Post on 05-Apr-2018
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SPECIES DIVERSITY AND DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS OF TREES IN THE
UNIVERSITY OF EASTERN PHILIPPINES, UNIVERSITY TOWN,
CATARMAN NORTHERN SAMAR
A thesis Proposal
Presented to the Faculty
of the College of Science
University of Eastern Philippines
University Town, Catarman Northern Samar
In Partial fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree
Master of Science in Biological Sciences (MSBio.Sci)
Florencio Peru Mahinay
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CHAPTER I
THE PROBLEM AND ITS BACKGROUND
Introduction
Recent thrust on biodiversity conservation necessitates a comprehensive knowledge on
the flora, their distribution and abundance which are important prerequisites for management of
protected areas and reserve forests. Tropical forests often are referred to as one of the most
species-diverse terrestrial ecosystems. Their immense biodiversity generates a variety of natural
resources which help sustain the livelihood of local communities. (Mishra, 1968; Khan et al.
1977; Kumar et al., 2002)
However, many tropical forests are under great anthropogenic pressure and require
management intervention to maintain the overall biodiversity, productivity and sustainability
Kumar et al., (2002).
Understanding species diversity and distribution patterns is important for helping
managers evaluate the complexity and resources of these forests. Trees form the major structural
and functional basis of tropical forest ecosystems and can serve as robust indicators of changes
and stressors at the landscape scale. (Mishra, 1968).
University of Eastern Philippines (U.E.P) is the only State University in the province of
Northern Samar. It was created by virtue of Republic Act 4136 (R.A. 4136). It is located in the
Northeastern part of Catarman, Northern Samar.
This institution has a total land area of 419 hectares which was a diversity of resources of
Flora particularly trees species several decades. At present the rich and bounty resources of this
university turn to scare due to physical and structural development. Various species of trees
species vanished and the green and healthy environment was adversely affected.
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The land utilization record of the university indicated that 22.9 percent or 95.95 hectares
of land were forest reserve and water shed areas 16.8 percept or 70.35 hectares coconut land and
14 percent or 58.7 hectares Riceland, 11.5 percent utilized as built areas and 9 percent for
experimental areas. However, from the period the university was established until today, no
studies have been conducted to determine the species diversity and distribution patterns of trees.
Hence this study.
Statement of the Problem
This study will focus on tree species composition and population structure which will be
useful as a source of ecological information, analyzing distribution and abundance pattern of tree
species and the researcher will present empirical data on diversity of tree species in the in the
University of Eastern Philippines. Specifically this study will attempts to:
1). What are the different species of trees growing in the University of Eastern Philippines,
Catarman Northern Samar?
2). What are the community structure of trees species in terms of density, frequency, dominance
and importance value.
3. What are the environmental parameters in terms of soil and water salinity, soil and water
temperature, soil and water pH, type of substrate?
4). What are the distribution pattern of species of trees in the study area?
5). What is the species diversity index of trees species in the study area?
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Objectives of the Study
This thesis proposal on the species diversity and distribution patterns of trees species will
be conducted in the University of Eastern Philippines. Specifically this study will aim to:
1). Identify the trees species in the sampling sites.
2). Determine the community structure of trees species in terms of density, frequency,
dominance and importance value.
3). Determine the environmental parameters in terms of soil and water salinity, soil and
water temperature, soil and water pH, type of substrate.
4). Identify the distribution pattern of species of trees in the study area.
5). Measure the species diversity index of trees using the Shannon-Weiner function.
Significance of the Study
This study will be conducted to know and identify the species diversity and distribution
patterns of trees growing in the University of Eastern Philippines, Catarman Northern Samar.
The findings of this study will be significant in providing information to students,
teachers, to the people living in the community and to the researchers who wanted to know and
study the species diversity and distribution patterns of trees species in the University of Eastern
Philippines.
This will serve as a reference to any one who wanted to conduct a similar research study.
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Scope and Limitations of the Study
The scope of this thesis proposal will be on the species diversity and distribution patterns
of tree species which will be conducted in the University of Eastern Philippines, Catarman
Northern Samar.
This will focus in achieving the set of objectives of the study. Other factors which are
not included on the set of objectives of the study will not be included. The entire area of the
University of Eastern Philippines will be divided into four sampling sites namely; Zone I, Zone
II, Zone III, and Zone IV. Zone I will be comprises the area from the white beach (Boundary of
the municipality of Mondragon) up to sunrise village. Zone II, will be comprises the seaside
areas in the north and along the national highway toward the boundary of Cawayan. Zone III will
be comprises the hillside, bukid tabor, the scout city and the forest reserved to the south and
Zone IV will include the campus area which will be comprises the school and academic sites.
