Post on 21-Dec-2015
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CPSC 121: Models of Computation2011 Winter Term 1
Proof (First Visit)
Steve Wolfman, based on notes by Patrice Belleville, Meghan Allen and others
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Outline
• Prereqs, Learning Goals, and Quiz Notes
• Prelude: What Is Proof?
• Problems and Discussion– “Prove Your Own Adventure”– Why rules of inference? (advantages + tradeoffs)
– Onnagata, Explore and Critique
• Next Lecture Notes
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Learning Goals: Pre-Class
By the start of class, you should be able to:– Use truth tables to establish or refute the
validity of a rule of inference.– Given a rule of inference and propositional
logic statements that correspond to the rule’s premises, apply the rule to infer a new statement implied by the original statements.
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Learning Goals: In-Class
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:– Explore the consequences of a set of
propositional logic statements by application of equivalence and inference rules, especially in order to massage statements into a desired form.
– Critique a propositional logic proof; that is, determine whether or not is valid (and explain why) and judge the applicability of its result to a specific context.
– Devise and attempt multiple different, appropriate strategies for proving a propositional logic statement follows from a list of premises.
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NOT a Quiz Note
~p~(p v q)
a.This is valid by generalization (p p v q).b.This is valid because anytime ~p is true, ~(p v q) is also true.c.This is invalid by generalization (p p v q).d.This is invalid because when p = F and q = T, ~p is true but ~(p v q) is false.e.None of these.
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What does this mean?
We can always substitute something equivalent for a “complete” part of a logical statement.
We cannot always apply a rule of inference to just a part of a logical statement.
Therefore, we will only apply rules of inference to complete statements!
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Outline
• Prereqs, Learning Goals, and Quiz Notes
• Prelude: What Is Proof?
• Problems and Discussion– “Prove Your Own Adventure”– Why rules of inference? (advantages + tradeoffs)
– Onnagata, Explore and Critique
• Next Lecture Notes
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What is Proof?
A rigorous formal argument that unequivocally demonstrates the
truth of a proposition, given the truth of the proof’s premises.
Adapted from MathWorld: http://mathworld.wolfram.com/Proof.html11
What is Proof?
A rigorous formal argument that unequivocally demonstrates the
truth of a proposition (conclusion), given the truth of the proof’s
premises.
Adapted from MathWorld: http://mathworld.wolfram.com/Proof.html12
Problem: Meaning of Proof
Let’s say you prove the following:
Premise 1
Premise 2
⁞
Premise n
Conclusion
What does this mean?
a.Premises 1 to n are trueb.Conclusion is truec.Premises 1 to n can be trued.Conclusion can be truee.None of the above
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Tasting Powerful Proof: Some Things We Might Prove
• We can build a “three-way switch” system with any number of switches.
• We can build a combinational circuit matching any truth table.
• We can build any digital logic circuit using nothing but NAND gates.
• We can sort a list by breaking it in half, and then sorting and merging the halves.
• We can find the GCD of two numbers by finding the GCD of the 2nd and the remainder when dividing the 1st by the 2nd.
• There’s (sort of) no fair way to run elections.• There are problems no program can solve.
Meanwhile...14
What Is a Propositional Logic Proof?
An argument in which (1) each line is a propositional logic statement, (2) each
statement is a premise or follows unequivocally by a previously established rule of inference from the truth of previous statements, and (3)
the last statement is the conclusion.
A very constrained form of proof, but a good starting point.Interesting proofs will usually come in less structured
packages than propositional logic proofs.15
Outline
• Prereqs, Learning Goals, and Quiz Notes
• Prelude: What Is Proof?
• Problems and Discussion– “Prove Your Own Adventure”– Why rules of inference? (advantages + tradeoffs)
– Onnagata, Explore and Critique
• Next Lecture Notes
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Prop Logic Proof Problem
To prove:
~(q r)(u q) s
~s ~p___
~p
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“Prove Your Own Adventure”
To prove:
~(q r)(u q) s
~s ~p___
~p
Which step is the easiest to fill in?
1. ~(q r) Premise2. (u q) s Premise3. ~s ~p Premise[STEP A: near the start] [STEP B: in the middle]
[STEP C: near the end][STEP D: last step]
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D: Last Step
To prove:
~(q r)(u q) s
~s ~p___
~p
1. ~(q r) Premise2. (u q) s Premise3. ~s ~p Premise
...~q ~r De Morgan’s (1)~q Specialization (?)
...((u q) s) Bicond (2) (s (u q))
...~s~p Modus ponens (3,?)
