Jemmy, Jehu Jones and the African American

Experience in Colonial South Carolina

Larry D. Watson

Associate Professor of HistorySouth Carolina State University

Adjunct Faculty, University of South Carolina

South Carolina Social Studies Standards

8-1.4 Explain the growth of the African American population during the colonial period and the significance of African Americans in the

developing culture (e.g., Gullah) and economy of South Carolina, including the origins of African American slaves, the growth of the slave trade, the impact of population imbalance between African and European Americans, and the Stono Rebellion and subsequent laws to control the slave population.

3-4.1 Compare the conditions of daily life for various classes of people in South Carolina, including the elite, the middle class, the lower class, the independent farmers, and the free and the enslaved AfricanAmericans.

South Carolina Social Studies Standards

4-2.7 Explain how conflicts and cooperation among the Native Americans, Europeans, and Africans influenced colonial events including the French

and Indian Wars, slave revolts, Native American wars, and trade.

4-3.6 Compare the daily life and roles of diverse groups of Americans during and after the Revolutionary War, including roles taken by women and African Americans such as Martha Washington, Mary Ludwig Hays McCauley (Molly Pitcher), Abigail Adams, Crispus Attucks, and Peter Salem. (H, P)

Slavery in Colonial South Carolina

• Slavery arrived in SC with the first settlers in 1670

• By 1695, the African population numbered approximately 2,000 while the white population was somewhere between 2 and 4, 000

• Some early concern with security

• In 1697, Mr. Jonathan Amory was paid “out of the public money the sum of one hundred dollars, for one Negro who was yesterday condemned to be executed for a public example”

Slavery in Colonial South CarolinaAfricans as a percentage of SC population

YEAR 1700 1710 1720 1730 1740 1750 1760 1770

% 44 50 64 66 61 61 61 61

Slavery in Colonial South Carolina

• Several feeble attempts made to provide some system of regulation in 1686 and 1687

• In 1690, Governor Seth Sothell worked toward codification, drawing heavily from the Barbadians codes

• Specific punishments were prescribed, yet enforcement was lax

Slavery in Colonial South Carolina

• Successful rice cultivation led to a significant increase in the African population after 1695

• Governor Archdale thus implemented a more comprehensive code in 1696

• This measure is often referred to as South Carolina’s first slave code

Slavery in Colonial South CarolinaSelect slave codes

• Slaves prohibited from leaving plantations without tickets• Slave quarters to be searched once every two weeks• Illegal to trade in stolen goods with slaves• Slaves barred from unregulated use of firearms• Slaves could not go unattended to Charleston on holidays• Prescribed punishment for burglary, murder, arson, robbery• Master liable for crimes committed by slaves• Conspiracy to rebel, mutiny or actual rebellion is a capital

offense• Conversion to Christianity no grounds for manumission

Slavery in Colonial South Carolina

• Amendments made to codes in 1698, 1704, and 1708

• Among the additions were:-Requirement to import 1 white for each 6 slaves-Provisions for using slaves during periods of hostility-Provisions for freeing slaves who serviced the colony

• Further amendments or re-enactments were made in 1712, 1714, 1717, 1722, and 1735-Most important: Higher import duties on new Africans

Slavery in Colonial South Carolina

Although the slave codes had been in effect formany years, most Carolinians appeared Indifferent to them prompting the South CarolinaGazette to publish them so “that no one may forthe future plead ignorance”

(South Carolina Gazette, May 4, 1734)

Slavery in Colonial South CarolinaAfrican/White Population in Colonial South Carolina

YEAR 1700 1708 1720 1740

AFRICANS 2,000+ 4,000 11,828 39,155

WHITES 4,000+ 4,080 6,525 20,000

Slavery in Colonial South Carolina:Implications

Lieutenant Governor William Bull to the CommonHouse in 1739:

“the desertion of our slaves is a matter of such importance to this Province that I doubt not but you will readily concur in opinion with me, that the most effectualmeans ought to be used to discourage and prevent it forthe future”

Slavery in Colonial South Carolina:Implications

October, 1732 over 200 Negroes gathered “on the Green” in Charleston. Having consumed too much Alcohol, a fight broke out, and “a valuable Negro belonging to Mrs Elbert’ was severely wounded”

(South Carolina Gazette, October 28, 1732)

Slavery in Colonial South Carolina:Implications

Other examples of public concern may be found in the following sources:

• South Carolina Gazette• Journal of the Common House• South Carolina Upper House Journal• British Public Records Office• Colonial Office Papers• Journal of the Court of General Sessions• Journal of the Grand Council of South Carolina • Statutes at Large of the State of South Carolina

