Post on 27-Nov-2014
KYAMBOGO UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF POSTGRADUATE STUDIES AND RESEARCH
FACULTY OF VOCATIONAL STUDIES
Masters in Vocational Pedagogy
Transfer of Knowledge and Skills in Vocational Training Institutions in Uganda.
Sam Patrick Ogwang (2009/HD/012/MVP)
NOMA
AN END OF YEAR I EXAM PROJECT SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL
FULFILMENT FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF MASTERS IN VOCATIONAL PEDAGOGY.
December 2009
i
Abstract Vocational education existed in Africa long before the coming of the western
civilization. Education was informal at home and from the community. The coming of
the missionaries brought with it formal academic and later vocational education. The
missionaries wanted converts who could read and write and skilled persons to work in
their establishments. In Uganda, the protectorate governments later took over the
academic education at the expense of vocational education. This developed negative
attitude in the citizens that vocational education were for the poor, disadvantaged and
academically impoverished persons. Unfortunately, the advent of the western
civilization rubbished the indigenous knowledge that existed, and thus local
knowledge and skill became marginalized in the society of the learned. As time went
on, the importance of vocational education became evident and government had to
make a turn to start promoting the teaching of vocational skills in schools. However,
the curriculum lacks linkage with the local labour market, as it was copied from the
western system. Contemporary vocational training coupled with advancement in
technology is facing challenges of tools and materials for transfer of vocational
knowledge and skills in institutions. Vocational instructors have therefore come up
with strategies to cope up with this challenge of limited training tools and materials.
Among the strategies discovered were use of local materials, production learning,
asking students to bring their own tools, sales from items produces by students and
engaging students in private work where they work in apprenticeship basis.
I identified indigenous didactics of fishing as a vocation for further research comes
June 2010.
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Table of Content Abstract ......................................................................................................................... i Table of Content .......................................................................................................... ii List of Figures ............................................................................................................. iii List of Appendix ......................................................................................................... iii Acknowledgement ...................................................................................................... iv CHAPTER ONE ..........................................................................................................1
1.0 Introduction ....................................................................................................1
1.1 Personal Background .....................................................................................1
1.2 Learning Experiences in Masters in Vocational Pedagogy ...........................3
1.3 Research Expeditions .....................................................................................4
1.4 What were the findings? ................................................................................6
1.5 What can be concluded from the findings? ....................................................9
CHAPTER TWO .......................................................................................................14 2.1 Vocational Education Revisited ...................................................................14
CHAPTER THREE: ..................................................................................................17 3.0 Vocational Pedagogy in an African Context ..............................................17
3.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................17
3.1 Vocational Pedagogy in an African Context: A Fisheries Perspective .......18
3.1.1 Environmental science ........................................................................... 20 3.1.2 Cooperation ............................................................................................ 21 3.1.3 Discipline ............................................................................................... 21 3.1.4 Technical skills ...................................................................................... 21 3.1.5 Religion .................................................................................................. 22
3.2 Productive Learning .....................................................................................22
3.4 Conclusion ......................................................................................................23 3.5 Recommendation .........................................................................................23
CHAPTER FOUR ......................................................................................................24 4.1 My Point of Departure .................................................................................24
4.1.1 What is missing? ..........................................................................................25
4.1.2 What do I wish to make Known? .................................................................26
APPENDIXES ............................................................................................................27 LIST OF REFERENCES ..........................................................................................28
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List of Figures
Figure 1: Vocational Theory Lessons in Progress at NVI; Picture extracted from mini
project one video. ................................................................................................... 7
Figure 2: Vocational Practice in catering at NVI. Source- Mini project one (Aninge et
al., 2009) ................................................................................................................ 8
Figure 3: Practical driving lessons at NVI ..................................................................... 8
Figure 4: An interview guide session at Nile Vocational Institute- Jinja (Aninge et al.,
2009, p. 6) .............................................................................................................. 8
Figure 5: A potter at work being observed and interviewed .......................................... 9
Figure 6: Floriculture student displays a ready to sell ................................................. 10
Figure 7: Furniture produced by students of NVI on display for sales in their
showroom. ............................................................................................................ 11
Figure 8: A Modified Tricycle Ambulance (US$ 70) made by NVI students ............. 12
Figure 9: Electronics students of NVTI doing practical repair in a workshop ............ 13
Figure 10: Floriculture students of Bukalasa attending vocational practice in a
greenhouse (Ogwang, Chebet, & Odiel, 2009, p. 6) ............................................ 13
Figure 11: Skewed enrolment of learners in Uganda (enrolment data from Egau
(2002, p. 4)).......................................................................................................... 15
List of Appendix
Appendix 1: List of documents written by MVP students in the first year of study 27
iv
Acknowledgement
I would like to recognize the contribution of our professors Dr. Nilsson Lennart, Dr.
Liv Mjelde and Dr.Richard Daly and Mr Børge Skaland for their guidance during
these research expeditions. I further extend my gratitude to all the programme
mentors of Master in Vocational Pedagogy course for their tireless and constant
guidance both during the expeditions and write up of this project. Special thanks go to
all the vocational schools and work places from which this project research was
conducted, I salute their administrators for the kind cooperation shown during this
research expeditions. Last but not least I convey warm greetings to and I appreciate
the efforts of all NOMA Masters student of Vocational Pedagogy for the wonderful,
supportive and critical group reflections during the presentation of preliminary results
of this report.
