Grid .............................................................................................................. 118
Socio-economic Tools and Concepts for Energy Strategy .......................................... 133
Economic and Environmental Assessmentof Energy Production and Consumption ...................................................................................................................................................... 134
Social Acceptability, Behavioural Changes
and International Dimension related to Sustainable Energy RTD ................................................................................ 140
Annexes............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 155
List of Country Codes ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 156
List of Acronyms .................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 157
Energy Units Conversion ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 158
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5
The use of renewable energy sources in Europe will increase, leading to a more sustainable energy
mix, reduced greenhouse gas emissions and a lower dependency from oil. In pursuit of the Kyoto
protocol and the revised Lisbon strategy the European Union has set itself the ambitious goal to
derive 12% of its total energy consumption from renewable energy sources by 2010.
The Framework Programmes for Research and Development (FP) of the European Union have contributed
from their beginning to the development of renewable energy technologies. These Community actions
have a proven European added value in terms of building critical mass, strengthening excellence and
exercising a catalytic effect on national activities. In combination with national activities, working atEuropean level with an adequate combination of innovation and regulatory measures has produced
substantial results.
For example technological progress has enabled a ten-fold increase in the sizes of wind turbines,
from 50 kW units to 5 MW, in 25 years and a cost reduction of more than 50% over the last 15 years.
In consequence, the installed capacity has increased 16 times in the last ten years to reach 40 GW in
Europe. In 2005, the world production of photovoltaic modules was 1760 MW compared to 90 MW
in 1996. Over the same period, the average module price has decreased from about 10 /W (1996)
to about 3 /W (2005).The average annual growth rate of about 35% in the past decade makes
photovoltaics one of the fastest growing energy industries.
The European technology platforms (ETPs) established in the energy field (hydrogen and fuel cells,
photovoltaics, biofuels, solar thermal technologies, wind energy, smart grids, zero-emission fossilfuels power plant) have demonstrated the readiness of the research community and industry,
together with other important stakeholders, such as civil society organisations, to develop a common
vision and establish specific roadmaps to achieve it. These technology platforms are already having
an influence on the European and national programmes. The platforms themselves are calling for
action at European level and a framework for the elaboration of large-scale integrated initiatives
needs to be developed for this to happen.
This brochure presents an overview on the 64 medium-to-long term research projects aiming at the
development of renewable energy sources and technologies, including their connection to the grid
and socio-economic research related to renewable energy sources, which were funded through the
Sustainable Energy Systems programme managed by DG Research under the 6th Framework
Programme in the period 2002-2006.
Amongst the 64 projects presented here photovoltaics and biomass were the most important sectors,supported with 66.5 M and 82.5 M respectively, while for the other sources of renewable energy
such as wind, geothermal, solar concentrating and ocean energy 45.5 M were spent in total. The
socio-economic aspects of renewable energy were also studied in projects funded to the level of 20 M.
These long-term research efforts were supplemented by short-term research and demonstration
actions in the short to medium term part of the programme, which is not included in this brochure.
The projects are grouped by energy source, i.e. photovoltaics, biomass etc. rather than funding
instrument. This allows the reader to gain a quick and comprehensive view of the European research
activities in each technical area. An electronic version of this brochure will be available on the web
(http://ec.europa.eu/research/energy/index_en.htm) allowing easy online access to the projects.
I hope that this publication will be of interest to many, and particularly those considering further
industrial development of renewable energy sources and those planning to participate in FP7.
Raffaele LIBERALI
Director
Foreword
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7
Thin Film Technologies ................................................................................................................................................................................. 8
ATHLET......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 8
BIPV-CIS.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 12
FLEXCELLENCE................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 14
LARCIS......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 16
SE-POWERFOIL ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 18
New and Emerging Concepts.......................................................................................................................................................... 20
FULLSPECTRUM ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 20
HICONV...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 24
MOLYCELL ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 26
ORGAPVNET ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 28
Wafer-Based Silicon............................................................................................................................................................................................ 30
CRYSTAL CLEAR ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 30
FOXY............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 34
Pre-normative Research and Co-ordination Activities ....................................................... 36
PERFORMANCE ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 36
PV-CATAPULT ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 38
Photovoltaics
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Challenges
Long-term scenarios for a sustainable global
development suggest that it should be feasible, by
the middle of this century, to provide over 80% of
electric power by a mix of energy from renewable
sources. Photovoltaics are one important option
which can provide a significant share of over
30% of such a mix. This Integrated Project (IP) is
focused on the development, assessment and
consolidation of photovoltaic thin film technology,
and on the most promising material and device
options, namely cadmium-free cells and modules,
based on amorphous, micro- and polycrystalline
silicon as well as on I-III-VI2-chalcopyrite compound
semiconductors.
The overall challenge is to provide the scientific
and technological basis for industrial mass pro-
duction of cost-effective and highly efficient,
environmentally sound and economically compliant
large-area thin film solar cells and modules. By
drawing on a broad basis of expertise, the entirerange of module fabrication and supporting
R&D will be covered: substrates, semiconductor
and contact deposition, monolithic series inter-
connection, encapsulation, performance evaluation
and applications. Photovoltaics have become an
increasingly important industrial sector over the
past ten years. PV is a widely accepted technology
and numerous kinds of solar modules and PV
systems are commercially available. The expansion
of the production volume of PV systems will be
accompanied by considerable cost reductions.
Therefore the main challenges are: Significantly reducing the cost/efficiency
ratio towards 0.5/WP in the long run.
Providing the know-how and the scientific
basis for large-area PV modules by identifying
and testing new materials and technologies
with maximum cost reduction.
Developing the process know-how and the
production technology, as well as the design
and fabrication of specialised equipment,
resulting in low costs and high yield in the
production of large area thin film modules.
O B J E C T I V E S
ATHLET
Advanced Thin Film Technologiesfor Cost Effective Photovoltaics
8
The overall goal of this project
is to provide the scientific and
technological basis for industrial mass
production of cost-effective and
highly efficient large-area thin film
solar modules. This includes the
development of the process know-how
and the production technology,
as well as the design and fabrication
of specialised equipment.
A successful development will
establish Europe as the leading
producer of thin film solar modules
and maintain European leadership
in photovoltaics (PV) over the longer
term. The main objectives aretwo-fold: development and
improvement of existing thin film
PV technologies, with the goal of
increasing the module efficiency/cost
ratio towards a target of 0.5/Wp,
and the establishment of know-how
and a scientific basis for a future
generation of PV modules by
developing new device concepts,
materials and production processes.
Project Structure
To meet these challenges, existing concepts for
materials and technology will be improved and
brought to maturity in close cooperation with
industry, and new options will be investigated for
materials and new types of solar cells to provide
the scientific and technological basis for the
next generation of PV devices. Accordingly, the
research activities range from basic research to
industrial implementation. This is reflected in
the division of the project into 4 horizontal
(trans-disciplinary) and 2 vertical (along value
chain) sub-projects:
THIN F ILM TECHNOLOGIES
Two vertical sub-projects (SP) are oriented along the value
chain:
SP III focuses on large area, environmentally sound
chalcopyrite modules with improved efficiencies;
SP IV deals with the up-scaling of silicon-based tandemcells to an industrial level.
Four horizontal sub-projects have a trans-disciplinary
character:
SP V will provide analysis and modelling of devices and
technology for all other sub-project;
SP I will demonstrate higher efficiencies of lab scale cells;
SP II will focus on module aspects relevant to all thin
film technologies;
SP VI will ensure that the performed work will have a
positive impact on the environment and society.
