Starting Point: Pedagogical Resources for Teaching and Learning Economics

Draft Version: December 22, 2009

Support provided by the National Science Foundation - DUE 0817382

Mark H. Maier Department of Economics Glendale Community College Glendale, CA 91208 Tel: 818-240-1000 x5468 Fax: 818-549-9436 mmaier@glendale.edu

KimMarie McGoldrick Department of Economics Robins School of Business University of Richmond Richmond, VA 23173 Tel: 804-289-8575 Fax: 804-289-8878 kmcgoldr@richmond.edu

Scott P. Simkins Director, Academy for

Teaching and Learning 313 Dowdy Building NC A&T State University Greensboro, NC 27411 Tel: 336-334-7705 x2237 Fax: 336-334-7136 simkinss@ncat.edu

Abstract

ThispaperdescribesanewNationalScienceFoundation(NSF)project(DUE0817382)thatmakesinnovativepedagogicalresourcesandeffectiveteachingpracticeseasilyaccessibletoeconomistsviaaweb‐basedpedagogicportal–StartingPoint:TeachingandLearningEconomics.TheStartingPointsiteintroduceseconomiststoteachinginnovationsbothwithinandbeyondthediscipline,providesinstructorswiththetoolstobeginintegratingandassessingtheseinnovationsintheirownclassrooms,andencouragesthesharingofteachinginnovations.TheStartingPoint:TeachingandLearningEconomicsprojectteamisdevelopingatotalofsixteenpedagogicalmodulesforeconomists:ClassroomExperiments;Context‐RichProblems;CooperativeLearning;DocumentedProblemSolving;EffectiveUseofClassroomResponseSystems;InteractiveLectureDemonstrations;InteractiveLectures;InterdisciplinaryApproachestoTeaching;Just‐in‐TimeTeaching;Service‐Learning;TeachingwithCases;TeachingwithComputerSimulations;SpreadsheetsAcrosstheCurriculum;StudentResearch;UsingMediatoEnhanceTeachingandLearning;andQuantitativeWriting.Eachmodulecontainsageneraldescriptionofthepedagogicalmethod,summariesofresearchdemonstratingstudentlearninggains,classroomimplementationguides,andalibraryofeconomics‐basedexamplesthatillustratetheteachingmethodinaction.Inaddition,eachmoduleincludesaprocessforfacultytocontributenewteachingexamples.Thispaperprovidesanoverviewoftheproject,describesexistingandplannedpedagogicalresources,andoutlineswaysthateconomicsinstructorscanbenefitfrom,aswellascontributeto,theseresources.Note:TheauthorswishtoacknowledgethecontributionofPaulGrimes,CollegeofBusinessandIndustry,MississippiStateUniversity,whoconductedthewebsurveydiscussedinsection7ofthepaper.PaulisoneoftwoexternalevaluatorsincludedinthisNSFproject.

1

1. AnOverviewoftheStartingPointProject

Nationalsurveysconductedoverthepastdecadeverifythateconomistscontinuetorelyheavilyonlecture‐styleteachingpedagogy,aninstructionalformatthat,accordingtoBeckerandWatts(1998b,p.4),hasbeen“establishedbyconvenience,custom,andinertiaratherthanefficiencyor,especially,bywhatrepresentseffectiveteachingpracticesintoday’sundergraduatecurriculum.”1Withfewexceptions,science,technology,engineeringandmathematics(STEM)disciplinesaremovingmorequicklythaneconomicstosupplementorreplacelecture‐basedinstructionwithteachingmethodsthatmoreactivelyengagestudentsinthelearningprocess.2Physicseducation,inparticular,hasledtheefforttodevelopmoreinteractiveteachingmethods,intheprocessdevelopingarich,cumulativeknowledgebaseofeffectiveteachingstrategiesandcurricularresourcestheoreticallygroundedinthelearningsciencesandempiricallytestedintheclassroom(SimkinsandMaier,2008).WebelievethatthereismuchtogainbymakingeconomistsawareofSTEM‐basedpedagogicalinnovationandpromotingitsadaptationandassessmentineconomics.

ThisideaiscentraltoourdevelopmentofStartingPoint:TeachingandLearningEconomics(hereafterreferencedsimplyasStartingPoint),aweb‐basedpedagogicportalthatprovidesasinglesourceforpedagogicalresourcessupportingundergraduateeconomicsinstruction.BuildingonpastNationalScienceFoundation(NSF)investmentinpedagogicalinnovationintheSTEMdisciplines,StartingPointhighlightsavarietyofresearch‐basedteachinginnovationsthatcanbereadilyadaptedtoeconomicsinstruction.TheStartingPointsitewillmakeiteasierforeconomiststolearnaboutteachinginnovationsbothwithinandbeyondtheirdisciplineandprovidethemwiththetoolstobeginintegratingandassessingtheseinnovationsintheirownclassrooms.Additionally,StartingPointencouragesfacultymemberstosharetheirownpedagogicexamples,creatingadynamicteachingandlearningresourcethatwillcontinuetogrowanddevelopovertime.

TheStartingPointsitenotonlyservesasarepositoryforpedagogicalresources,butalsoasaguidetomoreintentionalandreflectiveteachinginformedbylearningscienceresearchandclassroompractice.EachpedagogyhighlightedinStartingPointincludesnotonlyadescriptionofthepedagogicpractice,butalsoresearch‐basedjustificationfortheteachingstrategyandsuggestionsforeffectiveclassroomusethatdirectlyaddresscriticalstudentlearningareassuchasexpert‐novicelearning,misconceptions,transferoflearning,andmetacognition.3StartingPointencouragesinstructorstothinkcarefullyaboutstudentlearningobjectivesandwhatpedagogicpracticescanhelpstudentsachievethoseobjectives,bothintermsofeconomicsandmoregenerally.Thatis,thepedagogicpracticeshighlightedinStartingPointaremorethansimplehow‐to’sorteachingtips;theyrepresentandillustrateintentionaleducationalprocessesgroundedinanunderstandingofhowstudentslearn.