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CHAPTER ONE
1.0 Introduction In this chapter, I will begin by analyzing my own background and experiences in
vocational pedagogy, and proceed to describe the nature of training (research based
learning) in a Masters in vocational pedagogy, which also emphasizes team and group
working to accomplish a task. The chapter will also cover a description of all the research
expeditions we conducted during the first year of study, before I can then conclude the
chapter with my own reflections about these learning approaches and strategies used in
vocational pedagogy.
1.1 Personal Background Vocational pedagogy is a field of knowledge oriented towards trades, occupation and
profession (NOMA programme Document, 2008, p. 2). Gordon, Wilbert, McCaslin, Parks,
& Castro (2009, p. 1) defined Vocational education as “a practically illustrated and
attempted job or career skill instruction”. As such, a variety of components fall under the
vocational education umbrella: agricultural education, business education, family and
consumer sciences, health occupations education, marketing education, technical
education, and trade and industrial education. It consists of education focused towards
training and learning to work, and learning is by doing. Muhoozi (2008) stated that
vocational education is what developing countries need as it prepares one to directly enter
occupation without further training. A degree of the Masters in Vocational Pedagogy at
Kyambogo University is the first of its kind in Uganda and Africa as a whole. The
programme aims to address the attitude syndrome towards vocation skills and competence
of students in the field of vocational education, economic development and gender relations
2
in a bid to fight poverty (NOMA programme Document, 2008, p. 2) and the unemployment
of graduates from general education who has no individual skills to employ in the world of
work.
Masters in Vocational pedagogy is an initiative between the cooperation of Kyambogo
University (Uganda), Akershus University College (Norway) and Upper Nile University
(Southern Sudan). The programme is in line with the National strategic plans of both
governments of South Sudan and Uganda. In Uganda, the sector strategic plan 2004/2015
for Ministry of education and sports is to help students acquire the competencies they need
to join the world of work, while in Southern Sudan, which share similar situation (that is;
prolonged social military unrest) with Northern Uganda, vocational education is required to
address the question of skills for social integration and economic recovery (NOMA
programme Document, 2008, pp. 3-4).
Realising the real need for practical skills at an individual and societal level coupled with
the golden opportunity for the existence of the course I defiantly got motivated to join the
course forthwith upon seeing the public advertisement in the Uganda’s leading daily, The
New Vision. I am a trained and practicing agricultural extension worker. I did my National
Diploma in Fisheries Management and technologies and proceeded to do a bachelors
degree in Fisheries and aquaculture. My educational background together with my field
experience in fisheries extension education fits me very well in this course and the
knowledge I will acquire at the end of the training will be employed directly with an impact
on the students and farmers whom I will be training. My current job position as Senior
Lecturer at Fisheries Training Institute exposes me to a lot of challenges such as organising
vocational training lessons. Lack of training tools and materials for practical skills
sometimes can lead to total abandonment of the lesson and this is when a skilled instructor
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has to be innovative and find alternatives to conduct practical lessons. Further, a
qualification with a Masters1 in vocational Pedagogy will defiantly strengthen my current
job position with a possibility for appointment into a higher position. Above all, I expected
this training to make me a competent researcher based on its mode of teaching and
learning. It was upon this background that motivated me to join the Masters in Vocational
Pedagogy of Kyambogo University.
1.2 Learning Experiences in Masters in Vocational Pedagogy The organization of learning in Masters in Vocational Pedagogy is unique to all other
learning environments in that, “The method of work is the curriculum” (NOMA
Programme Document, 2008a, p. 6). Students learn by active participation in learning
groups and team discussions. Students are learning resources for each other, and this is the
only strength for equal and full participation of every member in group discussions and
documentations. In cases where individuals have to submit work for assessment, the group2
has a task to harmonize the work of each member before it can be submitted to the mentors
for marking; this is another strong point for the team spirit of togetherness. The learning
groups being heterogeneous in terms of gender, culture, religion and education background
calls for individual’s fidelity towards members of the group for total success of the
programme. For cases of personal emergencies which may warrant limited absence from
the group’s activities, the permission has to be granted by members of the group and the
mentors must be informed of such happenings. Therefore, much as other masters’
programme may look at the individual learner as an independent adult, MVP has a social
learning family with a common goal of succeeding with the programme of studies by all
1 Appointments into most job positions in Uganda are based on ones’ academic qualifications (Lutalo-Bosa, 2007, p. 3)and a Masters Degree is an added advantage for most jobs, if not a primary requirement. 2 I am indebted to my group (Juba) members for their guidance & scrutiny of my work during individual project write ups
4
members. This is something that I liked most in the course. Further, learning Masters in
Vocational Pedagogy is from the “constructivists” perspective; where learners are seen as
agents in their own learning not merely recipients of other people’s knowledge. Learning
strategies3 involves small group work, discussions, debates, practical problem solving,
including presentation of alternative perspectives, sharing of information, reflective
practice, modeling, mentoring and coaching. All these learning strategies resonate with a
constructivist orientation to learning (Chappell, 2004, p. 4). Contemporary social and
economic conditions including the new requirements of work in some senses have
contributed to the focus on learning. In short, the traditional institutional forms of learning
are no longer adequate and cannot keep up with the contemporary demands for learning a
vocation.
