DesignforNext

12thEADConferenceSapienzaUniversityofRome

12-14April2017

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RethinkingWater:ACAAS(CityAsASpaceship)designapproachSusanFairburna,BarbaraImhofb,SusmitaMohantycSusanFairburn*

aGray’sSchoolofArt,RobertGordonUniversity,UKbLiquiferSystemsGroup(LSG),AustriacEarth2OrbitLLC,(India)*s.fairburn@rgu.ac.uk

Abstract:Waterisubiquitousandessential,yetwestruggletounderstanditfromasystemsperspective.Waterisaterrestrialclosed-loopsysteminvolvingindividuals,communities,citiesandgeographies,andassuch,mightitserveasametaphorforsustainabledesign?Weidentifyfourlocationsandframetheirconnectionsthroughwaterandsociety.This interaction is highly relevant to future dense urban environments and ofinteresttoCAAS(CityAsASpaceship)whoexplorereciprocitiesbetweenterrestrialand extra-terrestrial architecture and design. CAAS explores these approaches towatermanagement:1)CaliforniaState(UnitedStates)2)NewDelhi(India)3)TheInternationalSpaceStation(LowerEarthOrbit)4) Micro-Ecological Life-Support System Alternative (European Space AgencyResearchsettings)In this paper, CAAS applies design research approaches to curate and framereciprocities between situations and societies. Using locational case studies andcity-by-cityscaleinfographicsitgeneratesadiscursivespacefromwhichtoimagineconceptualshiftsinsustainabledesign.

Keywords:Water,ResourceManagement,Reciprocity,City,Spaceship

1.IntroductionWaterisoneofthemostpressingchallengesofthe21stcentury:whetherit’stoomuch,toolittleortoodirty.Violenttensionsoverwaterarecertainlynothingnew,buttheyareontherise.Basicdemand-supplyrulesgoalongwaytoexplainingthereasonsbehindthisgrowingfrictionandthreat.Waterresourcesarefiniteandthecombinationofasurgingworldpopulationandsteady

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industrialisationmeansthescrambleforwaterisrisingandthisdrivestheneedtodevelopamultitudeofsustainableapproachestowatermanagementandrecovery.

Understandingsocietalneedsandtheirimplicationforafiniteresourceisdifficultatthegloballevel,andchallengingevenattheurbanlevel.TheBrundtlandReport(OurCommonFuture,1987)publishedbytheWorldCommissiononEconomicDevelopment,iswherethetermsustainabledevelopmentwasfirstused.Itdescribedtheneedfordevelopmentthatwouldenableustomeetourpresentneedsinwaysthatwouldn’tjeopardizetheneedsofothers,particularlyfuturegenerations(WCED,1987).

Watermanagementandwaterrecoverysystemsarethereforebecomingincreasinglyimportantineverydayurban,sub-urbanandruralsettingsassystemsbecomestressed,aswestarttoanticipatetheimplicationsoffailures.Cleandrinkingwaterandsanitationareessentialtotherealisationofallhumanrights,yet884millionpeopledonothaveaccesstopotablewater(UNICEF,2015).Thispaperexploresthroughaseriesofcasestudiesthathighlightchallengesandsolutions;threeterrestrial(4.1,4.2and4.4)andoneextra-terrestrial(4.3).These,whenanalyzedwithadesign-ledCAAS(CityAsASpaceship)lens,cansetthegroundworkforlookingatwaterfromasystems-perspective,andhelptoconceptualisefutureapproachestoconsideringsustainabilityfromapositionofresourceabundancetoafullyclosed-loopbio-regenerativesystem.