1SeealsoBeckerandWatts(1996,1997,1998a,2001,2007),Siegfried,et.al.,(1996),andBenzingandChrist(1997).2Onenotableexceptionisthegrowinguseofeconomicexperimentsforclassroominstruction.3ThesearefourcriticalareashighlightedinHowPeopleLearn:Brain,Mind,ExperienceandSchool(2000),aconcisebutcomprehensivesummaryofclassroom‐applicableresearchfindingsfromthelearningsciencesoverthepastthirtyyears.

2

ThelongtermgoalofthisStartingPointprojectistoenhancestudentlearningineconomics,takingadvantageofexistingeffortsinotherdisciplinesandresearchfindingsfromthelearningsciences.Keytoachievingthisgoalwillbehowtheprojectsupportsdevelopmentofnewlearningmaterials,introductionofteachingstrategiestoeconomics,enhancementoffacultyexpertise,implementationofeducationalinnovations,andcreationofacommunityofteacher‐scholars.Thedescriptionthatfollowsdemonstrateshowtheprojectisdedicatedtoeachofthesecomponents,fromitsfoundationsthroughtoitsdeliverableproducts.2. TheFoundationsoftheStartingPointProject:BuildingonPreviousWork

StartingPointbuildsonavarietyofpreviousprojectsfocusedonadaptingpedagogicalinnovationsinitiallydevelopedinotherdisciplines,disseminatingclassroom‐testedteachingpractices,andpromotingasharedinterdisciplinaryteachingcommons.

Adaptingpedagogicalinnovationsacrossdisciplines.OverthepastdecadeMarkMaierandScottSimkinshavebeenexploringtheadaptationandadoptionofSTEM‐basedteachinginnovationsineconomicsthroughaseriesofNSF‐fundedresearchprojects.Theirinitialwork(DUE00‐88303)exploredtheadaptationofJust‐in‐TimeTeaching(JiTT)ineconomics(SimkinsandMaier,2009,2004),whileasecondproject(DUE04‐11037)examinedtheapplicabilityofabroaderbaseofpedagogicpracticesforeconomicsinstruction,includingcontext‐richproblems(Helleretal1992),interactivelecturedemonstrations(Sokoloffetal1997)andpeerinstruction(Mazur1997).StartingPointprovidesanopportunitytomakeeconomistsawareofthese(andother)pedagogicalinnovations,whichotherwisemightremainunknownbecauseoftheirdevelopmentoutsideofeconomics.BecauseeconomicsstudentsencountermanyofthesamelearningchallengesastheirpeersintheSTEMdisciplines(e.g.developingfacilitywithmultiplerepresentationsoftheoreticalconcepts,analyticalproblemsolving,conceptualmodeling,andtransferofconceptsfromonesettingtoanother),webelievethatthesepedagogicalpracticescansuccessfullyenhancestudentlearningineconomicsinthesamewaysthattheyhaveinSTEMdisciplines.TheinterdisciplinarynatureoftheStartingPointprojectisanaturaloutgrowthoftheseearlierprojects.

Disseminatinginteractiveteachingpractices.Duringthepastsixyears,theNSF‐fundedTeachingInnovationsProgram(TIP)ineconomics(DUE03‐38482)providedover300instructorswithanopportunitytolearnaboutinnovativepedagogiesthroughworkshops,mentoredclassroomimplementation,andclassroom‐basedscholarshipofteachingandlearning(SoTL).4Historically,mostscholarshiponeconomiceducationhasrequiredformalpresentationofquantitativelyestimatedimpactsofpedagogicalchangesonstudentlearning.StartingPointisspecificallydesignedtoenhancethesharedunderstandingofteachingpracticebyprovidingavenueforinstructorstosharetheirworkatallstagesofdevelopment,includingreflectiveenhancementofexistingcoursesandformativeevaluationofstudentlearning.Moreover,StartingPointencouragesthesubmissionofclassroomexamplesthatillustratetheuseofpedagogicalpracticeshighlightedonthesite.

4TheTIPprogramisdescribedat:http://www.vanderbilt.edu/AEA/AEACEE/TIP/TIP.htm

3

Promotingtheteachingcommons.Intheirreevaluationoftheeconomicsmajorinlightofliberaleducationvalues,ColanderandMcGoldrick(2010)identifytheneedfora“teachingcommons”topromoteashiftfromcurrentdominantlectureteachingmethodstomoreactivepedagogicpractices.Suchateachingcommonsis“aconceptualspaceinwhichcommunitiesofeducatorscommittedtoinquiryandinnovationcometogethertoexchangeideasaboutteachingandlearningandusethemtomeetthechallengesofeducatingstudents.”(HuberandHutchings,CarnegieFoundationfortheAdvancementofTeaching,2005)The“teachingcommons”HuberandHutchingsenvisionservesasapublicspaceforsharing–andcommentingon–teachingexamples,techniques,andideas.Unlikejournalpublications,whichrequirerigorousproofofstudentlearning,ateachingcommonsprovidesacollectionofdocumentedexamples,organizedthroughanintentionalframework,illustrating“pedagogyinaction.”Suchexamplesincludecomprehensivedescriptionsoflearningobjectives,instructionalcontext,requiredpre‐requisiteknowledge,andassessmentguidance,inadditiontoadescriptionoftheactivity.StartingPointseekstofunctionasatypeof“teachingcommons”foreconomics,whereinstructorscometothesitenotonlytobenefitfromothers’examples,butalsotocontributetheirownaspartofagrowinglibraryofpedagogicalexamplesfocusedoneconomicsinstruction.