In the beginning of the course, it was however, most challenging to cope up with the group
approach of doing learning tasks, especially; the construction of a safe and confident
learning environment within and in between the groups was not an easy task. Each group is
composed of seven (7) students, with at least two students from Southern Sudan and two
mentors/teachers who oversee the group’s activities. The mentors are the advisors to the
group and together with the group they work develop knowledge and information for
particular question that may concern learning. The organization of the course is such that,
active participation and input by the learners is the drive for the programme.
1.3 Research Expeditions
Masters in Vocational Pedagogy is a research oriented course. As part of the training we
conducted research expeditions in a number of vocational training institutions (VTIs) and
3 I very much benefited from group learning and discussions where different views about a subject is welcomed and later harmonized into a common understanding. Bravo to all the groups in NOMA.
5
work places. In VTIs, we looked at the application of the principles of vocational didactics.
The questions centered on the application of the three branches of vocational didactics, that
is; vocational training, vocational theory and general knowledge (Nilsson, 1982) in the
pedagogy of a vocation, while at work places our research centered on the relationship
between learning at work and learning in a vocational institutions. We also did research in
traditional institutions of herbal medicine, pottery and blacksmithing. In these traditional
places, we looked at the learning and application of indigenous vocational knowledge and
the influence of cultural on vocational pedagogy. Theses institutions included Nile
Vocational Institute- Jinja (NVI), Crested crane hotel (Jinja), Jinja School of Nursing,
Nakawa Vocational Training Institute (NVTI), Bukalasa Agricultural training institute
(Luwero), Uganda Bureau of Statistics (UBOS), National Curriculum Development Centre
(NCDC), Directorate of Industrial Training (DIT), Uganda National Examinations Board
(UNEB) and Harris International (Riham). Indigenous practitioners of pottery (Kiteezi), Dr
Ssali’s herbal medicine and research centre and Katwe black smiths were also visited in
one of the expeditions.
The expeditions covered various subjects; vocational didactics, relations of training at
school and work places, work organization, curriculum development, measurement and
evaluation and influence of culture indigenous knowledge systems) on vocational
education and practices. We did field expeditions in groups and teams with common
objectives. The group/team members worked together to prepare for the expedition. The
design of research strategies and data collection tools (interview guides) and materials were
organized with equal participation of all the group/team members.
In both training institutions and work places, there are resource limitations which affect
trainings. Grady, Dooly, Harlin, & Murphrey, (2006, p. 6) in their study of competence and
6
traits of a successful Agricultural science teachers, identified instructional/teaching skills,
classroom management, the ability to motivate and persuade learners, and facilitation skills
are strong skills that would cause a teacher to be successful or unsuccessful. With our little
background knowledge in vocational training, coupled with lack of advanced technology in
VTIs together with use of limited resources we had to set off to explore how vocational
trainings are conducted in these VTIs and some work places visited. Further limited
literature existed about vocational didactics in Ugandan VTIs. We4 therefore made an
assessment into how vocational instructors could arrange the best practical lessons out of
the worst resources limited learning environment without compromising quality and
quantity of education. The objectives for these research expeditions included finding out
the challenges and limitations to practical skills training in vocational training institutions,
identification of the various strategies developed to cope up with the above challenges and
limitations experienced by VTIs and we also wanted to find out the logistical management
of practical training materials in VTIs and work places.
1.4 What were the findings? During all these research expeditions we used similar methods to gather the necessary data
and information. In all cases open ended interview guides questions and physical
observation were employed. We also took photographs, and short video clips where
necessary to boost and backup the data analysis and information got during the expedition
(Aninge, Ogwang, & Nhial, 2009, p. 5)5. Each one of us in a team of three members had a
set of questions grouped under ten main observation points namely; Task, Tools, Material,
4 These research expeditions were done in groups and teams. The findings reported here are extracts from those research expeditions of the groups/teams. 5 Mini Project one report, March 2009.
7
Logistics, Work/learning forms, Communication, Help, Rewards, Time structuring and
Wanted changes, (See Appendix 1)6.
During a research expedition to NVI, we observed lectures (Figure 1) and practical lessons
in the department of catering and hotel management (Figure 2) and motor vehicle
mechanics (Figure 3) for a short while; after which we interviewed students using the
questionnaires we had formulated. Initially, we made sure the students were thoroughly
addressed on the importance and confidentiality of the information they would give to us
during the interview. We thereafter, had a chance to interview at least a student using the
pre set questions about vocational training and didactics in training institutions (Figure 4).
Figure 1: Vocational Theory Lessons in Progress at NVI; Picture extracted from mini project one video.
Research into work places had similar interview guides though it focused much on learning
at a work place. Research interview guides (See Appendixes 3) for expeditions to UNEB,
NCDC and DIT were centered on curriculum development, measurement and evaluation.
6 Interview guide extracted from mini project one report.
8
Figure 2: Vocational Practice in catering at NVI. Source- Mini project one (Aninge et al., 2009)
Figure 3: Practical driving lessons at NVI
For indigenous practitioners, we employed the knowledge based-system methodology for
acquisition of local knowledge data used by (Mulyoutami, Rismawan, & Joshi, 2009, p.
2056) . In this method, we collected information from a small sample of deliberately
chosen individuals thought to be knowledgeable by the community about the domain of
interest and were willing to co-operate.