2.BackgroundCAASisametaphorforlearningfromreciprocitiesbetweenaspaceshipandadensecity–environmentschallengedbyissuesofdensity,self-sufficiency,multi-cultural‘society’,confinedspaces,hygiene,recyclingofresourcesandenergyefficiency–alaunchandlandingatthesametime.Usingaspaceshipasaprecedent,withit’simminentcontextualrequirements,thevalueofeachdropofwater,singlebreathofair,freshlettuceorself-grownpotatoesisimmensebecausetheyareessentialforsurvivalintheextremeenvironmentsbeyondourearth’satmosphere.Facingenvironmentalchanges,fastgrowthofpopulation,andnaturaldisastersonearth,thereisaneedtoprioritisetheterrestrialenvironmentandits’resourcestosustaininghumanlife.CAASoffersviableapproachestomeetingtheneedsofterrestrialsocieties,todayandinthefuture,andemphasizingsustainabledesignsolutionsawayfromwaste-drivenproductionthatserveeconomies.

Inthispaper,theCAASdesign-ledapproachprovidesabroadlyframedanalysisofwater.AtthecoreofasystemsperspectiveonwaterwouldsittheAfricanproverb:“Filthywatercannotbewashed.”TheframesthroughwhichCAASexploreswatersystemsflowfromtheperspectivesof;Society,Environment,andEcology,whicharefurtherexpandedonwithanoverviewofDesignandTechnology.Theframeshelptoshapethespaceforconsideringfuturewatermanagementsystems.

Society:Withglobalpopulationbeyondsevenbillion,andrapidlyexpanding,therearealreadychallengesinmeetingthehumanrightssetoutbytheUnitedNations(UN).UNGeneralAssemblyResolution64/292statesthatcleandrinkingwaterandsanitationareessentialtotherealisationofallhumanrights.WHO/UNICEFreportsthatover90%oftheworld’spopulationnowhasaccesstoimprovedsourcesofdrinkingwater,howeverthatstillleaveshundredsofmillionsofpeoplewithoutaccess(UNICEF,2015).

Inunderstandingglobalfreshwaterdemands,thefirstrealizationisthatitisvirtuallyimpossibletomodelEnvironmentalWaterRequirements(EWR)onaglobalscale.Smakhtinandcolleagues(2004)presentedoneofthefirstattemptstodoso,basedonsimulationsusingaglobalhydrologymodel,withanaimtoinformenvironmentalwatermanagementapproachesandpolicies.Theirglobal

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assessmentapproachattemptedtoestimatethevolumeofwaterrequiredtomaintainfreshwaterdependentecosystems,Indoingso,theyconceivedoffourcategoriesofenvironmentalwatermanagementapproaches:Natural(unmodified),Good(slightlyormoderatelymodified),Fair(moderatelyorconsiderablymodified),andPoor(criticallymodifiedanddegraded).Theirworkhighlightedtheneedtocontextualisethecategoriesfromasocietalperspective,andtoidentifywatermanagementapproachesthatmeetthe‘Good’criteria,thoughitmaybethat‘FairtoGood’isamorerealistictargetforcitiesandgovernments.

Environment:Thispaperfocusesmainlyonurbanenvironments;locationswithhighhumandensitywherethereisextensiveexploitationofwaterresources.Smakhtinandcolleagues’(ibid)model

identifiedsignificanturban/ruralconcernsandtheneedformanagementinterventionstorestoreflowpatternsandriverhabitats,thusacknowledgingarelianceonareasoutlying.Theydefinedawaterstressindicatorandshowedtheproportionofutilizablewaterinriverbasinswithdrawnfordirecthumanuse.Theirfindingshighlightedthechallengesfacingwatermanagement,theimperativetoconsiderthesystematscale,andtheneedforregularglobalwaterassessment.Hence,currentsystemsandapproachesneedre-thinking,andre-designing,toachievealternativewatermanagementpracticeswithinurbansocieties,rapidintegrationofecosystemperspectives,anduptakeofpromisingemergenttechnologies.Thismacro/microperspectiveisofinteresttoCAAS.

Ecologyistherelationshipbetweenorganisms,peopleandtheirenvironment.Whenlookingatthe“spaceship”paradigmofCAAS,theISSservesaslivingexample(Fairburn,etal.,2014),withaspaceshipresemblingawholesystem,acomplexsystemthatprovidesshelter,energy,andnutrition,andhousesinhabitantsusingtechnologiestomanagewater,airandotherresources.ThustheecologiesoftheISSreferencetheinterrelationshipsbetweenshelter,energy,lifesupportandtheinhabitants(Figure1).