Only tree species in public places, along the roads and on wayside will be included in the
survey. Tress species within the residential areas will not be included. Photo documentation will
be done to facilitate plant identification. Actual survey will be conducted on December 2011 to
February 2012. It is limited only to the identified sites for reasons of accessibility, time and
financial constraints.
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Definition of Terms
The following terms will be defined theoretically and operationally for purposes of
clearer understanding of important terms in this study.
Clumped distribution is the most common type of dispersion found in nature. In
clumped distribution, the distance between neighboring individuals is minimized. This type of
distribution is found in environments that are characterized by patchy resources. Clumped
distribution is the most common type of dispersion found in nature because animals need certain
resources to survive, and when these resources become rare during certain parts of the year
animals tend to clump together around these crucial resources. Individuals might be clustered
together in an area due to social factors such as selfish herds and family groups. Organisms that
usually serve as prey form clumped distributions in areas where they can hide and detect
predators easily(Creel et.al, 1995; and Purvis, et.al., 2000). In this study, the same definition will
be used.
Collection, as used in this study, this will refer to the act of gathering trees species
present in the study area, particularly representative samples of the trees species.
Density refers to the number of individual of species occurs in an area sampled (Smith
1986). In this study this will refer to the number of individual trees sampled in a 4,000 square
meter area.
Diversity refers to a variety, kind or species of plant or animals in an area. In this
study, this will refer to the different trees species in the study area.
Frequency refers to the number of sampled species occur in a transect intervals (Smith
1986). In this study this refers to the number of trees species sampled in a 200 transect intervals.
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Herbarium Preparation refers to the collection of plants or part of plant which has
been dried, usually flattened under moderate pressure, preserved and pasted on sheets with an
accompanying field label giving the necessary information (Serrano and Lastimosa, 1987). In
this study, the same definition will be used.
Identification as used in this study, this will be the act of recognizing the trees species
which will collected based on a previously known trees species.
Line Intercept or Line Transect Method refers to one dimensional and most useful
for sampling shrubs stands and woody under story of the forest. It consists of taking observation
on a line or lines out randomly over the study area (Smith, 1986). In this study, the same
definition will be used.
Physical factors refer to the parameters such as soil temperature, soil pH, and type of
soil that affect the species of trees in the study area.
Random distribution Random distribution, also known as unpredictable spacing, is the
least common form of distribution in nature and occurs when the members of a given species are
found in homogeneous environments in which the position of each individual is independent of
the other individuals: they neither attract nor repel one another. Random distribution is rare in
nature as biotic factors, such as the interactions with neighboring individuals, and abiotic factors,
such as climate or soil conditions, generally cause organisms to be either clustered or spread
apart (Vliet, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Species_distribution#cite_note-4). Random distribution
usually occurs in habitats where environmental conditions and resources are consistent. This
pattern of dispersion is characterized by the lack of any strong social interactions between
species (Avila, 1995).In this study, the same definition will be used.
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Regular or Uniform distribution Less common than clumped distribution, uniform
distribution, also known as even distribution, is evenly spaced. Uniform distributions are found
in populations in which the distance between neighboring individuals is maximized. The need to
maximize the space between individuals generally arises from competition for a resource such as
moisture or nutrients, or as a result of direct social interactions between individuals within the
population, such as territoriality (Mauseth, 2008). In this study, the same definition will be used.
Species is a group of individuals which is naturally reproductively isolated from other
groups. As used in this study, it will refer to the grass species present in the study area.
Species distribution is the manner in which a biological taxon is spatially arranged
Species distribution is not to be confused with dispersal, which is the movement of individuals
away from their area of origin or from centers of high population density. The pattern of
distribution is not permanent for each species. Distribution patterns can change seasonally, in
response to the availability of resources, and also depending on the scale at which they are
viewed. Dispersion usually takes place at the time of reproduction. Populations within a species
are translocated through many methods, including dispersal by people, wind, water and animals.
(Wallace, 1876). In this study, the same definition will be used.
Species Diversity refers to the variety of living species. In this study, it will refer to
variety of living species of trees in the study area and will be measured by using the Shannon-
Wiener index formula.
Tree refers to a plant with a single woody stem capable of reaching heights of at least 6-
8m (20-25ft) at maturity (Smith, 1986). In this study, the same definition will be used.
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=James_Mauseth&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_dispersalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center_of_originhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Wallacehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Wallacehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center_of_originhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_dispersalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=James_Mauseth&action=edit&redlink=18/2/2019 Species Diversity of Trees in UEP(Final Proposal)
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CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES
Related Literature
According to Kraner and Kozlowski (1960) trees are classified into a variety of ways but
are most common divided into two groups on the basis of their reproduction. The gymnosperms
(meaning naked seeds), evolutionary the more primitive group, bear seeds are often aggregated
into cones. The gymnosperms are often referred to a conifers, evergreens, needle-bearing trees
or softwoods. Some gymnosperms also have wood of considerable hardness.