An experienced management will help the consortium
meet its goals.
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9
This Integrated Project, which consists of the six
interlinked sub-projects visualised above, covers
the area of fundamental research, technological
development and production issues relating to
the most relevant photovoltaic thin film tech-
nologies. For the first time, the research on these
technologies will be carried out within a joint
scientific framework. Close cooperation of the
research teams in the horizontal and vertical
projects, in combination with common workshopsand panel discussions, will guarantee a continuous
exchange and flow of know-how in both direc-
tions. All sub-projects are embedded in a man-
agement unit. The management controls the
compliance with the objectives, which are
defined in milestones and deliverables. It will
also coordinate all reporting required, provide
legal assistance and moderate all negotiations
between project partners concerning relevant
commercial and scientific results. The six sub-
projects contain 23 work packages altogether.
Table 1: IP sub-projects and work packages
Sub-project (SP) SP leader Work packages
WP1 CIGS on flexible substrates and for tandem solar cells
I. High Efficiency Solar Cells FZJ WP2 Advanced multi-junction Si thin film solar cells
WP3 High-efficiency poly-Si solar cells
WP4 Isolated substrates
II. Thin Film Module Technology ECNWP5 Contact technologies
WP6 Encapsulation
WP7 Serial interconnection and demonstration
WP8 Process-related absorber surface modification,
wet-chemical or dry interface engineering
III. Chalcopyrite SpecificShell
WP9 Buffer layer deposition by CBD technique
Heterojunctions WP10 Buffer layer deposition by spray techniques
WP11 Buffer layer deposition by sputter technique
WP12 Low-cost reactive TCO sputtering from rotatable target
WP13 Large-area optics
WP14 Process studies and plasma diagnostics
IV. Thin Film Modules on glass UniNE WP15 Inl ine deposition of si licon
WP16 Batch deposition of siliconWP 17 Module characterisation
WP18 Advanced electrical and optical modelling
V. Analysis and ModellingUGENT
of thin film solar cells
of Devices and Technology WP19 Materials and device analysis
(structural, optical and electrical)
WP20 Sustainability assessment
VI. Sustainability, UNN- of new developments in ATHLET
Training and Mobility NPAC WP21 Thin film implementation scenarios
WP22 Mobility and training
Management HMI WP23 Consortium management
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Expected Results
The state-of-the-art for advanced thin film PV
technology and the enhancement within the
proposed project is summarised in Table 2.
ATHLET
Advanced Thin Film Technologiesfor Cost Effective Photovoltaics
10 THIN F ILM TECHNOLOGIES
Table 2: Expected enhancement of the state-of-the-art
Technology State-of-the-art Substrate, process Planned enhancement in IP
(efficiencies) (for Europe)
Lab cells
a-Si/c-Si 12% (Kaneka) On glass, PE-CVD 14%
11% (UniNE, FZJ)
Poly Si 9% (Sanyo) On metal substrate, SPC 15% on foreign substrates
CIGS low gap 19.2 % (NREL) On glass, co-evaporation
16-17% (NREL) On metal foi l, co-evaporation 18% on metal foil
9% on polyimide foil
CIGS wide gap 12-13% (HMI) On glass, sputtering, PVD 13-14%, advanced equipment.
10% @ 60% IR transparency
for tandem applications
CIGS tandem 7% (HMI) On glass, co-evaporation 15%
Prototypes, pilot production
a-Si/c-Si 10% (Kaneka, FZJ) On glass 30x30 cm2 (FZJ) Equipment for cost-effective
On glass 3738 cm2 (Kaneka) production of 10% modules
(1 m2 @ costs towards 0.5/Wp)
CIGS wide gap 10% (Sulfurcell) On glass 5x5 cm2, sputtering, 10% on 125x65 cm2
PVD
Commercial product
a-Si 6-7% (Unisolar, On glass, PE-CVD
SCHOTT, Kaneka,...)
CIGS low gap 10% (Shell, Wrth) On glass, co-evaporation 11-12%, cost-effectiveness,
environmentally sound
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Project Information
11
Other expected results are:
Strategic impact: reinforcing competitiveness
and solving societal problems: the aim is toimprove the cost-effectiveness of thin film
PV modules to substantially increase their
contribution to the sustainable energies supply.
Europe, Japan and the US contribute the
largest share of PV production worldwide.
Europe was on a level with Japan in 1997.
During 2002 Japan was already responsible
for almost 50% of global PV production.
Reinforcing competitiveness of small and
medium-size enterprises (SME): the technology
transfer of new solar cell technologies from
the lab to industry will help to reinforce
competitiveness of small and medium-size
enterprises (Solarion, Sulfurcell). It can be
assumed that results from this project will
inspire the foundation of new companies.
Innovation-related activities, exploitation and
dissemination plans: international consolidated
solar cell producers, like Shell Solar and
SCHOTT Solar, are an integral part of the project.
They co-operate closely with the R&D partners.
The industries will exploit the results generated
within the project. Dissemination of the R&D
results will occur internally and externally.
Added value of the work at EU level: this
project aims at decreasing the cost of PV
electricity to competitive levels by focusing
on new and improved thin film technologiesand materials.
Contract number19670
Duration48 months
Contact personProf. Dr. Martha Ch. Lux-SteinerHahn-Meitner-Institut GmbH
Lux-Steiner@hmi.de
List of partnersApplied Films GmbH & Co. KG DECIEMAT ESCNRS (ENSCP) FRECN NLForschungszentrum Jlich GmbH DEFree University of Berlin DEFyzikalni ustav Akademieved Ceske republiky CZHahn-Meitner Institut GmbH DEInter-universityMicro-electronics Centre BEInstitut fr Zukunftsstudien undTechnologiebewertung GmbH DESaint-Gobain Recherche FRSchott Solar GmbH DEShell Solar GmbH DESolarion GmbH DESulfurcell Solartechnik GmbH DESwiss Federal Instituteof Technology Zrich CHUnaxis Balzers AG LIUniversity of Gent BEUniversity of Ljubljana SIUniversity of Neuchtel CH
University of Northumbria at Newcastle GBUniversity of Patras GRZSW DE
Websitewww.hmi.de/projects/athlet/
Project officerDavid Anderson
Statusongoing
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Challenges
In most cases, the integration of PV systems
gives a building a high tech modern appearance,
since most conventional PV modules have a typical
window-like surface. Considering, however, that
90% of the building stock is older than 10 years
and therefore has a more or less old-fashioned
appearance, it is evident that aesthetic building
integration of PV calls for a lot of willingness
from planners and creativity from architects.
Many PV systems integrated into existing buildings
do not harmonise with the building and its sur-
roundings, indicating a potential for conflict with
urban planners. We therefore pay special attention
to architectural and aesthetic questions. Another
key fact is that the market for refurbishing and
modernising old buildings is much larger than
the market for new buildings. Therefore, there are
not only aesthetic but also important economic
grounds for accessing this market.
O B J E C T I V E S
BIPV-CIS
Expanding the Potential for the Integrationof Photovoltaic Systems into Existing Buildings
12
Building integration of PV (BIPV)
often leads to a high-tech and
modern appearance of buildings,
caused by the typical window-like
surface of most conventional
PV modules. In many PV systems
integrated into existing buildings,
the modules do not harmonise with
the surroundings.
The objectives of this project are
to identify the potential and needs
for improved BIPV components and
systems, as a basis for developing
modules without a glass/window-like
appearance, to develop and investigate
faade elements and overhead glazing,both for the ventilated and the
insulated building skin based on
CIS thin-film technology, to develop
PV roof tiles which have a modified
optical appearance for better
adaptation to the building skin,
to fabricate and test prototypes
according to relevant standards and
carry out subsequent performance
tests, and to develop electrical
interconnection components suitablefor thin-film modules.