DesignandTechnology:Increasingproblemsofwatershortagehavestimulatedthedesignoftechnologicalapproachesandnewpartnerships.OneoftwoexamplesfoundinIndia,isthe‘SujalaDharaproject(ToilettoTapWater)’,anexampleofasolar-poweredplantthatutilisestechnologyintheformofaseriesofseven-layersoforganicandinorganicfilters,andanano-filtermembrane.Thisapproachcanproducearound4,000litresofcleanwaterperhourandcanoperatearoundtheclock.Analternativetechnologicalexampleisthe‘JanickiOmniprocessor’,whichintegratessimpletechnologyandutilisessewersludgetogeneratecleandrinkingwater,electricityandpathogen-freeash;anapproachthathasattractedtheattentionandsupportofphilanthropists(Gatesnotes,2015).

Technologiesthatemergedfromextra-terrestrialpursuitsarefindingtheirwaytoinformterrestrialcontexts,thoughtherearemoreopportunitiestoapplytheseapproachesinwatermanagement.ThetreatmentofwaterinspaceshipsbelongstotheareaofLifeSupportSystems(LSS),whichalsoincludestherevitalizationofbreathableair,foodproductionandtreatingorganicwastematerials,hencethesystemperspectiveisinherentinextra-terrestrialoperationaldesignmethods.Figure1conveysspaceshipecologiesthroughaclosed-loopvisualisation–thusreinforcingthelifesupportsystem,andspecificallywater,intheextremescenariooflifeinspace.

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Figure1.CAAS-ISSecologiesschematic.(ImageCredit,BarbaraImhof).

3.DesignresearchandmethodologyTheauthorscreatedCAASasaworkingresearchmethodologytoconsolidateverydifferentscenariosandenvironments(spaceandterrestrial),tobeassembledunderoneumbrella,tostudycommonalitiesandreciprocities.In2010,whentheCAASinitiativestarted,overlayingspaceandterrestrialhabitation,particularlyhabitationwithindensemega-citiesdistributedacrosstheplanet,wasunheardof.Tousecasestudiesfromthesecontrastingandextremeenvironments,whichseematfirstglancetobefarapart,andsearchfortheiroverlap,isamethodologyforinnovation(Figure2).

Morespecifically,theCAASmethodologyisaboutgoal-orientedproblemsolvingandtheabilitytochannelinformation,whichfurtherstheprojectorresearchquestiontowardsthethemeandfocusoftheproject.Itisabouttheevaluationofdatathroughcreativemeans,inthiscase,constantlymakinginferencesfromoverlayingscenarios–throughimagination,creationandvisualisation–asortofthoughtexperiment(Nersessian,1992).ItisimmersedinthebroadfieldofDesignResearch.AccordingtoMalikaBose,AssociateProfessoratthePennStateUniversity,designprocessesaresimilartoacriticalanalysisasundergoneinscientificwork(Bose,2007,p.126).Designstudiosofferaproductiveenvironmenttoenrichascientificwayofworkingwithacreativeculture,andtomergebothcultures.CAASwasconceivedinsuchanenvironmentandtheauthorshavebeendevelopingthisresearchapproachincollaborativeworksessionsandtwoworkresidencies;onewasself-

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organisedatLakeComoinItalyandmorerecentlyin2015,whentheauthorswereinvitedbytheKhojInternationalArtistAssociationinDelhitoconductatwo-weekintensiveArt/Scienceresidency“TheUndividedMind”(Khoj,2015).Theauthorsdevelopedthedesignresearchapproachontwodifferentlevels:

Researchbydesign:takingdesignorcasestudiesforresearchanalysis

Designbyresearch:takingresearchresultsasbasisfordesign-orientedoutputs

Figure2.CAAS’Designresearchmethodology.(ImageCredit,BarbaraImhof,SueFairburn).