The other major groups of trees are the angiosperms, have flowers and bear their seeds
enclosed in a fruit, which is the ripened ovary of a flower. Angiospermous trees are sometimes
referred to as deciduous (those which lose their leaves for part of the year) or hardwoods. Not all
Angiospermous trees are deciduous, however, many species in the genus Eucalyptus are
evergreen, and some flowering trees have wood that is relatively soft.
According to Petriules (1972) species diversity has been documented at a global level,
with an observed gradient of increasing diversity from the poles to equator. Further, it is
observed that the diversity usually decreases as we move up the slopes of mountain from the
base. A umber of hypotheses have been involved to explain the observed pattern in the
distribution of biological species diversity. Proponents of the theory of spatial heterogeneity
claimed that there might be a general increases in the environmental complexity as one proceeds
towards the tropics. In tropics, it is considered that spatial heterogeneity is high and therefore
species accommodation themselves in the myriad of niches available to them. Competitive
exclusion theory claims that the competitions exclude the niches available to them. Competitive
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exclusion theory claims that competitions exclude the niches of the species and therefore more
species could be accommodated in small space. This theory predicts that tropical species will be
more highly evolved and posses finer adaptations than those of temperature species, due to the
more directed mortality and the increased importance of competitive interactions.
According to Smith, R.L. (1986) Diversity Indexes assumes that the more abundant a
species is the more important it is to the community. But the more abundant species are not
necessarily the most important or the most influential. In communities embracing organisms
possessing a wide range of sizes, the importance of fewer but larger individuals may be
underestimated and the more common species are weighted more heavily than the many rare
species. Thus, one of the distinctive failures of the indexes is the inability to distinguish between
the abundant and the importance species. Nevertheless, diversity indexes do provide one measure
for community comparisons.
According to Jaques (1946) moisture, temperature, and nutrient conditions are the most
important environmental factors that will affects the establishment and growth of tree species.
Tree species tolerate different environmental conditions. Trees grow more slowly, attain smaller
dimensions, and are often more widely spaced in cold or arid regions. Cold temperature, short
growing seasons, and heavy snows prevent the growth of trees at high level elevations and high
altitudes. Moisture stress typically limits tree growth at lower timberlines, such as those adjacent
to grasslands or desert.
According to the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) among the
high value species of trees in the area the almacitga orAgathis philillinensis and the dipterocarp
species Shorea polita and Vatica mangahapoi. These trees are threatened due to over logging
The world famous Vanda sanderiana or waling-waling and the rattan species Plectocomia
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elmiriusedto abound in the primary forests of Mt. Apo. However these species can no longer be
found in their natural habitat because of over collection.
Species distribution
Species distribution is the manner in which a biological taxon is spatially arranged
Species distribution is not to be confused with dispersal, which is the movement of individuals
away from their area of origin or from centers of high population density. A similar concept is
the species range. A species range is often represented with a species range map. Biogeographers
try to understand the factors determining a species' distribution. The pattern of distribution is not
permanent for each species. Distribution patterns can change seasonally, in response to the
availability of resources, and also depending on the scale at which they are viewed. Dispersion
usually takes place at the time of reproduction. Populations within a species are translocated
through many methods, including dispersal by people, wind, water and animals. People are one
of the largest distributors due to the current trends in globalization and the expanse of the
transportation industry. For example, large tankers often fill their ballasts with water at one port
and empty them in another, causing a wider distribution of aquatic species.
Clumped distribution
Clumped distribution is the most common type of dispersion found in nature. In
clumped distribution, the distance between neighboring individuals is minimized. This type of
distribution is found in environments that are characterized by patchy resources. Clumped
distribution is the most common type of dispersion found in nature because animals need certain
resources to survive, and when these resources become rare during certain parts of the year
animals tend to clump together around these crucial resources. Individuals might be clustered
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_dispersalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center_of_originhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center_of_originhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_dispersalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxon8/2/2019 Species Diversity of Trees in UEP(Final Proposal)
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together in an area due to social factors such as selfish herds and family groups. Organisms that
usually serve as prey form clumped distributions in areas where they can hide and detect
predators easily.
Other causes of clumped distributions are the inability of offspring to independently
move from their habitat. This is seen in juvenile animals that are immobile and strongly
dependent upon parental care. For example, the bald eagle's nest of eaglets exhibits a clumped
species distribution because all the offspring are in a small subset of a survey area before they
learn to fly. Clumped distribution can be beneficial to the individuals in that group. However, in
some herbivore cases, such as cows and wildebeests, the vegetation around them can suffer
especially if animals target one plane in particular.