3. TheStartingPointPedagogicalPortal:BuildingandRevisingaCollectionof

ReusablePedagogicModules

Highlightingtheinterdisciplinarynatureofthisproject,theStartingPointpedagogicportalhasbeendevelopedincollaborationwiththeScienceEducationResourceCenter(SERC)atCarletonCollege.OverthepastdecadeSERChasdevelopedaflexiblecontentmanagementsystemthatmakespedagogicalmodulesdevelopedbySERCpartnersaccessibleonthewebviaapedagogicaldatabase.Originallydevelopedforthegeosciences,thispedagogicdatabasenowsupportsadiscipline‐genericPedagogyinActionwebportalthatincludespedagogicmodulesforover40teachingmethods.5Eachpedagogicmoduleincludesinformationabouttheteachingmethod,theoreticalandempiricalsupportforitsuse,detailedguidanceonitsuseintheclassroom,references,andalibraryofexamplesoftheteachingmethod.ThepedagogicmodulesarepartofacentralpedagogicdatabasethatservesoutpedagogiccontentdynamicallythroughaPedagogicServicesframework.6

TheStartingPointprojectusestheunderlyingmoduleframeworkdevelopedbySERC,butfocusesonsixteenteachingpracticesthatwebelievearemostapplicabletoeconomics.NineofthesixteenpedagogicmoduleswearedevelopinginthisprojectarenewandwillbecomepartofSERC’scomprehensivepedagogiclibrary,whileseveninvolveextensiverevisionsofexistingSERCpedagogicmodules,whichwillreplacethecurrentSERCmodulesinthelibrary.Inaddition,foreachofthemoduleswearedevelopingasection,“UsingXinEconomics”,whereXdenotesthepedagogybeinghighlightedinthemodule.Thus,eachmodulecontainsbothgenericinformationaboutaspecificteachingmethodaswellasdiscipline‐specificinformationaboutthatteachingmethod’suseineconomics.

5Seehttp://serc.carleton.edu/sp/index.htmlandhttp://serc.carleton.edu/sp/library/pedagogies.html.6FindoutmoreaboutSERC’sNSF‐supportedPedagogicServiceproject,partoftheNationalScienceDigitalLibrary(NSDL),at:http://serc.carleton.edu/sp/service/index.html.

4

ThemodularframeworkoftheunderlyingcontentmanagementsystemdevelopedbySERCmeansthatpedagogicmodulescanbesimultaneouslysharedacrossavarietyofportals.Thatis,thesamepedagogiccontentdevelopedfortheStartingPointprojectcanbere‐usedbythePedagogyinActionsiteandotherSERCPedagogicServicepartners.7Forexample,thesamecontentfromthecooperativelearningpedagogicmodulecansimultaneouslyappearinmultiplewebportals,asillustratedinFigure1onthefollowingpage.Inaddition,themodularframeworkoftheunderlyingpedagogicdatabase,inconjunctionwiththenew“UsingXinEconomics”modulecomponentintheStartingPointsite,makesiteasyforotherdisciplinestocreatetheirownpedagogicportals.Forexample,adisciplinesuchassociologycouldcreateitsownpedagogicportalbyre‐usingthegenericpedagogicresourcesfromthegeneralmodulelibraryandsubstitutingitsown“UsingXinSociology”modulecomponentfordiscipline‐specificpedagogicalinformation.Thus,theStartingPointprojectisadvancingSERC’sroleasaprimarypedagogicresourceproviderintwoways:(1)BycontributingnewpedagogicmodulestoSERC’spedagogicresourcelibrary,ourprojectismakingavailablenewpedagogicresourcestomultipleportals;and(2)Bydevelopingadiscipline‐basedpedagogicportalthatincludesbothdiscipline‐genericpedagogicinformationaswellasa“UsingXinEconomics”modulecomponent,theStartingPointportalprovidesaframeworkthatmakesitrelativelyeasyforotherdisciplinestodeveloptheirownpedagogicportals.

ThesixteenpedagogicmodulesincludedintheStartingPointportal,alongwithatimelineoftheirplannedavailabilityandtheeconomistscoordinatingdevelopmentofthemodules,arelistedbelow.

Fall2009• ContextrichProblems‐JoannBangs,CollegeofSt.Catherine• Just­in­TimeTeaching‐ScottSimkins,NorthCarolinaA&TStateUniversity• QuantitativeWriting‐StevenGreenlaw,UniversityofMaryWashington• TeachingwithCases‐AnnVelenchik,WellesleyCollege• CooperativeLearning‐KimMarieMcGoldrick,UniversityofRichmondSpring2010• ClassroomExperiments‐SherylBall,VirginiaPolytechnicInstituteandState

University• Teachingwith(Computer)Simulations‐BettyBlecha,SanFranciscoState

University• EffectiveuseofClassroomResponseSystems‐JosephCalhoun,FloridaState

University• InteractiveLectureDemonstrations‐MarkMaier,GlendaleCommunityCollege• StudentResearch‐ElizabethPerry‐Sizemore,RandolphCollege

7ForalistofcurrentSERCPedagogicServicepartners,see:http://serc.carleton.edu/sp/service/partners.html.

5

Figure1:ThePowerofSharingOneModule,ThreeSimultaneousInstances

CooperativeLearningModule‐PedagogyinAction

CooperativeLearningModule‐CAUSEweb.org

CooperativeLearningModuleStartingPoint:TeachingEntryLevelGeoscience

6

Fall2010• InterdisciplinaryApproachestoTeaching‐ArtGoldsmith,WashingtonandLee

University• Service­Learning‐AndreaZiegert,DenisonUniversity• SpreadsheetsacrosstheCurriculum‐MilesCahill,CollegeoftheHolyCross• DocumentedProblemSolving‐LindaWilsonUniversityofTexas‐Arlington• UsingMediatoEnhanceTeachingandLearning‐DirkMateer,PennState

University• InteractiveLectures‐GailHoyt,UniversityofKentucky

4. CommonPedagogicModuleDesign

EachpedagogicmoduleintheStartingPointportalincludesthefollowingcomponents,

whichappearasseparatesetsofwebpagesonthesite,linkedusingacommonnavigationmenu:

(a)Moduleintroduction(b)Descriptionofthepedagogicpractice(c)Effectivenessinpromotingstudentlearning(d)Howtoimplementthepedagogicpractice(e)Usingthepedagogyineconomicscourses(f)Examplesofthepedagogybeingusedineconomics(g)References/Resources

TheintroductorypageforoneofthemodulesincludedintheStartingPointsite,

context‐richproblems,isillustratedinFigure2onthefollowingpage.Thefigureshowsthepage,currentlyinthedevelopmentstage,aspartofthePedagogyinActionsite;whencompleteitwillbeincludedintheStartingPointportal.Notetheleft‐hand‐sidenavigationmenuthatincludeseachofthecomponentslistedabove.AsimilarmenuappearsoneverywebpagewithintheStartingPointsite,makingitquickandeasyforvisitorstothesitetofindtheinformationthattheyareseekingfromanywhereinamodule.Liketheillustratedmenu,theStartingPointnavigationmenuwillalsoincludethefulllibraryofmodulesavailableatthesite.