Figure 4: An interview guide session at Nile Vocational Institute- Jinja (Aninge et al., 2009, p. 6)7
The data were collected by subjecting the key informants (Figure 5) to interview with the
help of an interview guide. A total of 2 potters were interviewed. Direct observation was an
integral part of the interview that enabled us to confirm the kinds of materials and tools
7 Thanks to members of team A, group 2 (Juba) for taking this photographs
9
used and types of products from these industries. The interview guide consisted of
questions related to raw material acquisition, production, marketing, types of materials
produced, uses, history of the business, management and ownership of business, roles of
men and women, knowledge preservation and skills transfer methods.
Figure 5: A potter at work being observed and interviewed
The findings from our research expeditions produced gap bridging data and information
about transfer of vocational knowledge and skills in Ugandan VTIs and work places
visited.
1.5 What can be concluded from the findings?
The conclusions I could draw from the findings of our research expeditions to vocational
institutions showed that there was unilateral lack of training tools and materials. The
student shared practical common training tools such as wood planers, Tractors, Mould loft,
Cookers, etc as witnessed at NVI. However, at NVTI where there exists a strong
cooperation between the Japan and Uganda governments, the students had working tools,
but limited practical materials such as soldering wires and circuit boards, network cables
and sheet metals among others. At Bukalasa agricultural training college, students lacked
mechanized tools and most training materials.
10
To cope up with these training challenges, the institutions have developed strategies to
improve on vocational didactics. In all these institutions visited, we discovered that
administration asked students brought some training tools for their own use. At Bukalasa
students brought their own hoes, Pangas and gumboots for field practices. Electronics and
electrical students of NVTI brought pliers, soldering guns and multi-meters, testers and
screw drivers. In this way, administrators minimized the cost of acquiring simple training
tools in an attempt to save for materials and costly training machines which can be shared
during the practical lessons.
Another strategy which the instructors innovated was to encourage production learning.
Students produced items during practical training. These items were then sold to generate
income for the institutions and small stipend for the students. Fig 7 and 8 below shows
furniture and an ambulance produced by carpentry and metal fabrication students of NVI
respectively. In figure 6 below, is a floriculture student of Bukalasa displaying a ready to
sell flower bundle.
Figure 6: Floriculture student displays a ready to sell
flower from the school’s greenhouse.
An ambulance was valued at
approximately US $70. This kind
of training strategy “shoots two
birds with one stone”, the students
learn and gain skills and money
from the items they have produced
while the institution uses the
training materials gainfully as they
get the proceeds from sale of items
produced by learners.
11
The learners therefore learn to associate their work with value and the proceeds from these
sales can be used to purchase training tools and materials. I can further conclude that
vocational education at these institutions, created a sense of feeling in the students that
there exists a strong link between wealth or reward and skills acquisition and education.
Minnis (2000, p. 254) confirmed this argument that, education should emphasize strong
links between the proceeds of production, effort and incentive; otherwise, it becomes
difficult to convince parents and students alike that their present or future level of
economic well being is tied significantly to education and training.
Figure 7: Furniture produced by students of NVI on display for sales in their showroom.
A striking finding from NVI students producing ambulances from bicycle parts is
something beyond imaginations. The ambulance is a combination of three cycles, a frame,
and a sponge mattress. The technology seemed to be tailored for rural settings in cases of
emergencies such as labour pains, accidents, acute sickness etc. Ngome (2009, p. 2) in his
news article in the NORRAG News, pointed out that one of the problems to TVET in
Kenya is lack of certain skills that are needed in the domestic markets such as bicycle
repairs being provided in the training programmes of TVET institutions. This is a similar
challenge shared by Ugandan TVET institutions. Very few VTIs in Uganda if any, do train
learners with bicycle maintenance and repair, yet this is the service needed in both urban
12
and rural parts of the country. The curriculum in most African TVET institutions seemed to
be copied or carried on from the colonial time without inputs/ modification from
technology users. The UNEVOC (1993, p. 3) pointed out that, due to lack of resources,
experience and traditions, developing countries simply tend to copy existing curriculum
materials from industrialized nations without proper adoption to the local situations and
needs. As a consequence of such curriculum, the content are not usually rooted in people’s
culture (Lutalo-Bosa, 2007, p. 6). There is therefore a great hope that NVI will address this
challenge in being a model institute in bicycle repair and modification.
Further, at NVTI, we discovered that instructors through their private businesses, get
contracts to which they incorporate students to learn the technology while they do the
work. In such instances, the learning materials are derived from the instructor’s clientele.
Such students get hands on training and learn all the technologies involved in a particular
trade. If all training institutions can have this indirect private links, then the challenge of
training materials would be reduces to a limit and student would learn the skills they
require.
Figure 8: A Modified Tricycle Ambulance (US$ 70) made by NVI students
Lutalo-Bosa (2007, p. 11) emphasized
that vocational education is much
expensive compared to academic
education and as such, if not connected to
employers or group of employers, does
not appear to give the graduates adequate
skills required to find work which earn
them higher wages.
13
In all the TVET institutions visited, there existed all the three elements of vocational
didactics; vocational training, vocational theory and general knowledge (Nilsson, 1982).
Classroom lessons for general knowledge (mathematics, entrepreneurship, languages,
technical drawing) and vocational theory centered on knowledge about the tools and
materials used in each trade, while practical lessons were either in the fields (Bukalasa and
NVI, Fig 3) or in specialized rooms such as kitchen (NVI, Fig 2), typing pool (NVI),
workshops (NVTI, Fig 9) and greenhouses (Bukalasa-floriculture department, Fig 10).