Clumped distribution in species acts as a mechanism against predation as well as an
efficient mechanism to trap or corner prey. African wild dogs,Lycaon pictus, use the technique
of communal hunting to increase their success rate at catching prey. It has been shown that larger
packs of African wild dogs tend to have a greater number of successful kills. A prime example of
clumped distribution due to patchy resources is the wildlife in Africa during the dry season;
lions, hyenas, giraffes, elephants, gazelles, and many more animals are clumped by small water
sources that are present in the severe dry season Creel, N.M. and S. (1995). It has also been
observed that extinct and threatened species are more likely to be clumped in their distribution
on a phylogeny. The reasoning behind this is that they share traits that increase vulnerability to
extinction because related taxa are often located within the same broad geographical or habitat
types where human-induced threats are concentrated. Using recently developed complete
phylogenies for mammalian carnivores and primates it has been shown that the majority of
instances threatened species are far from randomly distributed among taxa and phylogenetic
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clades and display clumped distribution Purvis A, Agapowe P-M, Gittleman JL & Mace GM
(2000).
Regular or Uniform distribution
Less common than clumped distribution, uniform distribution, also known as even
distribution, is evenly spaced. Uniform distributions are found in populations in which the
distance between neighboring individuals is maximized. The need to maximize the space
between individuals generally arises from competition for a resource such as moisture or
nutrients, or as a result of direct social interactions between individuals within the population,
such as territoriality. For example, penguins often exhibit uniform spacing by aggressively
defending their territory among their neighbors. Plants also exhibit uniform distributions, like the
creosote bushes in the southwestern region of the United States. Salvia leucophylla is a species in
California that naturally grows in uniform spacing. This flower releases chemicals called
terpenes which inhibit the growth of other plants around it and results in uniform distribution
Mauseth, James (2008). This is an example of allelopathy, which is the release of chemicals
from plant parts by leaching, root exudation, volatilization, residue decomposition and other
processes. Allelopathy can have beneficial, harmful, or neutral effects on surrounding organisms
Some allelochemicals even have selective affects on surrounding organisms; for example, the
tree species Leucaena leucocephala exudes a chemical that inhibits the growth of other plants but
not those of its own species, and thus can affect the distribution of specific rival species.
Allelopathy usually results in uniform distributions, and its potential to suppress weeds is being
researched Fergusen, J.J; Rathinasabapathi, B (2003). Farming and agricultural practices often
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cladehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salviahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salvia_leucophyllahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terpeneshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=James_Mauseth&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allelopathyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leucaena_leucocephalahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leucaena_leucocephalahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allelopathyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=James_Mauseth&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terpeneshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salvia_leucophyllahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salviahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clade8/2/2019 Species Diversity of Trees in UEP(Final Proposal)
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create uniform distribution in areas where it would not previously exist, for example, orange
trees growing in rows on a plantation.
Random distribution
Random distribution, also known as unpredictable spacing is the least common form of
distribution in nature and occurs when the members of a given species are found in
homogeneous environments in which the position of each individual is independent of the other
individuals: they neither attract nor repel one another. Random distribution is rare in nature as
biotic factors, such as the interactions with neighboring individuals, and abiotic factors, such as
climate or soil conditions, generally cause organisms to be either clustered or spread apart
Vliet,Kent. Random distribution usually occurs in habitats where environmental conditions and
resources are consistent. This pattern of dispersion is characterized by the lack of any strong
social interactions between species Avila, Vernon L (1995). For example; when dandelion seeds
are dispersed by wind, random distribution will often occur as the seedlings land in random
places determined by uncontrollable factors. Tropical fig trees exhibit random distribution as
well because of wind pollination. In addition to tropical fig trees and dandelion seeds, oyster
larvae can travel hundreds of kilometers powered by sea currents, which causes random
distribution when the larvae land in random places. Although random is thought to be
unpredictable, it is the only dispersion that has a mathematical equation to represent it. This is
due to the individualistic characteristics of random dispersion based on the idea that every
species has equal opportunity and access to resources.
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Species Distribution Model
Species distribution can now be potentially predicted based on pattern of biodiversity at
spatial scales. A general hierarchical model can integrate disturbance, dispersal and population
dynamics. Based on factors of dispersal, disturbance, resources limiting climate, and other
species distribution, predictions of species distribution can create a bioclimate range, or
bioclimate envelope. The envelope can range from a local to a global scale or a density
independence to density dependence. The hierarchical model takes into consideration of
requirements and impacts or resources as well as local extinctions in disturbance factors. Models
can integrate the dispersal/migration model, the disturbance model, and abundance model.
SDM's can be used to assess climate change impacts and conservation management issues.