Project Structure
The project consortium consists of seven indus-
trial partners, two research institutes and three
universities. The project comprises a very broad
approach to the building integration of CIS
modules since two proposals were merged
together by the European Commission. The fol-
lowing topics are now being developed and
investigated within the project:
The integration of PV into the ventilated
building skin
The integration of PV into the insulated
building skin
Roof integration with CIS roof tiles.
Furthermore, we are investigating aesthetic,
technological and legal aspects of integrating
PV into existing buildings, as well as developing
module components.
As a basis for the work mentioned above, studieswere conducted into European building regulations
that strongly influence the construction and
dimensioning of the modules and often forbid the
use of what are known as standard PV modules in
building integration. Also European surveys on
roofing elements and on mullion/transom
constructions were conducted. A market study
provided information about market needs.
Cost-optimised junction boxes which are especially
suited for thin film modules are being developed in
the project. A solution for the invisible connection
of modules integrated in the insulated buildingskin will also be developed. The prototypes will be
tested in accordance with the relevant standards.
THIN F ILM TECHNOLOGIES
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Project Information
Contract number503777
Duration48 months
Contact personDieter GeyerZentrum fr Solarenergie und
Wasserstoffforschung Baden-Wrttembergdieter.geyer@zsw-bw.de
List of partnersDresden University of Technology DEJRC ITOve Arup & Partners Ltd GBPermasteelisa Group ITSaint Gobain Recherche FRShell Solar GmbH DESwiss Sustainable Systems CHTyco Electronics AMP GBWarsaw University of Technology PLWroclaw University of Technology PLWrth Solar DEZSW DE
Websitewww.bipv-cis.info
Project officerGeorges Deschamps
Statusongoing
13
Expected Results
The main goal of the project is to improve the
acceptance of PV in architectural environments.
For that purpose, the results of this project as
regards modification of module appearance will
be exploited by the CIS producing partners. The
junction box for thin film modules to be developed
in the project, as well as innovative edge con-
nectors, will be used by the partners in their
module production line: they will also be available
for the entire thin film module industry.
Progress to Date
PV in faades
Prototypes of CIS modules with modified optical
appearance on both front and rear sides, for
improved integration into surroundings, were
developed and characterised.
PV in overhead glazing
A prototype of novel overhead glazing includes
semi-transparent CIS modules optimised for
daylight transmission.
Interconnection
Prototypes of a small junction box especially
suited for thin-film modules were developed.
Limiting the by-pass diodes to only one per box
allows a reduction in both size and cost. It is also
possible to use the box for parallel inter-connection of the modules.
PV and architects
A workshop on the architectural fundamentals
of BIPV was held at the Glasstec fair in
Dsseldorf on 9 November 2004.
Building regulations
European surveys were conducted on building
regulations concerning PV building integration,
on architectural glass, on mullion/transom con-structions, and on roofing materials suited for PV.
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Challenges
The technical challenges of the project are, on
the one hand, to allow the module manufacturers
to implement new equipment and processes in
their production lines and, on the other hand, to
give the equipment manufacturers the possibility
of constructing and selling equipment for complete
production lines producing unbreakable modules
at unbeatable cost.
Consequently, all the commercially exploitable
results of the project are foreseen as being used
directly by the companies involved in Flexcellence:
VHF-Technologies is to set up an advanced pilot
production line for 2 MW annual capacity by
end-2006, and R&R and Exitech are expected to
be able to offer standardised roll-to-roll deposition
systems and laser scribing processes by the end
of the project.
The scientific challenges of the project are to
master the different interfaces in multi-layer
devices, to develop effective light-trappingschemes for n-i-p cells on flexible substrates, and
to understand the interaction between the depo-
sition conditions (for different kind of deposition
techniques) and device properties.
Project structure
The project is divided into eight work packages
(WP) with a minimum of three participants in
each. The composition of the WP should ensure
a maximum cross-fertilisation and exchange of
the scientific and technological know-how. Theseven R&D work packages are organised in a logical
way, starting from substrate preparation (WP 2), to
cells with increased complexity (WP 3-5), to the
monolithic interconnection issue (WP 6). Then,
the complete modules including packaging are
tested (WP 7) and finally, detailed cost assessments
for multi-megawatt roll-to-roll production lines
are given in WP 8.
The exploitation panel is formed of representatives
of the industries in order to optimise the
exploitation strategy of the project.
O B J E C T I V E S
F
LEXCELLENCE
Roll-to-roll Technology for the Productionof High-efficiency, Low-cost, and Flexible
Thin Film Silicon Photovoltaic Modules
14
The Flexcellence project aims at
developing the equipment and the
processes for cost-effective
roll-to-roll production
of high-efficiency thin film modules,
involving microcrystalline (c-Si:H)
and amorphous silicon (a-Si:H).
In particular its objectives are:
to achieve a final blueprint planning
of a complete production line for thin
film silicon photovoltaic modules with
production costs lower than 0.5/Wp;
to design and test the equipment
necessary for the realisation
of such lines; to demonstrate
the high-throughput manufacturingtechnique for intrinsic c-Si:H layer
(equivalent to static deposition rate
higher than 2nm/s); and finally
to show that the technology
developed in the project is suitable
for the preparation of flexible
c-Si:H/a-Si:H tandem cells and
modules which satisfy the strictest
reliability tests and guarantee
long-term outdoor stability.
Expected results
All aspects necessary for a successful implemen-
tation of this novel production technology are
considered simultaneously.
In order to achieve high efficiency c-Si:H/a-Si:H
tandem devices, effective light-trapping
schemes are implemented on flexible substrates
and high-efficiency solar cells and modules are
developed on these new surfaces. Laboratory-scale solar cells and mini-modules (10*10 cm2)
with 11% and 10% efficiency respectively are to
be fabricated in order to demonstrate that tandem
junction c-Si:H/a-Si:H can compete with current
technologies for electricity output par square meter.
The deposition rates of the intrinsic micro-
crystalline silicon (c-Si:H) layers need to be
increased from typically 0.1nm/s to 2nm/s: three
of the most promising techniques for high rate
deposition are being investigated: Very High
Frequency Plasma Enhanced Chemical Vapour
Deposition VHF-PECVD, Hot Wire ChemicalVapour Deposition HWCVD and Microwave
Plasma Enhanced Chemical Vapour Deposition
MW-PECVD. A benchmarking of the different
deposition techniques will take place and will
indicate which method emerges as the most
cost-effective and could be implemented in the
different pilot production lines of the partners.
In parallel system aspects, going from the cells to
the modules, is being studied. The critical aspect
of monolithic cell integration with minimum
electrical and optical losses will be solved by
using scribing/screen-printing techniques and newconcepts for more cost-effective encapsulation
materials and processes will be investigated.
All the innovative results, hardware develop-
ments, concepts and designs developed in the
project will lead to new systems (substrate
preparation/deposition reactor/laser scriber/
screen-printer) that will be integrated directly
into the pilot production lines. They will also be
used for the final blueprint of multi-megawatt
production lines that can achieve the production
of modules with production costs of less than
0.5/Wp.