Why do we want to put ~p at the end?
a.~p is the proof’s conclusionb.~p is the end of the last premisec.every proof ends with ~pd.None of these but some other reasone.None of these because we don’t want it there
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C: Near the End
To prove:
~(q r)(u q) s
~s ~p___
~p
1. ~(q r) Premise2. (u q) s Premise3. ~s ~p Premise
...~q ~r De Morgan’s (1)~q Specialization (?)
...((u q) s) Bicond (2) (s (u q))
...~s~p Modus ponens (3,?)
Why do we want to put the blue line/justification at the end?
a.~s ~p is the last premiseb.~s ~p is the only premise that mentions ~sc.~s ~p is the only premise that mentions pd.None of these but some other reasone.None of these b/c we don’t want it there
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A: Near the Start
To prove:
~(q r)(u q) s
~s ~p___
~p
1. ~(q r) Premise2. (u q) s Premise3. ~s ~p Premise
...~q ~r De Morgan’s (1)~q Specialization (?)
...((u q) s) Bicond (2) (s (u q))
...~s~p Modus ponens (3,?)
Why do we want the blue lines/justifications?
a.~(q r) is the first premiseb.~(q r) is a useless premisec.We can’t work directly with a premise with a negation “on the outside”d.Neither the conclusion nor another premise mentions re.None of these
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B: In the Middle
To prove:
~(q r)(u q) s
~s ~p___
~p
1. ~(q r) Premise2. (u q) s Premise3. ~s ~p Premise
...~q ~r De Morgan’s (1)~q Specialization (?)
...((u q) s) Bicond (2) (s (u q))
...~s~p Modus ponens (3,?)
Why do we want the blue line/justification?
a.(u q) s is the only premise leftb.(u q) s is the only premise that mentions uc.(u q) s is the only premise that mentions s without a negationd.We have no rule to get directly from one side of a biconditional to the othere.None of these
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Prop Logic Proof Strategies
• Work backwards from the end• Play with alternate forms of premises• Identify and eliminate irrelevant information• Identify and focus on critical information• Alter statements’ forms so they’re easier to
work with• “Step back” from the problem frequently to
think about assumptions you might have wrong or other approaches you could take
And, if you don’t know that what you’re trying to prove follows...switch from proving to disproving and back now and then.
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Continuing From There
To prove:
~(q r)(u q) s
~s ~p___
~p
1. ~(q r) Premise2. (u q) s Premise3. ~s ~p Premise4. ~q ~r De Morgan’s (1)5. ~q Specialization (4)6. ((u q) s) Bicond (2) (s (u q))7. ?????? Specialization (6)
...~s~p Modus ponens (3,?)
Which direction of goes in step 7?
a.(u q) s because the simple part is on the rightb.(u q) s because the other direction can’t establish ~sc.s (u q) because the simple part is on the leftd.s (u q) because the other direction can’t establish ~se.None of these
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Aside: What does it mean to “work backward”?Take the conclusion of the proof.
Use a rule in reverse to generate something closer to a statement you already have (like a premise).
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Finishing Up (1 of 3)
To prove:
~(q r)(u q) s
~s ~p___
~p
1. ~(q r) Premise2. (u q) s Premise3. ~s ~p Premise4. ~q ~r De Morgan’s (1)5. ~q Specialization (4)6. ((u q) s) Bicond (2) (s (u q))7. s (u q) Specialization (6) 8. ???? ????9. ~(u q) ????10. ~s Modus tollens (7, 9)11. ~p Modus ponens (3,10)
We know we needed ~(u q) on line 9 because that’s what we created line 7 for!
Side Note: Can we work directly with a statement with a negation “on the outside”?
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Finishing Up (1 of 3)
To prove:
~(q r)(u q) s
~s ~p___
~p
1. ~(q r) Premise2. (u q) s Premise3. ~s ~p Premise4. ~q ~r De Morgan’s (1)5. ~q Specialization (4)6. ((u q) s) Bicond (2) (s (u q))7. s (u q) Specialization (6) 8. ???? ????9. ~(u q) ????10. ~s Modus tollens (7, 9)11. ~p Modus ponens (3,10)
We know we needed ~(u q) on line 9 because that’s what we created line 7 for!
Now, how do we get ~(u q)?
Working forward is tricky. Let’s work backward. What is ~(u q) equivalent to? 37
Finishing Up (2 of 3)
To prove:
~(q r)(u q) s
~s ~p___
~p
1. ~(q r) Premise2. (u q) s Premise3. ~s ~p Premise4. ~q ~r De Morgan’s (1)5. ~q Specialization (4)6. ((u q) s) Bicond (2) (s (u q))7. s (u q) Specialization (6) 8. ~u ~q ????9. ~(u q) De Morgan’s (8)10. ~s Modus tollens (7, 9)11. ~p Modus ponens (3,10)
All that’s left is to get to ~u ~q. How do we do it?