Jemmy

• Jemmy (or Jonny or Cato), slave

• Alleged leader of the largest slave rebellion in the United States colonial period

Jemmy-The Stono Rebellion

• Started on September 9, 1739 near Stono River-about 20 miles southwest of Charleston

• Sunday morning when many whites would be in church and unarmed

• 20+ enslaved Africans gathered

• Mostly Angolans and some Congolese

Jemmy-The Stono Rebellion

• Broke into a local store and acquired arms

• 2 shopkeepers were killed, their heads left on front steps of store

• Houses in the general vicinity were destroyed

Jemmy-The Stono Rebellion

• Several other whites killed as slaves moved south, sparing an innkeeper who was reputed to be a “kind” master

• Though still mid-morning, the group encamped and celebrated their “freedom”

• By mid-day, their numbers reached 50+

• At least one skirmish ensued with local whites, one of whom was the colonial Lt. Governor-William Bull

Jemmy-The Stono Rebellion

• Late Sunday evening, a major fight broke out when armed whites caught up with them and some 44 slaves and 23 additional whites were killed

• Although the major part of the rebellion was put down that day, it took nearly a month to bring the slave population under “control”

Jemmy-His Legacy

• Demonstrated that the enslaved African community, though quite diverse, could unite in cause of freedom

• Made colonial South Carolinians, who were not slave owners, painfully aware of its majority Black population

• Increased the tension between Great Britain and Spain, since it was commonly believed that the Spanish in Florida encouraged black flight

Jemmy- His Legacy

• Convinced South Carolinians that the African population was not “docile” as many felt

• Forced elected officials to enact and enforce new laws that would change slavery forever in the region and serve as a model for other southern states

• The 1740 Slave Code became the model in other southern states

Jemmy-His Legacy

New Laws• All whites responsible for policing the African

population

• All white men required to carry guns

• Slaves prohibited from assembling in certain numbers

• Slaves prohibited from hiring themselves out

Jemmy-His Legacy

New Laws• White immigration encouraged

• Illegal to teach slaves to read

• Restrictions set on importation of Blacks directly from Africa

• Although more restrictive, the 1740 code still sought to protect slave owners’ investment in slaves

COLONIAL SLAVERY S. C RUNAWAY STATUTE

DEFINITION:

A SLAVE ABOVE THE AGE OF 16 WHO CONTINUES TO BE ABSENT FROM THE OWNER FOR A SPACE OF 20-30 DAYSAT ONE TIME

COLONIAL SLAVERY S. C RUNAWAY STATUTE

OFFENSE PUNISHMENT 1ST 40 LASHES

2ND BRANDED “R” (FACE)

3RD 40 LASHES & CROPPED EAR

4TH MALE: GELTEDFEMALE: WHIPPING, BRANDED “R” AND CROPPING

5TH LOST OF LEG OR LIFE

Free Negro-Defined

• JOHN H. FRANKLIN: QUASI-FREE

• STATUS SLIGHTLY BETTER THAN A SLAVE

• WORSE THAN POOREST WHITE

• NEITHER SLAVE NOR FREE

• VIEWED WITH DISTRUST AND SUSPICION

• PRESENCE ALWAYS A MATTER OF CONCERN

POPULATION-UNITED STATES

1790NORTH 27,000SOUTH 33,000_____________________________________TOTAL 60, 000

(SLAVES 700,000)

POPULATION-UNITED STATES

1820FREE NEGROES 234,000

(SLAVES 1,538,000)

POPULATION-UNITED STATES

1860NORTH 237,000

SOUTH 251,000_________________________TOTAL 488,000 (2% OF US POP)

(SLAVES 3,954,000) (13% OF US POP)

POPULATION-SOUTH CAROLINA

1670• South Carolina’s free Negro community

dates back to the earliest settler when itbecame common practice to free slaves for cause

• No accurate number is known, but the various slave codes make constant reference to them

POPULATION-SOUTH CAROLINA

“Any slave who shall…keep or take one or more…enemies…shall for his reward, at the charge of the public, have his freedom…”

“ An act for the enlisting of such trusty slaves as Shall be thought serviceable to this Province in time of alarms” 1708

POPULATION-SOUTH CAROLINA

1790FREE NEGROES 1, 801

(SLAVES 107, 094)

POPULATION-SOUTH CAROLINA

1830FREE NEGROES 7, 7921

(SLAVES 315, 401)