Species distribution models include, presence/absence models, the dispersal/migration models
disturbance models, and abundance models. A prevalent way of creating predicted distribution
maps for different species is to reclassify a land cover layer depending on whether or not the
species in question would be predicted to habit each cover type. This simple SDM is often
modified through the use of range data or ancillary information- such as elevation or water
distance.
Recent studies have indicated that the grid size used can have an effect on the output of
these species distribution models (http://www.uvm.edu/~ebuford/MB_species1.html) . The
standard 50x50 km grid size can select up to 2.89 times more area than when modeled with a 1x1
km grid for the same specie. This has several effects on the species conservation planning under
climate change predictions (global climate models- which are frequently used in the creation of
species distribution models- usually consists of 50100 km size grids) which could lead to over-
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prediction of future ranges in species distribution modeling. This can result in the
misidentification of protected areas intended for a species future habitat.
Abiotic and Biotic factors
The distribution of species into clumped, uniform, or random depends on different abiotic
and biotic factors. Any non-living chemical or physical factor in the environment is considered
an abiotic factor. There are three main types of abiotic factors: climatic factors consist of
sunlight, atmosphere, humidity, temperature, and salinity; edaphic factors are abiotic factors
regarding soil, such as the coarseness of soil, local geology, soil pH, and aeration; and social
factors include land use and water availability. An example of the effects of abiotic factors on
species distribution can be seen in drier areas, where most individuals of a species will gather
around water sources, forming a clumped distribution.
Biotic factors, such as predation, disease, and competition for resources such as food,
water, and mates, can also affect how a species is distributed. A biotic factor is any behavior of
an organism that affects another organism, such as a predator consuming its prey. For example
biotic factors in a quails environment would include their prey (insects and seeds), competition
from other quail, and their predators, such as the coyote (http://www.biology-
online.org/dictionary/Biotic_factor) . An advantage of a herd, community, or other clumped
distribution allows a population to detect predators earlier, at a greater distance, and potentially
mount an effective defense. Due to limited resources, populations may be evenly distributed to
minimize competition, (Campbell, Reece. Biology. Eight edition) as is found in forests, where
competition for sunlight produces an even distribution of trees (http://www.biology-
online.org/dictionary/Abiotic_factor)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abiotichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biotic_factorshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edaphichttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Biotic_factorhttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Biotic_factorhttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Abiotic_factorhttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Abiotic_factorhttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Abiotic_factorhttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Abiotic_factorhttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Biotic_factorhttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Biotic_factorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edaphichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biotic_factorshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abiotic8/2/2019 Species Diversity of Trees in UEP(Final Proposal)
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Statistical determination of distribution patterns
There are various ways to determine the distribution pattern of species. The Clark-Evans
nearest neighbor method can be used to determine if a distribution is clumped, uniform or
random Blackith, R. E. (1958). To utilize the Clark-Evans nearest neighbor method, researchers
examine a population of a single species. The distance of an individual to its nearest neighbor is
recorded for each individual in the sample. For two individual that are each other's nearest
neighbor, the distance is recorded twice, once for each individual. To receive accurate results, it
is suggested that the number of distance measurements is at least 50. The average distance
between nearest neighbors is compared to the expected distance in the case of random
distribution to give the ratio:
If this ratio (R) is equal to 1, then the population is randomly dispersed. If R is
significantly greater than 1, the population is evenly dispersed. Lastly, if R is significantly less
than 1, the population is clumped. Statistical tests (such as t-test, chi squared, etc.) can then be
used to determine whether R is significantly different from 1.
The Variance/Mean ratio method focuses mainly on determining whether a species fits a
randomly spaced distribution, but can also be used as evidence for either an even or clumped
distribution Banerjee, B. (1976). To utilize the Variance/Mean ratio method, data is collected
from several random samples of a given population. In this analysis, it is imperative that data
from at least 50 sample plots is considered. The number of individuals present in each sample is
compared to the expected counts in the case of random distribution. The expected distribution
can be found using Poisson distribution. If the variance/mean ratio is equal to 1, the population is
found to be randomly distributed. If it is significantly greater than 1, the population is found to
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be clumped distribution. Finally, if the ratio is significantly less than 1, the population is found to
be evenly distributed. Typical statistical tests used to find the significance of the variance/mean
ratio include Student's t-test and chi squared.
However, many researchers believe that species distribution models based on statistica
analysis, without including ecological models and theories, are too incomplete for prediction
Instead of conclusions based on presence-absence data, probabilities that convey the likelihood a
species will occupy a given area are more preferred because these models include an estimate of
confidence in the likelihood of the species being present/absent. Additionally, they are also more
valuable than data collected based on simple presence or absence because models based on
probability allow the formation of spatial maps that indicates how likely a species is to be found
in a particular area. Similar areas can then be compared to see how likely it is that a species will
occur there also; this leads to a relationship between habitat suitability and species occurrence
Ormerod, S.J.; Vaughan, I.P. (2005).