Figure 9: Electronics students of NVTI doing practical repair in a workshop
Figure 10: Floriculture students of Bukalasa attending vocational practice in a greenhouse (Ogwang, Chebet, & Odiel, 2009, p. 6)
Learning at VTIs was something different from workplace learning. In Riham, there
existed nothing like vocational didactics, training was on the job without set curriculum.
The workers mastered each task in his/her section of production by experience with the
assistance of line supervisors (Aninge et al., 2009, p. 13). In the traditional pottery, a
similar situation existed; no curriculum, and vocational theory and practice were taught
concurrently. This confirms what Liv Mjelde (2006, p. 32) stated that, learning in the
school workshop and learning in the actual working life are never identical.
The findings and conclusions from these researches about transfer of vocational knowledge
and skills in a resource limited situations are limited to vocational institutions visited but, it
can be used to picture vocational trainings in Uganda in general.
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CHAPTER TWO
2.1 Vocational Education Revisited Skills acquisition is vital for an economy to compete and grow, particularly in an era of
economic integration and technological change. In the globalization account, the national
economic success is largely dependent on the ability to create, attract and deploy human
capital more effectively than the competitor nations or regions (McGrath & Akoojee, 2009,
p. 149). Vocational Education and Training (VET) is a direct means of providing workers
with skills more relevant to the evolving needs of employers and the economy. Vocational
education is dynamic, new vocations (e.g fashion design, homecare services) replaces old
ones (Shoe making, home economics) and it changes with advancement in technology
while, diversity of working tools get replaced by computers (Mjelde, 2006, p. 33).
When indigenous vocational education existed informally in Africa, before formal /western
education, African system of education revolved around families, clans, tribe and regions
(Okello, 2009, p. 5). The teachers were the parents or adult members of the community
gifted and skillful in a particular technology (Okello, 2009, pp. 1,5; Ssekamwa, 1997).The
learners were the children who were introduced in to life sustaining skills. This enabled
them to be self reliant and useful to the community. Teaching had no set time table or
curriculum, but was done whenever and wherever necessary. Formal VET emerged in
Uganda through the missionaries, according to (Ssekamwa, 1997, pp. 86-89), it has
historically been considered education for those students who fail to make it through the
straight path, i.e. from primary to secondary to university (African Union, 2007, p. 8; Egau,
2002, p. 2; Ssekamwa, 1997, p. 86). However, the skewed enrollments (similar to that of
South Africa (Akoojee, 2005, p. 2)), Fig 11, against developed world’s pattern at various
levels of education in Uganda has rendered many graduates jobless, and reflect the extent
15
to which the education systems needs to be readjusted. Many graduates qualify from
universities and other Non-VET training institutions than from VET institutions.
Figure 11: Skewed enrolment of learners in Uganda (enrolment data from Egau (2002, p. 4)).
This inverted triangle indicates that more persons graduate to become supervisors but not
skilled workers, unfortunately, supervisory works is already filled and requires just a few
managers. In Uganda, every year, about 800,000 graduates from primary and secondary
schools enter the labour market, of which only 5-10% obtain a vocational training from
about 1000 private vocational institutions and only about 130 government aided vocational
schools (UGAPRIVI, 2009, p. 1). The liberalization of economy in Uganda has attracted
many investors in education to add new technologies and innovations in the global
economy (Wirak, Heen, Moen, & Vusia, 2003, p. 12). Private providers of education
however is profit based, in which curriculum is the product and students are treated as
consumers (Akoojee, 2005, p. 3) with no regards for quality of education if not controlled
by government (Wirak et al., 2003, p. 12). Egau, (2002, p. 22) pointed out that such private
providers of vocational skills sometimes are unable to buy training materials and pay for
teachers, especially if enrolments are low. Lack of practical during training may be one of
the major causes of the general out cry from the public that, graduates from vocational
institutions are incompetent and cannot do skilled work.
Universities: 20,325
Technical Colleges: 2,200
Technical Schools & Institutes:
11,130
16
However, our forefathers learnt vocational trades indigenously, and to some extent
currently, our brothers and sisters in the rural settings are still able to learn vocational
knowledge and skills of various kinds of different trades with limited tools and materials
amidst great modern technological challenges. The question is then, how did they do it, and
how best can the modern generation in developing countries adopt their approach to
emerge out as the best vocational practitioners using modern technology yet faced with a
challenge of limited tools and materials?
Indigenous knowledge (IK) is used at a local level to assist the communities in decisions
concerning food security, human and animal health, education, natural resource
management and other vital activities (Gorjestani, 2001, p. 1; Grenier, 1998, p. 4).
Indigenous knowledge (IK) is generally used synonymously with traditional and local
knowledge to differentiate the knowledge developed by and within distinctive indigenous
communities from the international knowledge system generated through universities,
government research centers and private industry, sometimes incorrectly called the Western
knowledge system (WIPO, 2006, p. 5). All members of a community have indigenous
knowledge; elders, women, men, and children. The quantity and quality of the IK that
individuals possess vary. Age, education, gender, social and economic status, daily
experiences, outside influences, roles and responsibilities in the home and community,
profession, available time, aptitude and intellectual capability, level of curiosity and
observation skills, ability to travel and degree of autonomy, and control over natural
resources in a way influences one’s degree of indigenous knowledge (Grenier, 1998, p. 3).