Thegoalofeachpedagogicmoduleistoprovidethefullrangeofinformationthatafacultymemberneedstosuccessfullyimplementaspecificteachingmethod.ThecommonmodularformatdevelopedandevaluatedbySERCmakesiteasyforinstructorstobrowseacrossmultipleteachingmethods.Asnotedpreviously,eachmoduleincludesbothdiscipline‐independentcontent(relatedtothegeneralpedagogicalpractice)anddiscipline‐specificissuesandexamplesillustratinghowthepedagogicalpracticeisusedineconomics.

7

Figure2

Top‐levelPage–Context‐RichProblemsModule(DevelopmentVersion)

8

Belowwebrieflydescribethepurposeandcontentofeachmodulecomponent,whicharecommonacrossallpedagogicmodules.

(a)Moduleintroduction.Themoduleintroductionpageservesasatableofcontentstothemoduleandcontainsaconcisedefinitionofthepedagogicalpracticeaswellasabriefsummaryof(andlinksto)thefiveremainingcomponents.(b)Descriptionofthepedagogicpractice.Designatedasthe“whatis?”page,thiscomponentofthemoduledescribestheteachingmethodanditsdistinguishingfeatures.Thissectionanswersquestionssuchas:

Whatarethecentralattributesofthismethod? Whatdifferentiatesthisteachingmethodfromothers? Whatconditionsareoptimalforthisteachingmethod?(Classsize,learning

environment,etc) Arethereanyrequiredresourcesortechnology(orothertraitsofalogistical

nature)?(c)Effectivenessinpromotingstudentlearning.Thisisdesignatedasthe“whyuse?”pageanddescribeswhenandwhythemethodisparticularlyeffective,withreferencestotheoreticalandempiricaleducational(generalandeconomics‐specific)andlearningsciencesresearch.Acriticalroleofthispageistocreateabridgebetweenpracticalfacultyinterestineffectiveteachingmethodsandeducationalresearchthatprovidescriticalinsightintoteachingandlearningoutcomes(andhowthispedagogycanhelpachievethoseoutcomes).Thus,thispageprovidesanswerstoquestionssuchas:

Whatarethepotentiallearningoutcomespromotedbythisteachingmethod? Whatlearningsciencesareas(e.g.misconceptions,expert‐novicelearning,

transferoflearning,metacognition)doesthisteachingmethodaddress? Whatisthepotentialforassessmentoflearningoutcomes(usingthisteaching

method)? Whatdoescurrentresearch(generallyordiscipline‐based)havetosayabout

thisteachingmethod? Whatistheevidence(qualitativeand/orquantitative)thatthismethodsworks?

Underwhatcircumstancesdoesitenhancestudentlearning?Whydoesitenhancelearning?

(d)Howtoimplementthepedagogicpractice.This“howto”page,themostpopulardestinationforinstructorsaccordingtoresearchconductedbySERC,describeshowtousethemethodeffectivelyandincludestipsfortheinstructor.Thissectionworkstogetherwiththespecificexamplestoenabletheinstructortousethemethodeffectively.Instructions,framing,andtipsthatapplytoallexamplesaresummarizedatthislevelinthemodule,providingcriticalassistancefornoviceusers.SERCanalysisofexistingmodulesincludesusercommentsontheimportanceofthissectioninprovidingenoughguidancetogenerateconfidencetotrythemethod,clearinstructionon

9

where/howtostartwiththemethod,andaframeworkforthinkingaboutfullimplementationoftheteachingmethod.Thus,thissectionisgenerallyprescriptiveandincludes:

step‐by‐stepinstructions formativeassessmentactivitiestoassessstudentlearning listofchallenges tipsforfirsttimeuse classroommanagementtechniques suggestionsfortypesofcontentbestsuitedforthismethod

(e)Usingthepedagogicpracticeineconomics.Thiscomponentisanewfeatureofthepedagogicmodulesbeingdevelopedaspartofthisproject.Thispagegoesbeyondthegenericpedagogicadviceincludedinthe“howtouse”page,andprovidesdiscipline‐specificadviceonhowthispedagogycanbeusedmosteffectivelywithinthediscipline.Thus,thispageprovidesanswerstoquestionssuchas:

Whymakesthispedagogyespeciallyusefulineconomics?Underwhatconditions?Forwhatconcepts,topics,ideas,andskills?

Howcanthispedagogybeusedtoassessandaddressstudentpre/misconceptionsineconomics?Tohelpeconomicsstudentstransferlearningtonewsituations?

Howmightthispedagogybeusedtohelpovercomebottlenecksinstudents’learningofeconomicsconcepts?

(f)Discipline­basedteachingexamples.Thispagecontainslinkstoacollectionofexamplesillustratinghowthepedagogicpracticecanbeusedineconomicscourses.Theexamplesprovideabridgebetweengeneralmodulecontentandtheactualday‐to‐dayteachingexperienceofeconomicsinstructors.Theymakethemodulerelevantandunderstandablebyillustratinghowtousethepedagogyinanactualclass.Eachexampleisintendedtobeself‐contained,providingfullinstructionsonhowtoimplementtheexample,alongwithanyrequiredmaterialsandteachingtips.Whencomplete,eachmodulewillcontainaminimumoften(10)examples,althoughweexpectthisnumbertogrowasStartingPointuserssubmitnewexamplestobepostedonthesite.