POPULATION-SOUTH CAROLINA

1800 1850

CHARLESTON 951 3,441

(SLAVES in 1860 415, 000)58% of State population

POPULATION-SOURCES

• NATURAL REPRODUCTION• OFFSPRINGS OF MIXED PARENTAGE• RUNAWAYS• SLAVES PURCHASING THEIR OWN FREEDOM• REWARDS FOR SERVICE• CONSTITUTIONAL MANDATES• PERSONAL MANUMISSIONS

LIFE AS A FREE NEGRO-THE SOUTH

• PROOF OF FREEDOM

• COULD NOT HOLD PUBLIC OFFICE

• SPONSORS REQUIREMENT

• CURFEWS

• BAN AGAINST ASSEMBLING

QUASI FREE NEGROES

MUTUAL BENEFIT ORGANIZATIONS (FOUND WHEREVER FREE NEGROES LIVED)

• FREE AFRICAN SOCIETY (PHILADELPHIA)

• SONS OF AFRICAN SOCIETY (BOSTON)

• BROWN FELLOWSHIP SOCIETY (CHARLESTON)

Jehu Jones-Free Negro (1769-1833)

• Born a slave in 1769 to Christopher Rogers

• Learned to be a tailor

• Purchased his freedom

JEHU JONES’ CERTIFICATE OF FREEDOM

JEHU JONES’ CERTIFICATE OF FREEDOM

Jehu Jones’ Family

• Wife: Abigail

• Children: Ann Deas, stepdaughterJehu, Jr.AlexanderEdward

Jehu Jones-Entrepreneur

• Set up his own tailoring business

• Invested in real estate in Charleston and surrounding areas

• Established an inn at 33 Broad Street

• Slave owner

Jehu Jones’ Slave Owner

Jehu Jones-”Pillar” of the Black Community

• Operated in the highest social circles

• Trustee for the Brown Fellowship Society

Impact of Denmark Vesey

• Vesey, a free Negro had purchased his freedom with money won in a street lottery

• Conspiracy betrayed by other free negroes

• State clamped down on free negro community

Impact of Denmark Vesey

• Free male negroes over 15 required to have a white guardian

• Any free negro who left the state could not return

Jehu Jones’ Guardian

Jehu Jones-Final years

• Abigail Jones died in New York

• Jones died in 1833

• Left an estate valued at $40,000

• Inherited by 3 sons and stepdaughter

Jehu Jones-Legacy

• Ann Deas (stepdaughter) named executrix of his will

• Operated the inn on Broad Street for 12 years as Jones’ Establishment

Jehu Jones-His Legacy-Ann Deas

• Ann Deas (stepdaughter) named executrix of his will

• Received a pardon for violating the 1823 ban

• Operated the inn on Broad Street for 12 years as Jones’ Establishment

• Eventually lost the property due to debt

Jehu Jones-His Legacy-Ann Deas

Jehu Jones-His Legacy-Jehu Jones, Junior

• Became a Lutheran minister

• Moved to Philadelphia where he established a Lutheran church for Negroes

• Disillusioned with status of blacks in north

• Petitioned to be allowed to return

Jehu Jones-His Legacy-Jehu Jones, Junior

Jehu Jones-His Legacy-Jehu Jones, Junior

Jehu Jones-His Legacy-Jehu Jones, Junior

Jehu Jones-His Legacy: Alexander Jones

• Alexander Jones remained in Charleston

Jehu Jones-His Legacy: Edward Jones

• Edward A. Jones became 1st black graduate of Amherst College, 1826

• Graduated New Jersey Theological Seminary, 1829

• Ordained an Episcopal minister

• Emigrated to Sierra Leone where he founded a College (today the University of Sierra Leone)

Jemmy and Jehu Jones

SUMMARY STATEMENTS

• The African American experience in colonial and early national South Carolina was complex

• All enslaved African Americans did not share the same experience as slaves

• The Free Negro experience was also equally as diverse

Jemmy and Jehu Jones

SUMMARY STATEMENTS

• All African Americans of the time were affected by the oppression of enslavement, whether slave or quasi-free

• Under the circumstances, all African Americans struggle to resist the forces that relegated them to the bottom rungs of a slave dominated society

Sources

• Jehu Jones: Free Black EntrepreneurS. C. Department of Archives and History

• Jones: Time of Crisis, Time of Change S. C. Department of Archives and History

• Black Majority: Negroes in Colonial South CarolinaPeter Wood

Sources• Slave Culture in Eighteenth South Carolina and Virginia

(disst)Phillip Morgan

• South Carolina, A History Walter Edgar

• The Quest for Order: Enforcing Slave Codes in Revolutionary South Carolina, 1760-1800 (disst)Larry D. Watson

Jemmy, Jehu Jones and the African American

Experience in Colonial South Carolina