THIN F ILM TECHNOLOGIES
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Project Information
Contract number019948
Duration36 months
Contact personsProf. C. Ballif / Dr. V. TerrazzoniUniversity of Neuchtel
Vanessa.Terrazzoni@unine.ch
List of partnersECN NLExitech GBFraunhofer Gesellschaft (FhG-FEP) DERoth und Rau DEUniversity of Barcelona ESUniversity of Ljubljana SIUniversity of Neuchtel CH
VHF- Technologies CH
Websitewww.unine.ch/flex
Project officerDavid Anderson
Statusongoing
15
Progress to date
As regards the high-quality and cost-effective
substrates, a first generation of metal foils with
insulating layers and plastic webs with nano-
textured surfaces has been developed. High-
quality reflectors have already been obtained on
PET and PEN (Fig 1(b)). The first devices deposited
on these substrates coated by FEP have reached
efficiencies higher than 7% and 8% for a-Si:H
and c-Si:H cells respectively (laboratory scale).
Single junction a-Si:H modules (surface area:
30*60cm2) with stable efficiency higher than 4%
have been obtained on flat substrates on the
pilot production line at VHF-Technologies.
With respect to the high-throughput manufac-
turing technique, ECN and R&R are commissioning
a roll-to-roll MW-PECVD deposition system and
the UBA is designing a new laboratory scale
HW-CVD reactor. On its side, UniNE has already
demonstrated the possibility of depositing
device-quality intrinsic c-Si:H layers at 1.7nm/son 35*45 cm2 substrate area.
For the series connection, two priorities are
currently addressed by EXI and VHF: the melting
induced by the laser scribing at the edge of the
laser line, which must be minimised, and the
removal of the ITO layer on top of the silicon
that must be further developed. On its side, the
UL-FEE succeeded in developing a 2D electrical
model which already provides information on
suitable designs for the metallic contact on VHF-
Technologies modules.
Finally, VHF-Technologies has conducted a cost
simulation for 1 Mio m2 per year capacity plants
for different type of cell technologies on polymer
substrates. Preliminary results show that:
The standard EVA/ETFE encapsulation materials
dominate the bill for single and tandem cells.
The production costs could be reduced to less
than 0.8/Wpeak for 5% efficiency a-Si:H
modules.
The preliminary estimation for c-Si:H/a-Si:H
tandem cells (10% efficiency) leads to pro-
duction cost lower than 0.6/Wpeak.
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Challenges
The parallel development objectives of increasing
the production yield and efficiencies on large areas
and, at the same time, reducing manufacturing
costs and material costs are not self-evident.
However, these production-relevant criteria are
not independent of each other. Some challenges
to be overcome in this context are:
CIS coevaporation approach on an area of60 x 120 cm2: to reduce absorber thickness (i.e.
materials consumption) but also to increase
large-area efficiencies above 13% at the
same time; to demonstrate high efficiencies on
large area by 3-stage in-line CIS coevaporation.
CIS electrodeposition approach: to demonstrate
homogeneous large-area CIS deposition
providing modules with efficiencies > 10% at
high production yield; precise know-how
about the hydrodynamic flux of the reactant is
necessary to obtain high lateral homogeneities
on large areas.
To implement a Cd-free buffer for large-area
application on coevaporated and electro-
deposited absorbers, resulting in at least the
same module efficiencies, yield and production
costs as for those with CdS buffer.
To find appropriate in situ and ex situ CIS
growth control methods to be implemented
in a production line for both electrodeposited
and coevaporated modules.
O B J E C T I V E S
LARCIS
Large-area CIS-based Thin-film SolarModules for Highly Productive Manufacturing
16
The overall objective of the project
is to develop advanced manufacturing
technologies for CIS thin film solar
modules both for the electrodeposition
and coevaporation approach.
The project will improve the
manufacturing techniques for low-cost,
stable and efficient CIS thin film
large-area solar modules.
This includes work on the molybdenum
back contact, the buffer layer,
the CIS absorber, and the quality
and process control. Special emphasis
is placed on the development of
cadmium-free large-area modules
and of electrodeposition methodsfor CIS absorbers. The project will
provide a framework for the
knowledge, know-how and
cross- fertilisation between the groups
and technologies involved in the
project, i.e. between coevaporation
and electrodeposition.
Project Structure
The consortium, 10 partners from five countries,
consists of four independent industrial firms,
three research institutions and three universities.
Three firms are CIS module producers in the
starting phase or already in an advanced state.
The fourth company is a leading European glass
manufacturer equipped to provide back-contact-
coated substrates on a production level for the
CIS module plants. The research institutes and
universities offer expertise in the different and
complementary approaches to the development
of high-quality and low-cost CIS modules and
will enable the industrial companies to reach
their ambitious goals.
The project work is distributed between seven
work packages (WPs) which are generally fur-
ther split into sub-WPs (see Figure 1). Two main
approaches are investigated, aiming at the cost
effective development of:
Large-area modules based on coevaporatedCu(In,Ga)Se2 absorbers (60 x 120 cm2)
Large-area modules based on electrodeposited
Cu(In,Ga)(S,Se)2 absorbers (30 x 30 cm2).
Common targets are high production yields and
high efficiencies at reduced costs. The WPs such
as contact layers, buffer, quality/process control
and technological/economic assessment provide
results and tools which support both absorber
approaches.
THIN F ILM TECHNOLOGIES
Figure 1: Work packages
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Project Information
Contract number019757
Duration48 months
Contact personDr. Michael PowallaZentrum fr Sonnenenergie-
und Wasserstoff-ForschungBaden Wrttembergmichael.powalla@zsw-bw.de
List of PartnersCNRS FRElectricit de France FRHahn-Meitner Institut DESaint Gobain Recherche FRSolibro SEUniversity of Barcelona ESUniversity of Uppsala SEWrth Solar DEZSW DEZrich University of Technology CH
Websiteto be defined
Project officerGeorges Deschamps
Statusongoing
17
Expected Results
Overall result should be to leverage the
European CIS technologies and to improve their
competitiveness, both in relation to established
PV technologies and to international markets.
The cooperation and cross-fertilisation of different
institutes, firms and approaches are expected to
result in:
Large-area modules manufactured bycoevaporation and applying cost-effective
methods with efficiencies > 13.5% on 0.7 m2.
The development of cadmium-free buffer
layers for modules on an area of up to 0.7 m2
with an efficiency > 12%.
The development of electrodeposited low-
cost CIS modules with efficiency > 10% on
0.1 m2 (estimated cost < 0.8 /Wp).
It is expected that basic investigations at universities
and R&D institutes on, for example, stabilisation of
the back contact, in situ and ex situ CIS processcontrol, substitution of the CdS buffer by an
environmentally harmless and physically superior
alternative, will be successfully transferred to
production-relevant areas. Thus any result
achieved can be directly exploited within the
consortium.
Progress to Date
All activities and work packages are within the
time schedule. Very promising results have already
been achieved with a novel chemical-bath-deposited Zn(S,O) buffer layer resulting in at least
the same efficiencies as achieved by standard
CdS buffers. Best cell efficiencies with this novel
buffer on inline-deposited CIS exceed 15%.
Within the first months of the project, four
additional bilateral meetings were held between
UB-EME and EDF/CNRS and between ZSW and
CNRS/EDF in order to organise the cooperation
in detail.
Figure 2: Faade integration of CIS modules:the Schapfenmhle tower in Ulm (Germany) with
1400 frameless CIS modules of 60 x 120 cm2.
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Challenges
Solar energy is the ultimate future energy
source. It is a clean and sustainable source of
energy that can provide a significant share of
our energy needs and greenhouse gas emission
reductions. At present, solar energy is much
more expensive than conventional energy.