17
CHAPTER THREE:
3.0 Vocational Pedagogy in an African Context
3.1 Introduction Vocational education and training may be viewed as the process of forming skills in an
individual to make him/her employable or self employed in the world of work (Lutalo-
Bosa, 2007, p. 4). It is based on ‘work of the mind and hand’ i.e. production of something
which should form the basis of all learning. It involves the acquisition of practical skills,
attitudes, understanding and knowledge relating to occupation in various social and
economic trades (Okello, 2009, p. 1). The pedagogy emphasizes that work of the mind is
formed from that of the hand, and thus practice is prior to theory. Here the understanding
comes through action and personal experience and theory is learnt in close relationship to
practical skills (Lutalo-Bosa, 2007, p. 10; Nilsson, 2009, p. 2). Vocational pedagogy is
diverse and continuously changes with technological development with old vocational
trades being replaced by modern ones (Mjelde, 2006, p. 33). Okello (2009, p. 1) stated that
“where there is man, there is a controversy that threatens him or her with extinction, and
as such they have to conquer it”. One can therefore conclude that in order to survive,
technological development must be maintained. Engagement in and learning from
vocational practices cannot therefore be a process of mere reproduction of what is intended
by social forms and encounters. But, Billett (2008, p. 235) pointed out that throughout
working life, vocational practices may be elaborated, refined and remade by individuals as
they intentionally engages with socially determined tasks and activities. Vocational
education has played a great role in the existence of man, and as such Okello (2009, p. 1) it
is as old as man.
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In Uganda, general education and vocational training was introduced by the missionaries
(Lutalo-Bosa, 2007, p. 12; Okello, 2009, pp. 9-14; Ssekamwa, 1997, p. 86). The
protectorate government later joined and took control over education by establishing the
directorate of education (Lutalo-Bosa, 2007, p. 12) and citizens got training under specific
religious line of affiliations. The main aim of this kind of education was to produce man
power for missionary activities within different community activities such as building
construction, brick making, printing of reading materials, carpentry and joinery and
blacksmithing.
3.1 Vocational Pedagogy in an African Context8: A Fisheries Perspective
Vocational education existed in Africa long before the coming of western civilization. The
informal system of education consisted of teaching and learning of basic knowledge and
skills which were arranged in homesteads, fireplace at night, in the sleeping housed and
anywhere where people carried out economic, political and social activities in the
(Ssekamwa, 1997, p. 4; Taylor, 1995, p. 240). There were no conventional schools and
reading materials as one would see in the present system of education. In various tribes
throughout Africa, memories of significant past events, traditions and religious customs
were handed down orally to succeeding generations and in their initiation ceremonies
(Taylor, 1995, p. 240).
The parents and responsible grown up citizens in the community constituted Vocational
instructors (teachers). The parents had the first duty of educating their children while, once
away from home, children would be taught by the members of the society (Ssekamwa,
8 Some of the phrases and contents in this chapter were modified from the essay “What is Vocational Pedagogy in an African Context” by team D, (Ogwang Sam. P, Chebet Shamim and Odiel James). Thanks for their cooperation during this write up.
19
1997, p. 4; Taylor, 1995, p. 240). Particular skills and knowledge not commonly known to
most parents were imparted to children by specialized teachers (citizens) who knew them
and such skills would be particularly taught to boys or girls as thought appropriate for their
gender. Learning was in the form of apprenticeship, where learners observed what an adult
was doing and copied the skills. The indigenous vocational pedagogy in Africa had no
particular time when specialized knowledge and technical skills were taught and learned
unlike today when schools start at 0800 hours and ends at 1700 hours. In addition there
were no specific subjects to be taught and learned at specific hours, i.e. there existed no
time table, term or semester systems as one can see today. One funny thing with African
education is that, there is no clear distinction between learning and working as the two
happens concurrently.
Knowledge transfer consisted of a number of methods: In one instance, teaching involved
straight telling to the child the knowledge which he/she should know followed by the child
repeating the words and practice until the correct way of greeting is mastered. Children
were taught through plays, games, songs, rhymes and storytelling. At later ages they were
introduced to idioms, proverbs and riddles. This method may be referred to as mini lecture
method combined with instant practice and further mini lecture (Okello, 2009, p. 4). Also
teaching technical skills of doing things or making things were done by knowledgeable
person in a society who demonstrated the skills which was necessary to do/ make
something to the child who was required to repeat over and again until the learner got it
correct (Okello, 2009, p. 5). The education system covered all subjects ranging from
Science, geography, history, and technology and other social life skills such discipline and
respect. Vocational pedagogy in an African context had no formal learning content
(curriculum) and what to be learnt would vary from one society to another.
Conservativeness of knowledge, where skills and knowledge of a certain culture was
20
limited to that particular culture and was not to be transferred or borrowed from other
cultures (Taylor, 1995, pp. 240,241).