Ultimately,eachteachingmethodwillhaveacollectionofexamplesthatprovideabroadrangeofideasforusingthemethodineconomicscourses.Atemplatefordevelopingexamples/activitiesisusedtoensureuniformityandcompletenessofthematerial(e.g.handoutsandworksheets,instructions,instructornotes)andtoensurethatexamplescanbeeasilyfoundthroughtheuseofcommonwebsearchengines,aswellasthroughtheStartingPointsiteitself.Eachexampleincludesatitle,authorcontactinformation,abriefsummaryoftheexercise,contentandconceptsthatstudentsshouldlearnfromtheexercise,contextforuse(educationallevel,classsize,institutiontype,timeneededfortheexercise,backgroundskillsneededbystudents,etc),anarrativedescribingthemechanicsoftheexercise,materialsneededtoimplementtheexercise,teachingnotesaddressingcommonproblemsorexercise

10

extensionsandprovidingtips,formativeandsummativeassessmentactivities,andreferences.

(g)ReferencesandResources.Thissectionprovidesreferencestoresourcescitedthroughoutthemodule,aswellaslinkstootherresourcesrelatedtothemodule’sspecificteachingmethod.

5. StartingPointandExistingPedagogicalResourcesinEconomics

Surprisingly,thereisnosingleresourceforcollege‐leveleconomicsinstructorsinterestedinexploringexistingornewpedagogicaltechniquesintheircourses.Asaresult,mosteconomistspracticetheircraftinrelativeisolation.Theextenttowhichtechniquesandexamplesarepubliclydiscussedistypicallylimitedtoformalpresentationsatdisciplinaryconferences,refereedjournalarticles,andspecialbookvolumes.Althoughthereisalong‐standingtraditionofeconomicseducationandafewgeneralonlineresourcesonpedagogyavailabletoeconomicsinstructors,theseresourcesarewidelyscattered,limitingfurtheradoption.8Theresultisanunderutilizationofexistingresourcesandlittlecumulativeimpactonteachingpracticesinthediscipline.

Inaddition,currentlyavailableresourcestypicallystandinisolationfromotherdisciplinesandfromresearchonstudentlearning,furtherlimitingtheireffectiveness.Consequently,economistsareoftenunawareofeducationaldevelopmentswithintheirfield(oracrossdisciplines)andlackthedeepsenseofcumulativeknowledgebuildingthatcharacterizessomeSTEMdisciplines,inparticularphysicseducationresearch.StartingPointbringstogetherresearch‐basedpedagogicalresourcesforeconomicsinstructorsinapurposefulandorganizedmannerthatcomplementsexistingpedagogicalresourcesandallowseconomicsinstructorstosharesuccessfulexamplesofpedagogicalpracticewiththeirpeers.

Takingabroaderviewofstudentlearning.StartingPointpedagogicmodulestakeabroaderviewofpracticethanmostpedagogicalresourcesineconomics.Inadditiontopromotinglearningofeconomiccontentknowledge,pedagogiesfeaturedinStartingPointareexplicitlylinkedtoresearchonstudentlearning,suchasthatsummarizedinHowPeopleLearn(Bransford,Cocking,andBrown,2000).Forexample,themoduleonJust‐in‐TimeTeaching(JiTT)featuresadiscussionofhowthispedagogycanhelpuncoverandaddressstudentmis/preconceptions;themoduleoncontext‐richproblemslinksthispedagogicpracticetoresearchonknowledgetransfer;andthemoduleoninteractivelecturedemonstrationsillustrateshowthispedagogyintentionallybuildsstudents’metacognitiveskills.Eachoftheselearningchallenges–mis/preconceptions,transferoflearning,andmetacognition–playsacentralroleinlearningsciencesresearch.TheStartingPointmoduleshelptoinformeconomistsofthisresearchandhowitcanbeintentionallyusedtoproducedeepanddurablestudentlearning.

8See,forexample,theJournalofEconomicEducationanditsonlinesection,JEEOnline[http://www.heldref.org/pubs/jece/online‐accepted.html];ResourcesforEconomists[http://rfe.org/];theSocialScienceResearchNetwork’s(SSRN)EconomicsResearchNetworkEducator:Courses,CasesandTeachingAbstracts[http://ssrn.com/ern/index.html]andtheHigherEducationAcademy’s(HEA)EconomicsNetwork(UnitedKingdom)[http://www.economicsnetwork.ac.uk].

11

Learningfromotherdisciplines.StartingPointpedagogicmodulesalsocrossdisciplineboundaries,enablingeconomiceducatorstolearnfromresearchadvancesandpedagogicalinnovationsacrosstheacademy,whileatthesametimemakingitpossibleforeconomiststosharetheirowninsightswitheducatorsinotherfields,mostnotablywithregardtoclassroomexperimentsandtheuseofquantitativeassessmenttoolstocarryoutdiscipline‐basededucationresearch6. StartingPointBenefitsforEconomicsInstructors

WestartedthispaperbyarguingthateconomistsaremovingmoreslowlythantheircolleaguesinSTEMdisciplinesinadoptingandadaptingnewpedagogicalpracticesgroundedinbothclassroomandlearning‐sciencesresearch.Whythereluctancetoimplementnewteachinginnovations,evenwhenevidencesuggeststhatthenewpracticesarelikelytoenhancestudentlearning?Fromaneconomicperspective,adoptingnewteachingmethodsisacostlydecision.Ittakestimetolearnaboutnewpedagogies,adjustclassroomteachingpractices,andprepareactivitiesandassessmentsthatareconsistentwiththenewpractices.Thesemarginalcostsarerealandup‐frontandtakeawayfromotheralternativeactivities,suchasresearch.Atthesametime,theexpectedmarginalbenefits,intermsofstudentlearninggains(ignoringtheintrinsicbenefitsoflearningaboutpotentiallymoreeffectiveteachingstrategies)areuncertain,inthefutureandaccruetootherparties.Thus,itappearsthatformostpeople,theoddsarestackedagainstpedagogicalchangeunlessthemarginalcostofchangingteachingmethodscanbereducedortheexpectedmarginalbenefitincreased.