SE-Powerfoil aims at the development of roll-to-
roll manufacturing technology for production ofhigh-efficiency flexible photovoltaic (PV) modules.
These photovoltaic modules allow for easy
integration and installation leading to low-cost
PV systems. This is essential to create mature
subsidy-independent markets for solar electricity,
cost-competitive with conventional electricity
sources. The target is to develop 12% efficient PV
modules, with more than 20 years outdoor lifetime
and manufacturing costs below 0.5/Wp.
Flexible PV laminates will allow versatile use in
growth markets with billion-size economic
potential:
Large power markets in which the PV laminates
will substantially contribute to European
objectives to establish a future dent electricity
supply system and to strengthen the
European industry and export position.
Mass markets where flexible solar cell laminates
provide cost-efficient lightweight portable
power, including, for example, personal
electronics, ICT, security, leisure, medical,
military and affordable power for electrifi-
cation in rural and remote regions.
O B J E C T I V E S
S
E-POWERFOIL
Development of Roll-to-roll ManufacturingTechnology for Production of High-efficiency
Flexible Photovoltaic Modules
18
SE-PowerFoil focuses on high-efficiency
flexible thin film silicon PV modules,
produced in a roll-to-roll process on
metal foil. The scientific and technical
objectives are to achieve high
efficiency 12% thin film silicon
laboratory devices, the development
of 10% tandem or triple- junction
large-area pilot line modules,
and a high rate (1-3 nm/s) industrial
plasma deposition technology for
high-performance microcrystalline
silicon layer deposition.
The innovative deposition technology
in the pilot line for novel transparent
conductive oxide (TCO) ina high-throughput thermal CVD
deposition process will be tested, and
a prototype flexible module installed
in representative outdoor monitoring
stations for lifetime monitoring,
demonstrating less than 2%
performance decrease per year and
improved yield compared to existing
PV technologies. A full economic
assessment of/kWh potential
of project results will be included.
Project Structure
At the beginning of the project, a small work
package WP 1 is devoted to detailing the specifi
cations of the high-performance flexible
PV modules and underlying systems. In WP 2 the
full efficiency potential of flexible thin film silicon
PV modules is explored on a lab scale: the chal-
lenge in this WP is to assemble all individually opti-
mised building blocks of a micromorph device
and drive their cooperative performance in an
actual flexible module to a world class level of
12% stable efficiency. The basic approach will be
to pursue parallel research on the individual
building blocks and systematically measure
progress by integration into complete flexible
micromorph modules.
WP 3 deals with the production cost of flexible
thin film PV modules. Focus will be on the crucial
production steps of the applied roll-to-roll proces-
sing technologies. This includes the development of
large-scale, reliable and fast homogeneousdeposition technologies for the high-performance
transparent conductive oxide (TCO) window
layer and for the active silicon layer. In WP 4,
pilot line PV flexible thin film Si PV modules will
be manufactured, with an efficiency of 10%, based
on existing know-how and the (preliminary)
results of the WPs 2 and 3. At the start of the
project as well as at mid-term, PV modules from
the pilot line will be exposed to outdoor climate
conditions for true power output monitoring.
This work package also deals with an accelerated
lifetime assessment in accordance with to IEC
standard 61646.
THIN F ILM TECHNOLOGIES
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Project Information
Contract number038885
Duration36 months
Contact personDr. R. SchlatmannHelianthos
Rutger.Schlatmann@akzonobel-chemicals.com
List of partnersCNRS FRCVD Technologies Ltd GBForschungszentrum Jlich DEHelianthos b.v. NLInstitute of Physics, Academy of Scienceof the Czech Republic, Prague CZUniresearch b.v. NLUniversity of Salford GBUniversity of Utrecht NL
Website
www.se-powerfoil.project.eu
Project officerDavid Anderson
Statusongoing
19
Combination of the results of WP 2 (efficiency),
WP 3 (crucial elements of production cost) and
WP 4 (pilot line manufacturability, monitored
output and accelerated lifetime) will allow for a
realistic overall economic assessment of flexible
thin film Si PV modules produced in a full
production plant.
Expected Results
Highly efficient lab-scale PV module devices
Processing technologies for the TCO, silicon
and back contact layers
L x 30 cm2 modules with 10% efficiency and
20 years lifetime.
Detailing (WP 1) Project potential Objectives andassessment criteria
Efficiency Device potential Light managementTransparent conductive oxideTop cellBottom cellTandem
= Work package 2 Triple
Production costs Manufacturing potential Roll to roll manufacturing techniqueAutomatedand continuous processFast deposition techniquesLow costs metal subtrates
= Work package 3
Lifetime Economic potential Pilot line module manufacturingStability and climate tests (IEC 1646)Outdoor monotoringEconomic evaluation
= Work package 4
Project management Business potential Planning monitoringand controlExplotation and IPR management
= Work package 5 Dissemination
12%
< 05 /Wp
> 20 year
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Challenges
Solar radiation is a diluted energy source: only
approximately 1000 Joules of energy per second
per square meter are accessible. It is clear to us
that strategies to reach the ultimate goal of a
module cost of 1/Wp will necessarily have to
go through the development of concepts capable
of extracting the most of every single photon
available. In this respect, each of the five activities
envisaged in this project to achieve the general
goal has to confront its own challenges.
The multi-junction activity pursues the develop-
ment of solar cells that approach 40% efficiency.
To achieve this, it faces the challenge of finding
materials with a good compromise between lat-
tice matching and band-gap energy. The
thermophotovoltaic activity bases part of its
success on finding suitable emitters that can
operate at high temperatures and/or adapt their
emission spectra to the cells gap. The other part
relies on the successful recycling of photons sothat those that cannot be used effectively by the
solar cells can return to the emitter to assist in
keeping it hot.
The intermediate-band solar cell approach
addresses the challenge of proving a principle of
operation which would see a significant
improvement in the performance of the cells.
The activity devoted to the search for new molecules
engenders the challenge of identifying molecules
capable of undergoing two-photon processes:
that is molecules that can absorb two low-energy
photons to produced a high-energy excitedstate or, for example, dyes that can absorb one
high-energy photon and re-emit its energy in
the form of two photons of lower energy.
Among all of the above concepts, the multi-
junction approach appears to be the most readily
available for commercialisation. For that, the
activity devoted specifically to speeding up its
path to market is the development of trackers,
optics and manufacturing techniques that can
integrate these cells into commercial concentrator
systems.
O B J E C T I V E S
FULLSPECTRUM
Towards the Productionof Cost-competitive Photovoltaic Solar Energy
by Making the Most of the Solar Spectrum
20
FULLSPECTRUM is a project whose
primary objective is to make use
of the full solar spectrum to produce
electricity. The need for this research
is easily understood, for example, from
the fact that present commercial solar
cells used for terrestrial applications
are based on single-gap semiconductor
solar cells. These cells can by
no means make use of the energy
of below band-gap energy photons
since these simply cannot be absorbed
by the material.
The achievement of this general
objective is pursued through five
strategies: the development of highefficiency multi-junction solar cells
based on III-V compounds;
the development of thermophotovoltaic
converters; research into
intermediate-band solar cells;
the search for molecules and dyes
capable of undergoing two photon
processes; and the development
of manufacturing techniques suitable
for industrialising the most promising
concepts.
Project Structure
The Project is coordinated by Prof. Antonio
Luque (Instituto de Energa Solar) assisted by
Projektgesellschaft Solare Energiesysteme GmbH
(PSE). The Consortium involves 19 research insti-
tutions listed at the end of this text.