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Related Studies
In the study of Muralis et.al (2000) indicates that the spatial variety of trees was
high and similarly among the species in the adjacent plots was low, suggesting that the spatial
heterogeneity is influencing the pattern of diversity of trees species. The degraded forest, which
is considered as shrubs and tree savanna of the Anogeissus chloroxylon Acacia series, is highly
diverse, recording over 59 tree and 119 shrubs species. Trees species similarity index among
quadrats in the forest is less than 0.02, indicating high diversity in trees species within limited
areas of the sample conversely, the shrubs species are far more similar than the trees species
when the two plots are compared. The number of stem >1cm D13H observed in the sampled plot
(7844/ha) is high, further reinforcing that the area is rich in species diversity of mean and
standard deviations of adjacent plots of the focal plot was high, indicating that the species-rich
patches in the forests are likely to associate with other species rich patches. The study is based on
30 quadrats of 25mX25m laid at 1km interval over the state forest.
According to Acharya,B.K. et.al (2010) tree species distribution has been investigated
along 45 km of line transects in the tropical rain forest of the Dja Fauna Reserve in Cameroon.
The spatial patterns were expressed by the probabilities that two trees are conspecific according
to the distance separating them, providing information on the degree of species clumping as well
as on alpha- and beta-diversity. Our objective was to assess the relative importance of habitat
heterogeneity and limited dispersal in determining these patterns by: (1) comparing the patterns
observed within and across major habitats; (2) comparing the patterns with the ones expected
under a neutral hypothesis where limited dispersal is the sole factor. Although, habitat
heterogeneity affected the distribution of many species, our results suggest that limited dispersal
was the major factor affecting the degree of species clumping. The pattern observed was similar
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to the one found in Amazonia by Condit et al. [Science 295 (2002) 666]. We discuss the
relevance of neutral models of tree communities to study the dispersal abilities of tree species.
According to C.Y. Jim et al. (2009) the promotion and preservation of biodiversity in
urban areas remains scant, especially in Asian cities. This study focuses on spatial pattern and
diversity of landscape trees in compact Taipei. Aggregate species diversity of three urban
habitats (streets, urban parks and riverside parks) exceeded the countrysides secondary forests
Urban parks with site heterogeneity and multiple functions accommodate the highest richness,
and streets with acute site limitations the poorest represented by popular native species. More
affinities exist between urban and riverside parks. Low diversity in riverside parks echoes natural
site constraints and primary use for river discharge and flood control. The compact urban form
has not stifled species diversity and spatial variability of urban forests. Development history and
park area have no significant relationship with species diversity. Understanding species
composition in urban ecosystems could frame conservation strategies to augment species
richness, appropriate site selection, habit preservation and wildlife recruitment.
According to Hoebee, S.E. et.al (2005) distinct spatial genetic structure, as the result of
various evolutionary and ecological processes, is a common feature of tree populations. The rare
pioneer forest tree Sorbus torminalis occurs in scattered populations of low density and exhibits
both clonal propagation and gametophytic self-incompatibility. Clonal reproduction can promote
considerable spatial genetic structure and, together with a self-incompatibility system, may
substantially reduce mating opportunities within S. torminalis populations, i.e. an Allee-effect
owing to mate limitation. All 10 S. torminalis stands mapped in northern Switzerland and
analyzed with allozymes showed a considerable degree of clonal reproduction, but they were
also characterized by large numbers of genotypes that occurred only once. However, spatial
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autocorrelation analysis revealed significant spatial genetic structure at distances between 15 and
30 m as the result of clonal reproduction. Once the effect of clonal propagation was removed
from the analysis, the stands no longer exhibited significant spatial autocorrelation. This implies
that seed dispersal was not locally restricted. The degree of clonal reproduction was neither
correlated with population size, nor did smaller populations exhibit less genetic diversity.
Because clonal patches were rather small and interspersed with other genetically unique and
unrelated individuals, clonal reproduction seemed to have no negative impact on the species
sexual reproduction. It is thus likely that the combination of an effective self-incompatibility
system and high interstand gene flow helps to maintain genetic diversity in S. torminalis stands
while clonal propagation preserves the genetic diversity over time even if environmental
conditions become less favorable during the course of succession.
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CHAPTER III
METHODOOGY
Locale of the Study
This thesis proposal on the species diversity and distribution patterns of trees species
which will be conducted in the University of Eastern Philippines, Catarman Northern Samar
(Figure 1).