So,giventhelowprobabilityofchangingpedagogies(asillustratedbythediscipline’scontinuingrelianceonlecturemethods),whycometotheStartingPointsiteinthefirstplace?Onthecostside,StartingPointoffersaone‐stoppedagogicportal,savingbusyeconomicsinstructorsvaluabletimeinsearchingforinformationoneffectiveteachingpedagogiesandhigh‐qualityclassroomexamples.Forinstructorsseekingready‐to‐usematerialforaspecificpedagogictechniquethatcanbeincorporatedintotheirnextclass,theexamplepages–searchablebycontentarea–provideafullsetofresources,includingstudenthandoutsandinstructorguides,aswellasinformationabouttheappropriateclasssize,timeneededtocompletetheactivity,andlevelofprerequisiteknowledge.Forinstructorswhoareexploringalternativepedagogies,theStartingPointnavigationprovidesacommonformat(whatis?whyuse?howto?)thatreducesthelearningcurveassociatedwithfindingandevaluatingtheappropriatenessofawiderangeoftechniques.Thisstructure,testedandproveneffectivebySERC,hasledoverone‐thirdofallcollege‐levelgeoscienceinstructorstomakeuseofthepedagogicmodulesintheStartingPoint:TeachingEntry­LevelGeosciencepedagogicportal(Iverson2009).

Intermsofincreasingthemarginalbenefitofadoptingnewteachingmethods,theStartingPointsiteprovidesafocusedsetofpedagogicpracticesthathavebeenshowntobeeffectiveatenhancingstudentlearning.Thatisnotsurprising,giventhegroundingofthesepracticesinresearchfromthelearningsciences.Ofcourse,adoptingoradaptingthesepedagogiesforuseineconomicsinstructionprovidesnoguaranteeofincreasedstudentlearning;rather,adoptionofthesemethodsandassessmentofstudentlearningoutcomesprovidesadditionalopportunitiesforscholarshipandabetterunderstandingofwhen

12

thesepedagogiesaremosteffective.Inaddition,theopportunitytocontributepeer‐reviewedexamplestotheStartingPointsiteprovidesadditionalformsofscholarship.7. WhenWeBuildIt,WillThey(You)Come? It’sonethingtopointoutthebenefitsofStartingPointtopotentialusers,butquiteanothertogetusersto(a)actuallyvisitthesite,and(b)usetheresourceslocatedthere.InanattempttogaininsightaboutpotentialusageoftheStartingPointsite,PaulGrimes,oneoftwoexternalevaluatorsfortheStartingPointproject,conductedaweb‐basedsurveyinfall,2009withmultipleonlinecommunitiesofeconomiceducatorslikelytobeearlyadoptersofStartingPointresources.9Thesurveyfocusedoneconomicsinstructors’teachingpractices,familiaritywithteachingpedagogiesincludedintheStartingPointproject,opennesstopedagogicalexperimentation,andbarrierstoadoptingalternativepedagogicalpractices.The135respondentsareprimarilymale(61%),experienced(50%with15ormoreyearsteachingexperience,and36%with20ormoreyears),andholdpositionsatpublicinstitutions(70%)withawiderangeofadmissionstandards(16%exclusiveorhighlyselectiveand31%withopenadmissions).Asexpected,therespondentsareactivelyengagedinpedagogicreflection:26%frequentlydiscussedteachingmethodswithdepartmentalcolleaguesand37%hadattendedfiveormoreteachingworkshopsinthepastdecade. Consistentwithdiscipline‐widesurveysconductedoverthelastdecade(BeckerandWatts,2007),Grimes’surveyresultsindicatesignificantuseofinstructor‐centered,lecture‐basedteachingpractices.However,20%ofsurveyrespondentsreportedthattheyweredissatisfiedwiththeir“currentoverallapproachtoteachingundergraduateeconomics,”citingreasonssuchas“chalkandtalklosesmanymorestudentsthanitenthralls,”or“IsometimesquestionifwhatIamdoingisthebestway.”Thesurveyresultsalsorevealedastrikingdrop‐offwhenmovingfromknowledgeofspecificteachingtechniques,toclassroomexperimentation,tofulladoption.AsshowninTable1,respondentsreportedbeingfamiliarwithawiderangeofthesixteenpedagogiesincludedintheStartingPointproject.However,withtheexceptionofclassroomexperiments,adoptedby58%ofrespondents,notechniquewaswidelyusedbymorethanone‐halfoftherespondents.Overall,abouthalfofthesurveyrespondentsindicatedthattheyhadexperimentedwithdifferentpedagogiesduringthepastfiveyears.

9Theonlinecommunitiesinvitedtoparticipateinthesurveyincludedthetch‐econlistserv,NAEEchatlistserv,TeachingInnovationsProgram(TIP)participantlistserv,andEconomicsforTeachersblog.

13

Table1FamiliarityandUseofPedagogicPractices(135SurveyRespondents)