As mentioned, to make better use of the afore-
mentioned solar spectrum, the project is structured
along five research development and innovation
activities:
Multi-junction solar cells. This activity is led by
FhG-ISE with the participation of RWE-SSP,
IES-UPM, IOFFE, CEA-DTEN and PUM.
Thermophotovoltaic converters. Headed by
IOFFE and CEA-DTEN. IES-UPM and PSI are
also participating in this development.
Intermediate-band solar cells. This activity is
led by IES-UPM. The other partners directly
involved are UG, ICP-CSIC and UCY.
Molecular based concepts. This activity is led byECN. The other groups involved are FhG-IAP,
ICSTM, UU-Sch and Solaronix.
Manufacturing techniques and pre-normative
research. This activity is led by ISOFOTON. IES-
UPM, INSPIRA and JRC are also involved.
In addition, every two years, the project sponsors
a public seminar on its results and provides
grants to students worldwide to enable them to
attend the seminar as part of dissemination
activities. Formal announcements are made on
the FULLSPECTRUM webpage.
NEW AND EMERGING CONCEPTS
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21
Expected Results
The multi-junction solar cell approach pursues
the better use of the solar spectrum by using
a stack of single-gap solar cells incorporated in
a concentrator system, in order to make
the approach cost-effective (Fig. 1). The project,
at its outset, aimed at cells with an efficiency
of 35%. This result has already been achieved
by FhG-ISE in the second year of the project and
the consortium now aims to achieve efficiencies
as close as possible to 40%.
In the thermophotovoltaic approach the sun heats
up, through a concentrator system, a material
called the emitter, leading to incandescence
(Fig. 2). The radiation from this emitter drives an
array of solar cells, thus producing electricity.
The advantage of this approach is that, by an
appropriate system of filters and back-reflectors,
photons with energy above and below the solar
cell band-gap can be directed back to the emitter,
helping to keep it hot by recycling the energy ofthese photons that otherwise would not be con-
verted optimally by the solar cells. By the conclusion
of the project, it is expected that the system,
made up basically of the concentrator, emitter and
solar cell array can be integrated and evaluated.
The intermediate-band approach pursues better
exploitation of the solar spectrum by using
intermediate-band materials. These materials are
characterised by the existence of an electronic
energy band within what otherwise would be a
conventional semiconductor band-gap. According
to the principles of operation of this cell, the inter-mediate band allows the absorption of low
band-gap energy photons and the subsequent
production of enhanced photocurrent without
voltage degradation. The project also expects to
identify as many intermediate-band material
candidates as possible, as well as demonstrate
experimentally the operating principles of the
intermediate-band solar cell by using quantum
dot solar cells as workbenches.
Figure 1: Schematic illustrating the operation
of a multi-junction solar cell in a concentrator system
Fig. 2. Emitter heated up by the sun through
a concentrator system.
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As mentioned under the molecular based concepts
heading, it is expected to find dyes and molecules
capable of undergoing two-photon processes.
Dyes - or quantum dots - suitable for incorporation
into flat concentrators are also being evaluated. Flat
concentrators are essentially polymers that, by
incorporating these special dyes into their structure,
are capable of absorbing high-energy photons and
re-emitting them as low-energy photons that
match the gap of the solar cells ideally. This
emitted light is trapped within the concentrator
usually by internal reflection and, if the losses
within the concentrator are small, can only
escape by being absorbed by the cells.
Within the manufacturing activity, it is expected
to clear the way towards commercialisation for
the most promising concepts. This is the case for
multi-junction solar cells and, within this activity,
it is expected to develop for example trackers with
the necessary accuracy to follow the sun at1000 suns, and pick and place assembly techniques
to produce concentrator modules at competitive
prices, as well as draft the regulation that has to
serve as the framework for the implementation
of these systems.
FULLSPECTRUM
Towards the Productionof Cost-Competitive Photovoltaic Solar Energy
by Making the Most of the Solar Spectrum
22
Progress to date
As far as multi-junction activity is concerned,
monolithically stacked triple-junction solar cells
(GaInP/GaInAs/Ge), with an efficiency exceeding
35% at a concentration of 600 suns, have been
obtained. Because of their band-gap (1 eV),
(GaIn)(NAs) solar cells are being researched for
their possible implementation as the fourth cell
in a four-junction monolithic stack, in order to
approach the goal of 40% efficiency. In this
regard, efficiencies of 6% have been measured
for this cell.
The technological processes related to the
mechanical stacking of thin film GaAs solar cells
onto silicon as well as the mechanical stacking
of a dual-junction GaInP/GaAs cell onto a GaSb cell
have also been experimentally studied. In this
respect, it has been necessary to research the crystal
growth of GaSb using the Czochralski method of
sufficient quality. As a result, a 6%-efficient GaSb
solar cell has been obtained when operatedbelow a GaInP/GaAs solar cell at 300 suns.
In the thermophotovoltaic activity, GaSb solar
cells with 19% efficiency, for integration in a
thermophotovoltaic system with a tungsten
emitter, have been measured. Moreover, in con-
nection with the multijunction activity, these
cells show 6% efficiency when used at the back of
a GaInP/GaAs dual-junction cell in a mechanical
stacked multi-junction approach operated at
300 suns. Two geometries (cylindrical and conical)
have been analysed for the chamber that has to
contain the cells. The cylindrical configuration hasbeen found to be more suitable for final system
production.
Within the framework of research into the inter-
mediate-band solar cell, test devices have been
manufactured using quantum dots (Fig. 4). These
devices have demonstrated the production of
photocurrent for sub-band-gap energy photos,
and experiments have been best interpreted when
a quasi-Fermi level has been associated with each
band, just as the related theory has proposed.
Chalcopyrite semiconductors substituted by
several transition metals have been identifiedrecently as plausible intermediate-band materi-
al candidates. These add up to the TiGa3As4 and
TiGa3P4 systems previously identified and
whose energetics as intermediate-band materials
has been studied. The analysis has revealed that
NEW AND EMERGING CONCEPTS
Figure 4: Atomic force microscope image
of a layer of quantum dots.
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Project Information
Contract number502620
Duration60 months
Contact personProf. Antonio LuquePolytechnical University of Madrid
luque@ies-def.upm.es
List of partnersCommissariat lEnergie Atomique FRConsejo Superiorde Investigaciones Cientificas ESECN NLFraunhofer Gesellschaft (FhG-ISE) DEFraunhofer Gesellschaft (FhG-IAP) DEImperial College GBIoffe Physico-Technical Institute RUInspiria S.L. ESIsofoton S.A ESJRC ITPaul Scherrer Institute CHPhilipps University of Marburg DEPolytechnical University of Madrid ESProjektgesellschaftSolare Energiesysteme mbH DERWE Space Solar Power DESolaronix CHUniversity of Cyprus CYUniversity of Glasgow GBUniversity of Utrecht NL
Websitewww.fullspectrum-eu.org
Project officerGarbie Guiu Etxeberria
Statusongoing
23
the incorporation of Ti is characterised by figures
similar to those of Mn in GaAs, a system in which
such incorporation has been found experimentally
to be possible.
As regards research into new molecules and
dyes for a better use of the solar spectrum, the
efficiency of some solar cells has been improved
by the application of a polymer coating containinga luminescent dye that shifts the spectrum
towards wavelengths that are better converted
into electricity by the cells. The research on
a dye-doped flat concentrator has increased its
efficiency from below 1% to over 1.7% through
the application of better mirrors and dyes.