However, from fisheries perspectives, master fishermen taught their young children with all
the knowledge and skills they would need to survive in the wild waters to fish. Fisheries
science skills targeted and favored boys. Similar to hunting and honey gatherings, girls
were and are still not treated fit for such activities in an African community. The
“curriculum” of African indigenous fisheries education might have consisted of the
following:
3.1.1 Environmental science
Children were taught how to deal with the environment. The purpose of this was that they
should know how to get the best things out of the environment. There were dangerous
diseases, animals, and plants and the young people were taught on how to defeat all the
difficulties in their environment. Even in the present settings, an average African boy or
girl about 20 years and above knows most of the basic knowledge about his/her
surroundings. They know the names of plants and animals and their usefulness in the
community. They are made aware of dangerous and harmless plants and animals in their
environment. By bringing the catch home, an adult would elaborate on the names and
characteristics of a particular fish species and where its ecology while the fish is was being
prepare for meals. The young fishers of sea going age accompany their fathers to the sea
and observe with participation in the fishing operations. In this way, the ecological
knowledge of fish harvesters will consists of facts obtained through firsthand experience
during years of observation and interaction with their local environment while fishing
(Gosse, Wroblewski, & Neis, 2001, p. 26).
21
3.1.2 Cooperation
Children were taught how to cooperate with their friends, neighbors and members of the
society. Community gatherings such as traditional clan meetings, social competitions in
dances and folk songs constituted arenas for learning how to live in a society (Taylor, 1995,
p. 241). In the Teso, Langi and Acholi districts, during dry seasons, village mates go for
communal fishing in pockets of water locked up in seasonal swamps. This provided
children with opportunity to learn cooperation to attack and accomplish a common task
such as fishing, hunting, and honey gathering (personal experience). The young people
learnt the sense of belonging to a group, clans and tribes. While in the community and at
home they were taught discipline and how to behave in the community.
3.1.3 Discipline Disciplinary action was taken at the family, clan or societal levels. Every adult unlike today
in the society had the right and responsibility to discipline any misbehaving child. In the
culture of Langi tribe in Northern Uganda, where I belong, any misbehaving child or adult
member of a clan can be disciplined by the clan authority. In the fishing tradition, a fisher
who steals the fishing gear or the catch from another man’s net is punished by the
committee of the fishers. The punishment constitutes beatings, paying back, doing
communal work such as cleaning the surroundings or it can even attract payment worth
chickens or goats.
3.1.4 Technical skills
Transfer of “hard” technical skills also formed a major part of the “curriculum”. Children
were taught all the basic technical / vocational skills which they needed to do or to make
things in order to be helpful to themselves and to the members of the society in which they
lived. Boys were taught skills in drums making, stools, pottery, canoes, hoes, spears,
22
blacksmithing (Okello, 2009, p. 5), while girls in particular, were taught baby nursing,
cookery, housekeeping, farming, mending cloths, making mats, baskets, plating hair to look
pleasant and proper behavior in marriage. In the art of fishing, subject content includes the
art of braiding nets, designing fishing hooks, baiting fish, setting the net, locating fish
abundances, fish preservation methods as well as conservation of the resource (Narcisse,
2001, p. 11).
3.1.5 Religion Fishing and religion are inseparable. The young fishers were taught the relationship
between fishing and religion. According to modern religion, God created the seas and fish
(Holy Bible, Genesis 1:20). Fishers believed that God provided fish for the people. When
God created man, he blessed them and said to them, “Be fruitful and increase in number;
fill the earth and subdue it. Rule over the fish of the sea and the birds of the air and every
living creature that moves on the ground” (Holy Bible, Genesis 1:28). Similar to African,
for the Vietnamese fishers, the more awe and fear a certain objects inspired, the less often it
was talked about, least its powers be called upon (Asia Society, 2008, p. 1). Dangerous
water animals such as Crocodiles, Hippopotamus and deadly storms were referred to in
whispers and respectfully called in “nicknames”. In this way, young fishers were taught to
respect “gods” and to behave, least be punished by the gods.
3.2 Productive Learning Unlike in today’s vocational pedagogy where products of practical learning may not be
used instantly, the fisheries pedagogy in African system involved showing the learner how
to catch the fish. The learner would then practice it by deploying his fishing gears and the
catch would be used at home. The household members or society would then give their
comment and where necessary give correction for one to improve on the learning.
23
3.4 Conclusion Vocational education in Africa started way back before the introduction of the white man’s
system of education by the missionaries. Our ancestors knew how best they could pass on life
sustaining skills in their young ones according to the specific tasks to be performed by the boys
and girls as they grow into fathers and mothers. The training incorporated verbal theories and
practices concurrently. As we know today, they too knew that vocational pedagogy integrated
biological/physical, mental and social aspects of human being aimed at promoting competence
in the skills learnt. However, both systems demand the use of tools and materials for training
and mastering the skills. In the modern settings, developing countries are still faced with
problems of training tools and materials to transfer vocational skills. Therefore, vocational
instructors have to be innovative to come up with interventions of transferring skills in a
resource limited African institutions.
3.5 Recommendation Vocational instructors should encourage constructivist way theory of learning vocational
skills at VTIs.
Government should give a hand in providing teaching and learning tools and materials for
transfer of vocational skills at Vocational institutes.
National Curriculum Development Centre should come up with a curriculum which
incorporates local knowledge of tools and materials for VTIs targeting local labour and
commodity markets.
Parents and members of the society should in addition to western education, emphasize on
teaching their young ones indigenous knowledge for them to live in harmony and be useful
to his/her community.