PedagogicPractice Familiar Experimented Adopted

ContextRichProblems 50% 33% 25%

Just‐In‐TimeTeaching 26% 10% 4%

QuantitativeWriting 20% 14% 11%

TeachingwithCases 74% 40% 22%

CooperativeLearning 73% 61% 47%

ClassroomExperiments 93% 77% 58%

ComputerSimulations 60% 35% 14%

PersonalResponseSystems 59% 21% 12%

GuidedInquiry 27% 11% 6%

StudentResearch 68% 50% 36%

ServiceLearning 51% 11% 5%

SpreadsheetsAcrosstheCurriculum

11% 6% 2%

DocumentedProblemSolving 14% 8% 5%

Media‐basedTeaching 45% 34% 26%

InteractiveLecturers 50% 34% 31%

InterdisciplinaryApproaches 45% 23% 17% ThesurveyresultssuggestthatasignificantnumberofeconomistsareopentopedagogicalchangesintheirclassroomandcouldthereforebenefitfromtheresourcesprovidedattheStartingPointsite.Sowhydon’tmoreinstructorsactuallyadoptoneormoreoftheseinnovativepedagogicalpracticesthathavebeenshowntoimprovestudentlearning?Asnotedinthelastsection,adoptingnewpedagogicalpracticesiscostly.Echoingthatsentiment,nearly40%ofsurveyrespondentsbelievethatsignificantbarriersexistforeconomiststointegratealternativepedagogiesintheirclassrooms.Mostcitedamongthosebarriers:(1)theopportunitycostoftimetolearnandadopt,(2)perceivedtrade‐offswithtopiccoverage,(3)inertia,(4)lackofincentivesforchange,and(5)textbookandothercoursematerialsnotreadilyadaptabletochangesinpedagogy.However,aswealsopointedoutintheprevioussection,oneoftheprimaryobjectivesoftheStartingPointsiteistoreduceinstructors’costsassociatedwithlearninghowtoimplementeffectivenewteachingpracticesintheireconomicscourses,therebyloweringthemarginalcostofadoption.

14

AsshowninTable2,surveyrespondentsciteawiderangeofsourcesfromwhichtheylearnaboutalternativeteachingmethods.Perhapsnotsurprisingly,amajorityidentifiedcolleaguesintheirdiscipline(67%),disciplinaryworkshops(62%),anddisciplinaryprofessionalconferences(51%)assourcesofinformationaboutnewpedagogicpractices.Interestingly,whilerespondentsidentifieddisciplinaryworkshops(27%)andtheircolleagues(21%)asthemostbeneficialsourcesofinformationonalternativeteachingmethods,theyalsorankedgeneralteachingandeducationconferences(15%)higherthandisciplinaryprofessionalconferences(8%)asthebestsourcesofinnovativepedagogicalinformation.

Onenotablechallengeforthisprojectisthefindingthatonly39%ofrespondentsindicatedthattheyusedtheinternetandweb‐basedsearchesforinformationonpedagogicalmethods,withonly5%indicatingthattheywerethemostbeneficialsource.Bybringingtogetherabroadsetofpedagogicalresourcesinoneweb‐basedportal,webelievethattheStartingPointsitecanchangethis.Creatingaone‐stopweb‐basedsiteforhigh‐qualitypedagogicalinformationwillreducethecostoflocatingandsortingthroughmaterialsthatarecurrentlyscatteredacrossvarioussites,enhancingtheprobabilityofadoption.Thesurveyresultssuggestthatthisismorethanwishfulthinking;whenaskeddirectly,68%ofrespondentsindicatedthattheywoulddefinitelyvisittheStartingPointsiteand27%indicatedadesiretocontributeteachingexamplestothesite.

Table2SourcesofInformationonAlternativeTeachingMethods

(135SurveyRespondents)

SourceNormalSource

MostBeneficial

ColleaguesinDiscipline 67% 21%

ColleaguesinOtherDisciplines 49% 6%

InternetandWeb‐basedSearches 39% 5%

Internet‐basedDiscussionGroups 25% 1%

DisciplinaryWorkshops 62% 27%

DisciplinaryProfessionalConferences 51% 8%

TeachingandEducationConferences 33% 15%

DisciplinaryProfessionalJournals 31% 2%

InterdisciplinaryTeachingandEducationJournals 21% 2%

ImpossibletoSay;SourcesareInterconnected 7%

15

8. WaystoContributetoStartingPoint

TheStartingPointprojectseekstoengagethecommunityofeconomicseducatorsandpromotethedevelopmentofateachingcommonsinmultipleways.WeneedyourhelptomakeStartingPointadynamicresourcethatcontinuestoprovidevaluetoeconomicsinstructors.

Feedbackonmodulecontent.Inparticular,weseekfeedbackonmodulecontent.Thecommunityofeconomicscholarshasmuchtocontributetothedevelopmentofexistingpedagogicmodulesandwewanttoengagetheirexpertise.Eachmoduleincludesaformthatallowsvisitorstothesitetoprovideconstructivefeedbackandsuggestionsforenhancement.

Examplesubmission.WearealsointerestedinhavinginstructorssharetheirexpertisethroughthesubmissionofexamplesillustratingtheuseofteachingstrategiesincludedintheStartingPointsite.Engaginginthescholarshipofteachingandlearningbymakingtheprivateeffortsoffacultymorepublicwillmovethedisciplinemorequicklyawayfromthedominanceofthelecturemodeofteaching.Toensurethequalityandadaptabilityofsubmittedexamples,contributorswillbeaskedtoprovideinformationforeachoftheexamplecomponentsdescribedaboveusinganonlineform.ExamplesubmissionswillbereviewedbeforebeingacceptedforinclusionontheStartingPointsite.

Ideasfornewmodules.TheStartingPointprojectisscheduledtohave16pedagogicmodulesdevelopeduponcompletion.Clearly,thisisnotanexhaustivelistofpotentialmodulesandweencouragethecommunityofscholarsineconomicseducationtosubmitideasfornewmodules.ThisexpansionofpotentialmodulesshouldnotbelimitedtotechniqueswellknownineconomicsorintheU.S.Forexample,concepttestsarewelldevelopedinavarietyofSTEMdisciplinesbutarelargelyunknownineconomics;similarly,thetopicofthresholdconceptsiswidelydiscussedintheUnitedKingdom,butremainsaminortopicofinterestintheU.S.9. Summary

StartingPointwillserveasatoolforbuildinganinterdisciplinarycommunityofteachingscholars,althoughtheprimaryfocuswillbeoneconomics.TheinterdisciplinaryfocusofStartingPointanditsdevelopmentarefeaturesofthisprojectthatpromisetostimulatebroaddisseminationofpedagogicalinnovationsandcreatenewinterdisciplinarydialoguesonpedagogicalresearch,assessmentprocedures,andstudentknowledge‐building.Nootherresourceofthistypeiscurrentlyavailabletoeconomists.WebelievethateconomistscanbenefitfromthevaluableinsightsgainedfromdecadesofeducationalresearchintraditionalSTEMfields,whichoftenfocusesonstudentlearningchallengesthatarecommonacrossawidevarietyofdisciplines.