This will focus in achieving the set of objectives of the study. Other factors which are
not included on the set of objectives of the study will not be included. The entire area of the
University of Eastern Philippines will be divided into four sampling sites namely; Zone I, Zone
II, Zone III, and Zone IV. Zone I will be comprises the area from the white beach (Boundary of
the municipality of Mondragon) up to sunrise village. Zone II, will be comprises the seaside
areas in the north and along the national highway toward the boundary of Cawayan. Zone III will
be comprises the hillside, bukid tabor, the scout city and the forest reserved to the south and
Zone IV will include the campus area which will be comprises the school and academic sites.
Research Design
This study will use the descriptive research since its purpose is to gather first the
data/information in order to describe the trees species, as they exist at the time of the study. It is
defined as a purposive process of gathering, analyzing, classifying, and tabulating data about the
prevailing conditions, practices, beliefs, processes, trends and cause effect relationships and then
making adequate and accurate interpretation about such data with or without the aid of statistical
methods (Calderon and Gonzales, 1993).
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Figure 1. Sketch Map of the Study Area
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Sampling Technique
A Purposive sampling technique and the line intercept or line transects methods will be
used in this study.
Purposive sampling technique will be used in determining the target plants. While the
line intercept or line transect method is one dimensional and most useful for sampling woody
understory of the forest. It consists of taking observation on a line or lines laid out randomly over
the study area (Smith, 1987).
This study will measure the salinity temperature and pH of the soil and water; identify the
type of substrate and nutrients will serve as the independent variables. The community structure,
species diversity and abundance of tree species in the sampling sites will serve as the dependent
variables.
Data Gathering Procedure
The researcher will purposively stretched a metric steel tape of 100 meter long in the site.
For each sampling site 10 transect lines will be lay down and each transect line will be
subdivided into 10 meters intervals. All tree species found along will be identified and counted
Data will be recorded immediately on a prepared logbook.
A reconnaissance survey will be conducted in the sampling areas during the period which
will be between mid December 2011 and end of January 2012 and will last for 30 days, to assess
the three species diversity and their distribution pattern. The phytosociological analysis of tree
layer will be conducted by laying 100x100 m2 quadrat on each site which will be divided into
20x20 m sub-plots. This will be systematically surveyed for all tress having girth at breast height
(gbh) =10cm. in case of buttressed trees, the measurements will be made above the buttress.
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Identification of the Tree Species
Only one representative samples of each species will be collected. The collected samples
will be recorded and will be placed in plastic bags/containers with the following label: Sampling
site, identification number of the species, scientific name, common name, local name.
In order to facilitate identification of the tress species, an interview will be conducted
among residents in the vicinity/locality. For this purpose, an interview guide will be prepared
(Appendix B). Observation on plants identified by the respondents will be done immediately
after each personal interview. Photo documentation will be done to facilitate plant identification
Following the method of Potot (1995) a record notebook will be prepare and the following data
will be collected.
1. Field Numbercollection number with the use of tags.2. Date Collectedday, month, year of collection.3. Collectorname of the collector.4. Localityprovince, town, barangay where plant is collected.5. Vernacular NamesNinorte Samarnon and other local names, if available.6. Habitatdescription of the growth place of the plant.7. Habit or Form nature of plant based on stem type (Tomlison, 1990): solitary, clustering, aerial
branching, subterranean branching, or climbing.
Representative samples of the grass species will be collected. At least one specimen will be
collected for every species and each specimen will be 1 foot long. The information on the plants will be
documented such as its name and the place where it was gathered, following the format in figure 3, which
will be attached to the preserved sample (Potot, 1995).
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Figure 3. Format of the Label of Each Identified Plant Specimen
The collected samples will be washed with water. After washing, the samples will be air-dried for
herbarium preparation. The code number will be followed in marking the respective herbarium samples.
Herbarium Preparation (Serrano and Lastimosa Edition, 1987)
The air-dried samples will be prepared for herbarium. Equipment needed is a pair of
pressers, specimen papers or old newspaper folds. Corrugated cardboards, absorbent paper or
ordinary blotters, and straps, ropes, or colds to hold the press framed tightly.
In Pressing the specimen, it will be placed in between folds of newspaper sheets in such a
way that it follows its natural position. Once the specimen is dried, the position and arrangement
of part cannot be changed anymore. Newspaper folds, with the collection number and labeled
specimens, are carefully piled one after the other, separated by absorbent materials and
corrugated cardboards, then it will be tightly packed in a pair of pressers. Applying pressure by
FLORA OF THE PHILIPPINESUniversity of Eastern Philippines
University Town, Northern Samar
Family: __________________ No. ________
Sci Name: _______________________________________Common Name and Dialect:_________________________
________________________________________________
Collector: _______________________________________
Fld. No. _________________________Date: ___________
Locality: ________________________________________
Habitat: _________________________________________
Habit Description: ________________________________
Determined by: ___________________________________
Date: _________________________________________
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placing a heavy weight over the presses before drying will help in flattening specimens and
facilitate uniform drying.