AsshowninFigure2,thisdesignresearchapproachinvolveslocationalscenariosandinfographics,whicharecomposedtodelivertheanalysisofthework,fromwhichinsightsaredrawntoaddtothediscoursewithinagivenarea,suchasthedesignofenvironments.TheCAASmentalmodelisthefirststeptowardsaconceptualshift,beginningwithacarefullycuratedsetofcasestudiesselectedforanalysis,asoutlinedinthenextsection,andfollowedbycomparativeanalysisatacity-by-cityscale.

4.LocationalScenariosThissectionpresentscasestudiescoveringarangeofgloballocations,approachesandissuespertinenttoanalysingandinformingfutureapproachestowatermanagement.Centraltoallscenariospresentedistheconnectionframedthroughwaterandsociety.Threeofthemareterrestrial-basedandoneisextra-terrestrial.

4.1CASESTUDY“A”:CALIFORNIA,USALocation:NorthernHemisphere.Latitude120W,Longitude37NRemoteness:WellconnectedtotherestoftheUnitedStatesandmajorcitiesworldwideSociety:38.8Millionin2015Watersources:Groundwater,ColoradoRiver,SanJoaquinRiver,SanFranciscoBay,Lakes

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Startingin2011/2012(andstillongoing),California,oneoftheworld’smostprosperouseconomieshasbeenfacingoneofthemostseveredroughtsonrecord.WaterinCaliforniaisverycloselymanaged,withanextensivepipelinenetworktoservethemostpopulatedanddryareasofthestate.Precipitationislimited,withthevastmajorityofrainandsnowfalloccurringinthewintermonths,inthenorthernpartofthestate.Thisdelicatebalancemeansthatadryrainyseasoncanhavelastingconsequences.Astheworld'slargest,mostproductive,andmostcontroversialwatersystem,itmanagesover49km3ofwaterperyear(Jenkinsetal,2004).

Waterandwaterrightsareamongthestate'sdivisivepoliticalissues.Anongoingdebateiswhetherthestateshouldincreasetheredistributionofwatertoitslargeagriculturalandurbansectorsorincreaseconservationandpreservethenaturalecosystemsofthewatersources.AsthemostpopulousstateintheU.S.andamajoragriculturalproducer,droughtinCaliforniacanhavesevereeconomicaswellasenvironmentalimpact.Thestateadministrationhasrespondedwithasenseofurgencyworthyofemulationbyotherpartsoftheworldthatareseekingsolutions,regulationsandtheresolvetoconservewateraggressively.Californiahasbroughtinregulation,behaviouralcampaigns,anddisseminationofpractices,asthemain‘technology’tosaveeverydropofwatertheycan.Californiansareurgednottorelaxtheirwater-savinghabitsandtocontinueconservingbyreducingoreliminatingoutdoorirrigationwhenit’swetandkeepinghouseholdwaterusetotheessentials.Theirapproachescouldbecriticizedastoolaxgiventhelong-termimplicationsonwidersociety.

4.2CASESTUDY“B”:‘SUJALADHARA-TOILETTOTAP’WATERPROJECT,NEWDELHI,INDIALocation:SouthHemisphere,Latitude:28.6139ELongitude:77.2090ERemoteness:India’scapitalcitywithexcellentconnectivitybyrail,roadandairSociety:18,686,902asofFebruary2016 Watersources:RiversYamunaandGanga,BhakrastorageinPunjab

InJuly2015,ArvindKejriwal,theChiefMinisterofNewDelhiinauguratedthepilotproject“SujalaDhara--Toilettotapwater”attheKeshopurSewageTreatmentPlant.TheDelhiJalBoardhaspartneredwithSANA(SocialAwareness,NewerAlternatives)toimplementaprojectthatrecyclessewagewasteintodrinkingwater.Theplantisgenerallyaffordableandpoweredbysolarenergy.Itcanproducearound4,000litresofcleanwatereveryhour,andrunningcontinuouslythat’s25millionlitresofdrinkingwaterperyear.ThetechnologywasdesignedbyAbsoluteWater,anintegratedwatermanagementcompany(AbsoluteWater,2016).Thewaterfromthesewagepitgoesthroughabiofilterthathassevenlayersoforganicandinorganicmaterialincludingplants,earthworms,sandandpebbles,andthenthroughanano-filtermembraneforfurthertreatment.However,interestinthistechnologyhascomeupagainstasocietalmentalblockaroundtheuseoftreatedsewage,eventhoughweknowfromexperienceontheISSthatthetechnologyisdoableinbothsettingsandthatthetreatedwaterisfitfordrinking.