Moreover, the use of quantum dots has also
been anticipated in order to increase the photo-
generated current of a solar cell by spectrum
shifting. Optical modelling has been developed and
has become a valuable tool in the optimisation of
the flat concentrator.Among the concepts above, multi-junction solar
cells are closest to commercialisation. In this
regard, significant progress has been made, for
example, in aspects related to the manufacture of
the optics, and the development of encapsulation
and trackers with high pointing accuracy to operate
these cells in high-concentration systems. Up to
five new releases of advanced concentrators
(primary) have been moulded (Fig. 6), improving
moulding conditions in order to achieve the
highest possible optical efficiency. More than
100 optical assemblies with these new releaseshave been encapsulated on 1mm-2--single
junction III-V-cells Off-track angle under 0.1
with 95% probability for several complete days
has been proven in first trials. As for the devel-
opment of a pre-regulation for the deployment of
concentrator systems, the consortium is partici-
pating in the preparation of the IEC TC82 WG7
regulation. Solar simulators for the characterisation
of concentration modules are also being developed.
Thus far, results achieved comprise:
35.2% efficient multijunction solar cell at
600 suns
6% efficient (GaIn)(NAs) solar cell
19% GaSb solar cell in thermophotovoltaic
system
Different configurations for the thermo-
photovoltaic systems studied
Quantum dot intermediate-band solar cell
test devices operational
Chalcopyrite substituted by several transition
metals studied as IB materials
Spectrum shift achieved using polymer coating
with luminescent dyes
Advanced compact concentrators
Trackers of increased accuracy.
Figure 6: Computer-assisted design of an advanced
concentrator.
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Challenges
Existing and innovative solar concentrators were
evaluated for their properties in high-concen-
tration photovoltaics. Plant types were identified
that fulfil the technical requirements of
homogenous irradiation distribution with solar
concentration factors of 500 to 2000 suns and
cost-effective implementation perspectives. The
conclusions were that Modified Spherical Dish
(Tailored Concentrator) configurations look
more suitable for meeting current technology
requirements than classical Parabolic Dish solu-
tions. The results shown with this design are
promising. It has been proposed to build and test
a tailored concentrator for HICONPV technology
with this design.
An innovative heliostat variant was evaluated
for its properties in high-concentration photo-
voltaics, demonstrating that the proposed
Torque Tube Heliostat design concept promises
significant cost advantages over existing heliostat
designs. This can be achieved with a much lowerconstruction height of the TTH, which reduces
drastically the wind loads on the structure and
the required specific drive power.
The aim of this tailor concentrator is to prove
the real possibilities of this innovative conceptual
design, and to see the performance of the concept
O B J E C T I V E S
HICON-PV
High Concentration PV Power System
24
The aim of this project is to develop,
set up and test a new
high-concentration 1000x or more
PV system with a large-area
III-V-receiver. This will be achieved
by integrating two technology fields:
the high concentration of the sunlight
will be obtained using technologies
experienced in solar thermal systems
like parabolic dishes or tower systems.
The high-concentration photovoltaic
receiver is based on the III-V solar cell
technology. To deal with the high
concentration, Monolithic Integrated
Modules (MIM) will be developed
and will be assembled as CompactConcentrator Modules (CCM).
The CCM prototypes will be
implemented at three solar test
installations in Cologne, Almera and
Israel. The tests will be evaluated and
compared with other types of systems.
The objectives of the project are
directed towards high-efficiency
concentrating photovoltaics to reach the
system cost goal of 1/Wp by 2015.
under real manufacturing constraints. The proposed
final configuration was not optimised for 1000x
but rather close, so it is necessary to take into
account the optimised structural heliostat concept,
where the shape of the concentrator is no
longer round but rectangular. Rectangular con-
centrators allow us to keep the gravity centre
lower for the same aperture area. This has a
strong influence on the structural design and
the final cost.
Project Structure
In this project, two ways will be explored in
order to reach a cost-effective solution: the use
of existing mature concentrators and the use of
a new tailored concentrator. During development,
the focus will be on significant cost reduction.
Therefore, current cost-efficient concentrators
developed in the area of concentrating solar
thermal power plants will be used in combinationwith high-concentration PV. The concentrator
system has to meet specifications on flux distri-
bution and accuracy, safe operation and reliability.
Taking advantage of the achievements in
concentrating solar thermal systems, this will
reduce system costs significantly due to mass
production. Further cost reduction aspects of
the selected concentrator system will be
addressed.
Expected Results
The concept of this research project focuses
specially on:
New monolithic integrated modules with
efficiencies of 20% and above.
Module design for irradiation up to 1000 suns.
Adaptation of already proven concentrators
concepts that promise high quality and high
reliability.
NEW AND EMERGING CONCEPTS
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Project Information
Contract number502626
Duration36 months
Contact personValerio Fernndez QueroSolucar
valerio.fernandez@solucar.abengoa.com
List of partnersBen Gurion University of Negev ILCIEMAT ESDLR DEElectricit de France FRFraunhofer Gesellschaft (FhGISE) DEPSE GmbH DERWE Space Solar Power GmbH DESolcar Energa, S.A. ESUniversity of Malta MT
Website
www.hiconpv.org
Project officerRolf Ostrom
Statusongoing
25
High cost-reduction potential due to the use of
adapted concentrators that will be produced in
high numbers for solar thermal power plants.
The result will be a high-quality, high-concen-
trating PV system prototype that promises high
cost-reduction potentials compared to non-
concentrating PV. This concept is unique in the
world and will be an import step for the EUtowards the most competitive and dynamic
knowledge-based economy in the world in this
targeted area.
Progress to Date
An advanced heliostat concept has been
developed with small low-cost ganged units: this
has the potential to reduce the concentrator cost
to below 500/kW of capacity.
A spherical concentrator has been proposed
for small systems with up to 5 m of focal length.
With a central and a peripheral reflector, this
will be able to provide flux profiles whichseem appropriate for PV arrays. It is an on-axis-
design with two-axis tracking that provides
even power levels over the whole year.
Drawings have been presented.
An industrial dish concentrator design has
been prepared. The concentrator is composed of
hexagonal spherical-curved low-cost mirror
facets. Prototype components are in preparation.
IMs have been delivered for the prototype
modules. A prototype CCM has been fabricated
and successfully tested at the solar furnace.Several MIM modules and CCM prototypes
have been prepared and delivered to the test
facilities. Tests have been performed at the
big-dish Petal facility at Ben Gurion
University and at the DLR solar furnace.
A test set-up has been developed for the PSA
solar furnace for solar flashing of prototype
cells by means of a mechanical shutter and a
high-speed control and data acquisition system.
CCM interconnection schemes have been
studied and the inverter design has been
optimised for the high currents and the modular
concept.
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Challenges
To reach MOLYCELL goals, the following points
are addressed in parallel:
Design and synthesis of new materials to
overcome the large mismatch between the
absorption characteristics of currently available
polymer materials and the solar spectrum, and
also to improve the relatively slow charge
transport properties of organic materials.
Development of two device concepts to
improve efficiencies: the all-organic solar
cells concept and the nanocrystalline metal
oxides/organic hybrid solar cells concept.
All-organic solar cells
Devices are based on donor-acceptor bulk hetero-
junction built by blending two organic materials
serving as electron donor (hole semiconductor,
low band-gap polymers) and electron acceptor
(n-type conductor, here soluble C60 derivative) inthe form of a homogeneous blend and sandwiching
the organic matrix between two electrodes. One of
these electrodes is transparent and the other is
usually an opaque metal electrode. In addition
to the incorporation of polymers with improved
light harvesting and charge transport properties,
two concepts are developed to improve efficiencies:
An innovative junction concept based on the
orientation of polar molecules
A multi-junction bulk donor-acceptor hetero-
junction concept.