In Drying the specimen; the strapped presser will be placed under the sun or in a warm
place such as over a stove, oven, or in artificially heated chamber. It is advisable to check the
progress of drying and at the same time to prevent growth of molds by frequent change of
absorbent. Length of time for drying depends on moisture content of the material, the method of
drying and attention given to the process.
In poisoning the specimen, dried specimens will be dipped in poison solution to preserve
them from insect damage. Poison solution is prepared by mixing 12-15 g of mercuric chloride
and 5-10 g of phenol crystals to 1 liter of denatured alcohol. The two chemicals must be handled
properly for these are corrosive and poisonous.
Poisoned specimens will be air dried in a manner previously described or stored at room
temperature.
Mounting the specimens, the dried poisoned specimens will be mounted by means of
glue or tape or herbarium sheet which has a standard size of 11-12 by 16 1/2 inches. Field label
is placed on the upper left-hand corner sheets. Each mounted specimen will be labeled properly
as in Figure 3.
The above procedure will be followed for specimens that are relatively small and thin
such as those on the fronds. For the flowers and fruits, these will be preserved in packets, bearing
the same identification number/tag and will be attached in the herbarium sheet of the particular
specimen.
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Young plants, sapling preferably, when available, will be collected as sample of the
whole plant and will be preserved properly. This will also bore the same identification
number/tag of the particular species.
Identification of the Tree Species
All trees collected in the study area will be identified down to the species level using available
references. Authentication of the specimens will be done by Dr. Eva M. Potot a professor of the College
of Science.
Community Structure of Trees
Transect line plot method will be utilize to determine the species composition, density,
frequency, and dominance of medicinal plants in the sampling site.
A. Structural ParametersThe trees community will be analyzed by using the following structural parameters with their
formulas (English et.al)
1. Constancy (Bautista et.al 1975)
Number of plots where the species occurs
Constancy (%) = ---------------------------------------------------- x 100Total number of plot sampled
2. Density
Total number of individuals of the speciesDensity (D) = ---------------------------------------------------Total area sampled
Number of plots where the species occurs3. Frequency (F) = ---------------------------------------------------
Number of all plots invested
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4. Dominance in terms of basal area (g)
Density of the species
5. Relative Density (RD) = ---------------------------------------------------- x100
Sum of the frequencies of all species
Frequency of the species
6. Relative Frequency (RF) = ---------------------------------------------------- x100
Sum of frequencies of all species
Basal area of the species
7. Relative Dominance (Rg) = ---------------------------------------------------- x100Sum of the basal areas of all species
Relative Density + Relative
8. Importance Value (I.V.) = ----------------------------------------------
Dominance + Relative Frequency
The three relative measures (RD, RF, Rg)
9. Species diversity of medicinal plants will be measure by the use of the Shannon-Weiner
Function as shown in the equation:
n log n -fi log fi
H = ------------------------------N
The vegetation data of each quadrat that will be gather will be analyze for frequency
density and abundance (Curtis and McIntosh, 1950). The statistical analysis will be done as per
standard statistical methods. The Importance Value Index (IVI) of trees will be determined as the
sum total relative frequency, relative density and relative abundance following Phillips (1959)
The ratio of abundance to frequency will be used to interpret the distribution pattern of species of
trees (Whiteford, 1949). Species diversity (H) of different tree species will be calculated using
the Shannon-Weiner Index (Shannon and Weiner, 1963). Concentration of dominance (Cd) will
be measured by using Simpsons Index (Simpson, 1949). Species Evenness Index (EI) and
species Richness Index (RI) will be calculated following Pielou (1966) and Margalef (1978)
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respectively. The maturity index will be calculated as per Pichi-Sermolli (1948) and beta
diversity following Whittaker (1977). The plant will be identified with the help of Flora of Orrisa
edited by Saxena and Brahmam (1994-1996).
B. Environmental ParametersThe measurement of the environmental factors characterize the conditions that will be
existing in the sampling site will be done simultaneously with the data collection.
1. SalinityA refractometer will be used to measure both soil and water salinity. The soil sample will
be placed in the filter paper lined bottom syringe and then will be pushed until drops of water
will extracted. A few drops of water will be placed under the cover of the refractometer and
salinity will be read through the eyepiece while the instrument will held toward the light.
2. pH
The pH paper will be used to determine the acidity or alkalinity of soil and water sample.
3. Temperature
A hole will be dug to a depth of 5 cm in the outer margin, middle and inside margin of
the medicinal plants area. The thermometer will be carefully inserted into the wall of the hole to
determine the soil temperature.
4. Type of Substrate
The type of substrate in the sampling area will be described as solid or coralline, and
rocky sandy-muddy solution.
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