Thesekindsofwaterprojects,emergentfromenvironmentaldesignandtechnology,arenotlimitedtoDelhi.Drivenbynecessityandwaterscarcity,denselypopulatedurbanIndiancitieshavebegunpursuingotherwatermanagementstrategiesthatareakintothesystemsthatarebeingdesignedandusedinextra-terrestrialenvironments.Manycitieshavemadeitmandatoryforallnewresidentialandcommercialdevelopmentstorecycleandreusewaterlocallyandlocalmunicipalitiesareencouragingandenforcingrainwaterharvestinginsomestates.Forexample,inTamilNadu,rainwaterharvestingwasmadecompulsoryforeverybuildingtoavoidgroundwaterdepletionand

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hasbeenrathersuccessful(Waterharvesters,2016).Theharvestedrainwatercanbeusedasdrinkingwater,longer-termstorageandforotherpurposessuchasgroundwaterrecharge.

ThecultureofwaterconservationisnotentirelynewtoanoldcivilizationsuchasIndia.Anarchitecturallypicturesquewaytoaccessgroundwateraccesswasthroughbeautifullydesigned“stepwells”.MostcommoninwesternIndiaandaridregionsofsouthAsia,stepwellsarewellsinwhichthewatermaybereachedbydescendingasetofsteps.ThepracticalideaspreadnorthtothestateofRajasthan,alongthewesternborderofIndia,whereseveralthousandsofthesewellswerebuilt,withthisconstructionapproachhittingitspeakfromthe11thto16thcentury(LivingstonandBeach,2002).Mostexistingstepwellsdatefromthelast800years.

Stepwellsareexcellentexamplesofbuiltwatermanagementtocopewithseasonalfluctuationsinwateravailability,toaccessgroundwater,andtomaintainandmanagethesystems.Aswellasprovidingaccesstopotablewater,stepwellsalsoservedaleisurepurposeforsociety,withthebaseofthewellprovidingrelieffromdaytimeheatandaplaceforsocialgatheringsandreligiousceremonies.Watermanagementandsocietalcustomsneednotbedivisive.

4.3CASESTUDY“C”:INTERNATIONALSPACESTATION,LOWEARTHORBIT Location:ISScruisingaltitude400kmfromEarthRemoteness:OrbitstheEarthevery90minutes;servicedbyhumanandcargoferriesSociety:maximumof6 Watersource:TheISSreceiveswatersuppliesviacargoshipssuchastheRussianProgressspacecraft,EuropeanATV(AutomatedTransferVehicle),JapaneseHTV(H-2TransferVehicle),AmericanDragoncapsule.

TheISSorbitstheearthevery90minutes400kmabovetheearth’ssurfacewithaspeedof27,000km/hr.TheISSisbigenoughtobeviewedwithanakedeyefromearthwithatotalvolumeof916m3andthespreadofasoccerfield.Since2000ithasbeenpermanentlyoccupied,firstwithacrewof3andfrom2009onwards,witha6-person-crew.Itisthelargestinternationalcooperationprojectforthepeacefuluseofouterspace.Itservesasscientifictest-bedinpreparationoffuturemissionstotheMoonandtoMars.

Forasix-monthstay,anastronautneedsapproximately0.5tonsofwater,andforsixastronautsthattranslatestonearly3tonsofwater(Figure3).Withinternationallaunchratesrangingfrom€30000-36000perkg,waterbecomesaratherexpensiveresourcethatisshippedtoorbit,thusrecyclingthispreciousresourcebecomesimperativewiththepushtoexploreoffplanet.