Asindicatedintheintroduction,wehopetoachievefourprimaryobjectivesthroughthedevelopmentandimplementationofStartingPoint.

• Creatingnewlearningmaterialsandintroducinginnovativeteaching

strategies.AkeycontributionofthisprojectisthedevelopmentofninenewpedagogicalmodulesandenhancementofsevenexistingmodulesinSERC’spedagogiclibrary.Havingbothgeneralknowledgeofeffectiveteachingpedagogies

16

andanextensivecollectionofdiscipline‐specificexamplesavailableinoneweb‐basedresourcewilldraweconomiststotheStartingPointsiteandreducethetimecostofintegratingnewteachingmethodsintheircourses.

• Developingfacultyexpertise.StartingPointwillbroadeneconomists’knowledgeofeffectiveteachingpracticesandencourageadaptationandimplementationofteachinginnovationsintheirowncourses.Inaddition,StartingPointwillmakeeconomistsmoreawareoffundamentalresearchfindingsfromthelearningsciencesandthewaythatSTEMresearchersintentionallylinkbothdiscipline‐basededucationalresearchandpedagogicalinnovationstothesefindingstoproduceacumulativeknowledgebaseofpedagogicalcontentknowledge,effectiveteachingpractices,andcurricularreform.

• Implementingeducationalinnovations.Disseminationofeffective,research‐basedteachingpracticesandimplementationofthesepracticesbyeconomistsisattheheartoftheStartingPointproject.Ouraimistomakeiteasierforeconomicsfacultytolearnaboutandimplementteachingstrategiesthatpreviousresearchhasshowntobeeffectiveandtoencourageadoptionofthesestrategies.Wehopetospurongoingeducationalinnovationineconomics,atboththeindividualanddisciplinelevel,withthegoalofmovingthedistributionofteachingpracticesinthefieldawayfrom“chalkandtalk”andtowardmore“active‐student‐engagement.”

• Buildingacommunityofteacher­scholars.StartingPointwillserveasavaluablevehicleforpromotingscholarlyteachingandscholarshiponteachingandlearningbyprovidinganoutletforeducatorstosharediscipline‐specificexamples.AssessmentoftheeffectivenessoftheSERCmodulesystemsuggeststhatithassuccessfullyengageduserswhoultimatelycontributeadditionalexamplestopedagogicalmodules.

Thelong‐termgoalforthisprojectistoimprovestudentlearningineconomicsthrough

recognitionandimplementationofeffective,research‐basedteachingmethodsdrawnfrombothinsideandoutsidetheeconomicsdiscipline.Inaddition,webelievethatincreasedknowledgeandadoptionofeducationalinnovationswillstimulateincreasedpedagogicalassessment.References Becker, W.E. and M. Watts. 2007. A Little More Than Chalk and Talk: Results from a Third

National Survey of Teaching Methods in Undergraduate Economics Courses. Available at: http://mypage.iu.edu/~beckerw/working_papers.htm

_____. 2001. Teaching Economics at the Start of the 21st Century: Still Chalk and Talk. American Economic Review 91 (May): 446-452.

_____ (eds.). 1998a. Teaching Economics to Undergraduates – Alternatives to Chalk and Talk. Northampton MA: Edward Elgar.

_____. 1998b. Teaching Economics: What Was, Is, and Could Be in W. Becker and M. Watts, Teaching Economics to Undergraduates – Alternatives to Chalk and Talk. Northampton MA: Edward Elgar.

17

_____. 1997. Teaching Economics to Undergraduates. Journal of Economic Literature 35 (September): 1347-73.

_____. 1996. Chalk and talk: A National Survey on Teaching Undergraduate Economics. American Economic Review 86 (May): 448-53.

Benzing, C., and P. Christ. 1997. A Survey of Teaching Methods Among Economics Faculty. Journal of Economic Education 28, (Spring): 182-88.

Bransford, J. D.; Brown, A. L. and Cocking, Rodney R. (eds.). 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School. Washington DC: National Academies Press.

Colander, David and KimMarie McGoldrick. 2010. “The Economics Major and a Liberal Education: The Teagle Report.” In Colander and McGoldrick. Eds. Educating Economists: The Teagle Discussion on Reevaluating the Undergraduate Economics Major. Northampton MA: Edward Elgar.

Heller, Patricia, Ronald Keith, and Scott Anderson. 1992. Teaching problem solving through cooperative grouping. Part 1: Group versus individual problem solving. American Journal of Physics 60(7):627-636.

Huber. M.T. and P. Hutchings. Building the Teaching Commons. 2005. Carnegie Perspectives (October). The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. http://www.carnegiefoundation.org/perspectives/sub.asp?key=245&subkey=800. Accessed May 1, 2007.

Huber. M.T. and P. Hutchings. 2005. The Advancement of Learning: Building the Teaching Commons. Hoboken NJ: Jossey-Bass.

Iverson, Ellen “Report of Email Poll” Science Education Resource Center http://serc.carleton.edu/serc/evaluation.html Accessed October 20, 2009.

Mazur, Eric. 1997. Peer Instruction: A User's Manual, Prentice Hall Series in Educational Innovation. Upper Saddle River NJ: Prentice Hall.

Siegfried, J.J., P. Saunders, E. Stinar, and H. Zhang. 1996. How is Introductory Economics Taught in America? Economic Inquiry 34, (January): 182-92.

Simkins, Scott P., and Mark H. Maier (2009) Just in Time Teaching: Across the Disciplines and Across the Academy, Sterling VA: Stylus Press/National Teaching and Learning Forum.

Simkins, S. and M. Maier. (2008) Learning from Physics Education Research: Lessons for Economics Education. Working paper. Available at: http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1151430

Simkins, Scott P. & Maier, M. H. (2004). Using Just-in-Time Teaching Techniques in the Principles of Economics Course. Social Science Computer Review, 22(4), 444–456

Sokoloff, D. R., and R. K. Thornton. 1997. Using Interactive Lecture Demonstrations to Create an Active Learning Environment. Physics Teacher 35 (6):340-347.