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Finishing Up (3 of 3)
To prove:
~(q r)(u q) s
~s ~p___
~p
1. ~(q r) Premise2. (u q) s Premise3. ~s ~p Premise4. ~q ~r De Morgan’s (1)5. ~q Specialization (4)6. ((u q) s) Bicond (2) (s (u q))7. s (u q) Specialization (6) 8. ~u ~q Generalization (5)9. ~(u q) De Morgan’s (8)10. ~s Modus tollens (7, 9)11. ~p Modus ponens (3,10)
As usual in our slides, we made no mistakes and reached no dead ends. That’s not the way things really go on difficult proofs!
Mistakes and dead ends are part of the discovery process! So, step back now and then and reconsider your assumptions and approach! 39
Outline
• Prereqs, Learning Goals, and Quiz Notes
• Prelude: What Is Proof?
• Problems and Discussion– “Prove Your Own Adventure”– Why rules of inference? (advantages + tradeoffs)
– Onnagata, Explore and Critique
• Next Lecture Notes
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Limitations of Truth Tables
Why not just use truth tables to prove propositional logic theorems?
a.No reason; truth tables are enough.b.Truth tables scale poorly to large problems.c.Rules of inference and equivalence rules can
prove theorems that cannot be proven with truth tables.
d.Truth tables require insight to use, while rules of inference can be applied mechanically.
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Limitations of Logical Equivalences
Why not use logical equivalences to prove that the conclusions follow from the premises?
a.No reason; logical equivalences are enough.b.Logical equivalences scale poorly to large
problems.c.Rules of inference and truth tables can prove
theorems that cannot be proven with logical equivalences.
d.Logical equivalences require insight to use, while rules of inference can be applied mechanically.
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Outline
• Prereqs, Learning Goals, and Quiz Notes
• Prelude: What Is Proof?
• Problems and Discussion– “Prove Your Own Adventure”– Why rules of inference? (advantages + tradeoffs)
– Onnagata: Explore and Critique
• Next Lecture Notes
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Problem: Onnagata
Problem: Critique the following argument.
Premise 1: If women are too close to femininity to portray women then men must be too close to masculinity to play men, and vice versa.
Premise 2: And yet, if the onnagata are correct, women are too close to femininity to portray women and yet men are not too close to masculinity to play men.
Conclusion: Therefore, the onnagata are incorrect, and women are not too close to femininity to portray women.
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Contradictory Premises?
Do premises #1 and #2 contradict each other (i.e., is (premise1 premise2) logically equivalent to F)?
a. Yes
b. No
c. Not enough information to tell.
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Defining the Problem
Which definitions should we use?
a. w = women, m = men, f = femininity, m = masculinity, o = onnagata, c = correct
b. w = women are too close to femininity, m = men are too close to masculinity, pw = women portray women, pm = men portray men, o = onnagata are correct
c. w = women are too close to femininity to portray women, m = men are too close to masculinity to portray men, o = onnagata are correct
d. None of these, but another set of definitions works well.
e. None of these, and this problem cannot be modeled well with propositional logic.
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Translating the Statements
Which of these is not an accurate translation of one of the statements?
a.w m
b.(w m) (m w)
c.o (w ~m)
d.~o ~w
e.All of these are accurate translations.
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Contradictory Premises?
So premises #1 and #2 are w m and o (w ~m).
Do premises #1 and #2 contradict each other (i.e., is (premise1 premise2) logically equivalent to F)?
a. Yes
b. No
c. Not enough information to tell.
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Problem: Now, Explore!
Critique the argument by either:
(1) Proving it correct (and commenting on how good the propositional logic model’s fit to the context is).
How do we prove prop logic statements?
(2) Showing that it is an invalid argument.
How do we show an argument is invalid? (Remember the quiz!)
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Outline
• Prereqs, Learning Goals, and Quiz Notes
• Prelude: What Is Proof?
• Problems and Discussion– “Prove Your Own Adventure”– Why rules of inference? (advantages + tradeoffs)
– Onnagata, Explore and Critique
• Next Lecture Notes
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Next Lecture Learning Goals: Pre-Class
By the start of class, you should be able to:– Evaluate the truth of statements that include
predicates applied to particular values.– Show predicate logic statements are true by
enumerating examples (i.e., all examples in the domain for a universal or one for an existential).
– Show predicate logic statements are false by enumerating counterexamples (i.e., one counterexample for universals or all in the domain for existentials).
– Translate between statements in formal predicate logic notation and equivalent statements in closely matching informal language (i.e., informal statements with clear and explicitly stated quantifiers).