Fig.3:LiferequirementsonEarthandinSpaceaccordingtoNASA,courtesyofNASA.

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OntheISStherearetwodifferentwatertreatmentsystems.OntheUSside,theastronautsdrinkafilteredmixturethatincludesrecycledhygienewater,condensate,astronautbreathandsweat,andurinefromcrewmembers.SometimestheastronautsgoovertotheRussiansegmentandcollecttheurinetouseitfortheUSsystem.TheISSalsostoresabout2000litresofwaterinreserveforemergencypurposes.TheISSwatersystemwasdesignedanddevelopedtogetherwiththeairrevitalizationsystem.BothsystemsarepartoftheoverallISSEnvironmentalControlandLifeSupportSystem(ECLSS).WhiletheISSECLSShasundergoneconstantupgradesandimprovements,itisnotafullyclosed-loopyetbutitwouldneedtobeforlongdurationhumanmissionstoMoonandMars.

PartsoftheISSECLSShavebeenusedinterrestrialwatertreatmentsystemse.g.theMicrobialCheckValve(MCV)thatisanintegralcomponentofthewaterpurificationandfiltrationprocess.TheMCVisaniodinated-resinthatprovidesasimplewaytocontrolmicrobialgrowthinwaterwithouttheuseofpower.Bydispensingiodineintothewater,itperformsanimportantsecondarynutritionalfunctionforhumans.Thischemical,whenaddedtothediet,promotesproperbrainfunctionsandmaintainsbodilyhormonelevels--whichregulatecelldevelopmentandgrowth.CollaborationsbetweenNASAandaidorganizationshaveledtowaterrecoverysystemsusingtheMCV,thustheseextra-terrestrialapproachestowatermanagementhavebeenappliedtoaddressterrestrialissues.

4.4CASESTUDY“D”:MELiSSA,UNIVERSITATAUTONOMAdeBARCELONA,SPAIN.Location:NorthernHemisphere.Latitude:41.390205Longitude:2.154007 Remoteness:IntheprovinceofCatalunya,Spain.Excellentconnectivity.Society:Irrelevant;CurrentlyitisanexperimentaltestbedhousedinauniversityWatersource:Irrelevant

Thisfinalcasestudydrawsourfocustofuturelong-termspacemissionsandpermanentstaysonextra-terrestrialsurfacesforwhichwillrequireaclosedLifeSupportSystem.Itisintendedtobeaclosed-loopsystem,andisconceivedasanetworkoffiveconnectedbiologicalcompartments.Eachofthesecompartmentshasadifferentbiochemicalfunctionthatallowsforexchangeofgasesandfluids.Theastronautsproducebiowastethatisfedintotheliquefyingcompartmentwhereanoxygenicfermentationtakesplaceusingbacteria,aprocesswhichsetsfreevolatilefattyacids,ammonia,andminerals.Thesereachthesecondcompartment,whichallowsforaphotoheterotrophicprocessi.e.thedecompositionofthematerialsthroughanothertypeofbacteria.Bothcompartmentsandtheastronautsreleasecarbondioxidewhichisfedintothelooptothealgaecompartment.Inthiscompartment,thealgaetransformthecarbondioxideintooxygenthroughaphotosyntheticprocess,andtheastronautscanrecoverwaterasaby-product.Afterthesecondbacterialdecomposition,ammoniaandmineralsgointothenitrifyingcompartmentwhereoxygenisadded.Theresultingnitratesareusedfortheplantcompartment.Thecrewtendstheplantsandharvestsvegetables.Afullyclosedloopbio-regenerativesystemthatservestoinspireandinnovatefutureterrestrialandextra-terrestrialwaterandresourcemanagementsystems,alike.OneoftheESA-incubatedDutchcompaniesIP-Staroffersgrey,yellow,blackwaterrecycling,nutrientrecovery,foodproduction,toxin/pathogensandmicro-pollutantremoval,allderivedfromtheMELiSSAsystem(figure4).Also,intheveryisolatedAntarcticConcordiaResearchStation,blackandgreywatertreatmenttranslatedfromtheMELiSSAspaceapplicationproduceswater,whichfollowsthehygieneandsafetystandardsforpotablewater.(Battrick2004)