24
CHAPTER FOUR
4.1 My Point of Departure
Modern Africans tend to invest little faith in developing indigenous knowledge (Ngara,
2007,p.7), however, I feel there is need to revisit the African traditional ways of knowing
to harmonize the past with the present so that we shall be able to establish the true basis for
indigenous vocational pedagogy in the informal “world”. The fact that so much effort is
now being invested to understanding the basis for indigenous natural resources
management indicate that the negative attitudes commonly held about indigenous
knowledge during the colonial era have begun to change. Breidlid (2009,p.142) recognized
that, the lack of respect for local or indigenous knowledge and the assumption by western
scientist that western epistemology and scientific discourse is superior is a serious obstacle
to sustainable development because they fail to meet human development needs and at the
same time to protect nature and the ecosystems. After the Asian Tsunami disaster of 2005
destroyed all the fishing equipments and harbors in the coastal areas of Sri Lanka, in the
Island newspaper, Amarasiri (2005, p. 1) wrote this “I argue that the traditional fishing
sector that provided livelihood for the poor and the marginalized communities in the
country’s littoral, should be assisted not only to restore their livelihood, technology and
know-how of traditional fishing but also to bring back the vigour of the culture that
embodied the much valued folk wisdom coming down from many generations”.
Fishing in the wild waters is a skillful technique which has developed over time from the
crude traditional methods of using hands, foot, woods, bones and later on spears and
modern hooks and fishing nets (Brandt, 1972,p.5-8,38-45,185-204). Modern fishers
equipped with electronic fish finders, predetermine fish abundance in the fishing grounds
before deploying their fishing gears. Our fore fathers too knew in their own ways how to
25
predict fish abundance, the knowledge of which can still be traced to a few descending
fishers. The African ways of knowing are grounded in the indigenous African cultural
traditions, history and ecology (Ngara, 2007,p.7). While modern systems which uses Sonar
as fish finders, global positioning systems (GPS) for position location and weather reports
to determines the conditions in the sea, the equipments are affected by the environmental
conditions and other factors but the indigenous systems prevails and are accurate. One can
however regard this knowledge as unauthentic and unreliable as some can not be verified
by scientific methods.
In African systems, the pedagogy of vocational skill showed the youth being apprenticed to
skilled masters of healing arts, Blacksmithing, midwifery, pottery, craftwork, etc
(Ssekamwa, 1997, p. 7). Fishing being a unique vocation, given the environment in which
it operates and the engagement of only a few members of a community seems to attract the
brave and the determined youth only. Unlike other vocations where every member of a
society constituted a tutor/teacher (Ssekamwa, 1997, p. 4), the foregone reasons meant the
teachers for the fishing vocation were few and not easily accessible unless followed in the
wild waters. This therefore obviously might have called for some physical qualities and
interest of the learners. The fact that fishing is a kind of production learning might have
motivated the learners as the fish caught in the process would be used for food or battered
for some other goods and services in the community.
4.1.1 What is missing?
The Ugandan fishing industry is characterized by the indigenously trained fishing
communities of close ethnic background sharing common cultural practices and languages
with exception of only a few immigrants who get adapted to the local community. Because
fishing is the source of livelihood here, the practice is guarded and the knowledge passed
26
on from generation to generations by the skilled members of the community. One
fascinating gap in knowledge of the indigenous pedagogy of fishing is “man’s relations to
the ecology of fishing”(Bergmann, Hinz, Blyth, Kaiser, Rogers, & Armstrong, 2004, p.
377) . We still know very little if any how the indigenous knowledge of fishing is applied in
fisheries ecology, the interpretation of weather (nature) in relations to fishing and how this
knowledge is preserved and passed on to the next generation.
4.1.2 What do I wish to make Known? I plan to investigate about the knowledge and skills transfer, acquisition and how it is
applied in the fishing vocation by traditional fishers of Kigungu fish landing site (Entebbe)
on Lake Victoria. My main objective of this research will be to find out the learning
activities carried out and the application of knowledge and kills acquired by the fishers of
Kigungu fish landing site. The findings from this study will potentially contribute to
enhancing the vocational education and fisheries biological databases about indigenous
knowledge of fishing on L. Victoria and will show to fishery scientists some ways in which
local fishers’ knowledge can be useful to co-management initiatives. To date little use is
made of the fisher’s knowledge in management decision making process (Bergmann et al.,
2004, p. 374). In doing this, I hope to improve mutual understanding between fishery
scientists and local fishers in Uganda therefore helping these fishers to get more involved
in managing the resource. Besides increasing the available ethno-ichthyological
information on L. Victoria, this is one of the first ethno-ichthyological studies involving
Kigungu fishing community.
27
APPENDIXES
Appendix 1: List of documents written by MVP students in the first year of study
from February 2008 to October 2009:
1. Team work: Mini project on expeditions to Nile Vocational, Jinja Nurses training Institute, and Crested crane Hotel- Jinja.
2. Individual work: Mini project two. Summary of findings from all expeditions in
semester one.
3. Team work: Essay on Vocational Pedagogy in African perspective.
4. Team work: Curriculum development, measurement and evaluation (NCDC, DIT and UNEB).
5. Group work: Perspectives in historical and cultural development and their influence
in educational development in Uganda.
6. Group work: Indigenous knowledge systems in VET
7. Group work: Attitude towards indigenous knowledge systems in VET.
8. Group work: Gender issues affecting productivity in vocational education in Uganda; A case of Kyambogo University.
28
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