Nanocrystalline metal oxides/organichybrid solar cells
Devices are based upon solid-state hetero-junctions
between nanocrystalline metal oxides and
molecular/polymeric hole conductors. Two
strategies are addressed for light absorption: the
sensitisation of the hetero-junction with molecular
dyes, employing transparent organic hole transport
materials and the use of polymeric hole conductors
having the additional functionality of visible
light absorption.
O B J E C T I V E S
MOLYCELL
Molecular Orientation, Low Band-gapand New Hybrid Device Concepts for
the Improvement of Flexible Organic Solar Cells
26
Molycell aims at demonstrating the
technical feasibility of organic solar
cells. The project has targeted two
different technologies: hybrid
organic/inorganic solar cells and bulk
hetero-junction organic solar cells.
Project Structure
The project is managed as a series of six linked
work packages, covering a large field of research
from the development of new materials to their
characterisation, the elaboration of solar cells
and their evaluation.
WP 1: Design, Synthesis and Basic Chemical
Analysis of Novel Organic Hole Conductors: the
objective of reducing the band-gap of conjugatedpolymers to 1.8 eV in a first stage and then to 1.6 eV
have been achieved through the development of
efficient synthetic strategies. The charge carrier
mobilities of these polymers are in line with
expectations, and hole mobilities above 10-4 cm2/V.S
have been demonstrated.
WP 2: Metal Oxide Development: new low-
temperature processes for the deposition of
mesoporous nanocrystalline metal oxide films
on flexible substrates have been developed for
the elaboration of solid-state nanocrystalline
metal oxide/organic hybrid solar cells. Due toaccelerated recombination of injected electrons,
the efficiencies of cells built on these films
remain low compared to benchmark devices, and
further studies should reveal the exact origin of
this behaviour.
To overcome this difficulty, an alternative strategy
based on the elaboration of cells on flexible
Ti foils has been developed, leading to an inverted
structure which shows highly promising initial
results. Alternative methodologies for the fabri-
cation of mesoporous nanocrystalline metal
oxide films have also been studied. Amongthese, evaluation of mesoporous films made by
supramolecular templating has led to promising
results and a novel approach has been developed
in which the porous metal oxide layer is replaced
by a blend of TiO2 nanorods with a conjugated
polymer.
WP 3: Advanced Characterization and Modelling:
a detailed understanding of the fundamental
properties and behaviour of the novel materials
developed in WP 1 and WP 2 is necessary to check
their mutual compatibility and suitability for
improved solar cell energy conversion efficiency.
NEW AND EMERGING CONCEPTS
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Project Information
Contract number502783
Duration30 months
Contact personsStphane GuillerezCommissariat lEnergie Atomique
Stephane.guillerez@cea.fr
List of PartnersCommissariat lEnergie Atomique FRECN NLEcole Polytechnique Fdralede Lausanne CHFraunhofer Gesellschaft (FhG-ISE) DEImperial College GBInter-university Microelectronic Centre BEJ. Heyrovsky Instituteof Physical Chemistry CZJohannes Kepler University of Linz ATKonarka Austria ATKonarka Technology AG CHSiemens DEUniversity of Ege TRUniversity of Vilnius LT
Websitehttp://www-molycell.cea.fr/
Project OfficerGarbie Guiu Etxeberria
Statusongoing
27
For that, quantitative models of device function
have been developed and validated by a range of
experimental data, leading to:
Identification of parameters limiting device
performances.
Identification of specific design improvements.
Prediction of optimum device efficienciesachievable with each device concept.
WP 4: All-Organic Device Development: based
on the donor-acceptor bulk hetero-junction
concept, two innovative principles are explored
in parallel and low band-gap polymers issued from
WP 1 are tested. The two innovative principles
explored are one based on a junction induced by
the orientation of polar molecules, and one
based on a multi-junction bulk donor-acceptor
hetero-junction concept. Proofs of concept
studies for the innovative devices are now in
progress. First two-terminal multi-junction solarcells, in particular, were shown with near doubling
of the open-circuit voltage as compared to the
single-junction device. A prototype device with
a certified efficiency of 4% on 1 cm2 glass substrate
has been realised, and an efficiency of 3% on
10 cm2 flexible substrate has also been
demonstrated.
WP 5: Metal Oxide/Organic Hybrid Device
Development: solid-state metal oxide/organic
solar cells on glass and flexible substrates have
been developed following two distinct routes
and employing an optically transparent organichole conductor or an organic material that
serves the functions of both hole transport and
light absorption. Using different organic or
inorganic dyes, in combination with a transparent
molecular hole conductor, efficiencies of over
4% have been reached.
WP 6: Device Evaluation/Cost Assessment: an initial
evaluation of device processing and stability for
metal oxide/organic and all organic devices has
been carried out, leading to the identification of
critical stress factors. A definition of the speci-
fications requested for a 4% flexible solar cell (5%
on glass substrate) has also been established.
Expected Results
The results expected at the end of the project
with one or both devices concepts are:
Certified 5% solar to electric energy conversion
efficiency under Standard Test Conditions
(AM1.5 simulated sunlight, 100 mW/cm2, 25C)
for a 1 cm2 cell on glass substrate.
Certified 4% solar to electric energy conversion
efficiency under Standard Test Conditions
(AM1.5 simulated sunlight, 100 mW/cm2, 25C)
for a 1 cm2 cell on flexible substrate.
Fabrication methodologies compatible with
large-scale reel-to-reel production on flexible
substrates.
3000 hours of stable operation under indoor
conditions, defined in consultation with end-
users, with a roadmap for establishing the
stability required for outdoor operation.
Fabrication from non-toxic materials.Materials and fabrication costs determined
to be consistent with projected production
costs < 1/Wp.
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Challenges
One can observe a strongly growing R&D effort
in the domain of solar cells based on organic
layers. This progress is essentially based on the
introduction of nano-structured material systems
to enhance the photovoltaic performance of
these devices. The growing interest is fuelled by
the potentially very low cost of organic solar cells,
thanks to the low cost of the involved substrates,
the low cost of the active materials of the solar
cell, the low energy input for the actual solar
cell/module process and, last but not least, the
asset of flexibility.
In addition, the ease of up-scalability of the
required application technologies lowers the
threshold for new players to enter this field.
These efforts have resulted in the creation of
technologies which are approaching the stage of
first industrialisation initiatives. These industrial
activities target in the first instance the market
of consumer applications where energy autonomycan be ensured by integrating these flexible
solar cells with a large variety of surfaces.
O B J E C T I V E S
O
RGAPVNET
Coordination Action Towards Stableand Low-cost Organic Solar Cell Technologies
and their Application
28
The goal is the establishment of
a common understanding for future
investments and strategies concerning
organic photovoltaics by allowing
closer relations between the various
organisations of scientific and
technological cooperation in the two
largest organic solar cell communities
in Europe; by facilitating the transfer
of results from European research to
the European PV industry,
and by fostering measurement
standards and prediction of the
performance of organic PV cells
and modules. Other objectives are to
disseminate results to the whole
sector by means of various tools suchas an OrgaPvNet website and
identification of technology gaps and
determination of requirements for
sustainable future growth. The result
will be an integrated vision in the
form of a European Organic
Photovoltaics Technology Roadmap.
In order to have a real impact on the PV market,
additional progress is needed at the level of
efficiency, stability and application technologies
to allow the exploitation of these solar cell
technologies for power generation on a larger scale.
The OrgaPvNet coordin