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Next Lecture Prerequisites
Review (Epp 4th ed) Chapter 2 and be able to solve any Chapter 2 exercise.
Read Sections 3.1 and 3.3 (skipping the “Negation” sections in 3.3)
Complete the open-book, untimed quiz on Vista.
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More problems to solve...
(on your own or if we have time)
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Problem: Who put the cat in the piano?
Hercule Poirot has been asked by Lord Martin to find out who closed the lid of his piano after dumping the cat inside. Poirot interrogates two of the servants, Akilna and Eiluj. One and only one of them put the cat in the piano. Plus, one always lies and one never lies.
Akilna says:– Eiluj did it.– Urquhart paid her $50 to help him study.
Eiluj says:– I did not put the cat in the piano.– Urquhart gave me less than $60 to help him study.
Problem: Whodunit?
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Problem: Automating Proof
Given:p q
p ~q r(r ~p) s ~p
~r
Problem: What’s everything you can prove?
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Problem: Canonical Form
A common form for propositional logic expressions, called “disjunctive normal form” or “sum of products form”, looks like this:
(a ~b d) (~c) (~a ~d) (b c d e) ...In other words, each clause is built up of simple
propositions or their negations, ANDed together, and all the clauses are ORed together.
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Problem: Canonical Form
Problem: Prove that any propositional logic statement can be expressed in disjunctive normal form.
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Mystery #1
Theorem:
p qq (r s)~r (~t u)p t u
Is this argument valid or invalid?Is whatever u means true?
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Mystery #2
Theorem:
p
p rp (q ~r)~q ~s s
Is this argument valid or invalid?Is whatever s means true?
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Mystery #3
Theorem:
q
p mq (r m)m q p
Is this argument valid or invalid?Is whatever p means true?
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Practice Problem (for you!)
Prove (with truth tables) that hypothetical syllogism is a valid rule of inference:
p qq r p r
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Practice Problem (for you!)
Prove (with truth tables) whether this is a valid rule of inference:
q
p q p
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Practice Problem (for you!)
Are the following arguments valid?
This apple is green.If an apple is green, it is sour. This apple is sour.
Sam is not barking.If Sam is barking, then Sam is a dog. Sam is not a dog.
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Practice Problem (for you!)
Are the following arguments valid?
This shirt is comfortable.If a shirt is comfortable, it’s chartreuse. This shirt is chartreuse.
It’s not cold.If it’s January, it’s cold. It’s not January.
Is valid (as a term) the same as true or correct (as English ideas)?65
More Practice
Meghan is rich.
If Meghan is rich, she will pay your tuition.
Meghan will pay your tuition.
Is this argument valid?Should you bother sending in a check for your
tuition, or is Meghan going to do it?66
Problem: Equivalent Java Programs
Problem: How many valid Java programs are there that do exactly the same thing?
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Resources: Statements
From the Java language specification, a standard statement is one that can be:
http://java.sun.com/docs/books/jls/third_edition/html/statements.html#14.568
Resources: Statements
From the Java language specification, a standard statement is one that can be:
http://java.sun.com/docs/books/jls/third_edition/html/statements.html#14.569
What’s a “Block”?
Back to the Java Language Specification:
http://java.sun.com/docs/books/jls/third_edition/html/statements.html#14.270
What’s a “Block”?
A block is a sequence of statements, local class declarations and local variable declaration statements within braces.
…
A block is executed by executing each of the local variable declaration statements and other statements in order from first to last (left to right).
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What’s an “EmptyStatement”
Back to the Java Language Specification:
http://java.sun.com/docs/books/jls/third_edition/html/statements.html#14.672
Problem: Validity of Arguments
Problem: If an argument is valid, does that mean its conclusion is true? If an argument is invalid, does that mean its conclusion is false?
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Problem: Proofs and Contradiction
Problem: Imagine I assume premises x, y, and z and prove F. What can I conclude (besides “false is true if x, y, and z are true”)?
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Proof CritiqueTheorem: √2 is irrational
Proof: Assume √2 is rational, then...
There’s some integers p and q such that √2 = p/q, and p and q share no factors.
2 = (p/q)2 = p2/q2 and p2 = 2q2
p2 is divisible by 2; so p is divisible by 2.
There’s some integer k such that p = 2k.
q2 = p2/2 = (2k)2/2 = 2k2; so q2 and q are divisible by 2.
p and q do share the factor 2, a contradiction!
√2 is irrational. QED
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Problem: Comparing Deduction and Equivalence Rules
Problem: How are logical equivalence rules and deduction rules similar and different, in form, function, and the means by which we establish their truth?
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Problem: Evens and Integers
Problem: Which are there more of, (a) positive even integers, (b) positive integers, or (c) neither?
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