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Figure4:MELISSAsupportsystemsdiagram(waterisshownasblueline).(Credit:LIQUIFERSystemsGroup,Schematic:AnneMarleneRüede,2014)

5.CAASComparativeAnalysis Wefurtherexploredthe“city”asa“spaceship”metaphorandusinggraphicalrepresentationsofinformationonwatermanagementandrecovery(dataonspecificurbansettings)asacomplementarywaytocommunicateandmakeinferences.Weattemptedtomapterrestrialwatertendencies,specificallylookingatwaterconsumption,wastewatertreated,waterqualityatsource,investmentintowatersystemspercapita,andefficiencies.ThissectionprovidesaCAAS-basedanalysisthroughtwosetsofvisualdata.Figure5presentsasetcomparingandcontrastingtheworld’sdensestcitiessuchasMumbai,Tokyo,NewYork,SaoPaulo,Cairo,MexicoCity,Amsterdam,Paris,Lagos,Johannesburg,andcomparesthemtosmallercounterparts,suchasSanFrancisco,Toronto,andVienna.

Thissetcomparing15citiesoftheworldallowsustoseehowcitiesmanagetheirwaterresourcesandthedegreetowhichtheyinvestinqualityandefficiencies.Asaninfographic,itevidencesthevariablerelationshipinwaterefficiencyandwastewatertreatedbetweencitiesfromindustriallyadvancednations(e.g.Amsterdam,NewYork,Tokyo,TorontoandVienna)andthoselessindustrializedones(e.g.SaoPaolo,MexicoCity,Cairo),withtheformerachievingagoodbalanceofoverallsystemefficiency,likelyconfirmatoryoftheirinvestmentpercapita,despitetheindicativewaterqualityatsource.Butthereismoretoit-evenamongtheindustrialnations,waterconsumptionpatternsvarywidely.Althoughthiscomparativeanalysisoffersinsightsintosocietalfactorsofwateruse,managementandrecovery,andgiven‘profile’mightsuggestthecombinationofapproachesforsustainablethinkingandpractices,furtheranalysesandthinkingisnecessarytogetanin-depthunderstandingofwhatthesemapsconvey.

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Figure5:Citiesoftheworld:WATER–avisualvectorportrayalofcomparativedatapointsforWaterManagementandRecovery,Imagecredit:AnneMarleneRüede,2016.

6.ConclusionsThispaperproposesinpart,thatwaterservesasametaphorforashared,commongood,thatlinksusthroughoursharedresponsibilities.Itpositionsthisalongsidethe‘spaceship’paradigm,wherebythespaceshipresemblesawhole,complexsystemthatprovidesshelter,energy,andnutrition,andhousesinhabitantsusingtechnologiestomanagewater,airandotherresources.Itisproposedthat

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thisparadigmrelatesstronglytosustainability–whichatthecoreconsidersresourceutilisationanddepletion(Walker,2006,p.81),givingprioritytotheenvironment(ibid,p.5),andrequiringasharedsenseofresponsibilityacrossthesystem.Wehavenotyetachievedthatsharedresponsibility,butthispaperframestheemergingreciprocitiesbetweenlivingonandoffplanetandthesystemsthathavehadtobedevelopedtosupportlifeinthelatterextreme.

WastemanagementstrategiesonEartharenowstartingtomirrorthoseofSpace.Theclosed-loopMELiSSAlife-supportsystemsimplementedinSpain,aswellasthesemi-closedloopISS-basedlife-supportsystems,arenowfindingtheirwayintourbanandsuburbanpartsoftheworld–fromCaliforniatoNewDelhi.Thetechnologiesemployedfromplacetoplacemightvarysomewhat,buttheultimateobjectiveisthesame:treatmentofsewageeffluentstogeneratepotablewater.TheNewDelhicasestudyisplayingoutinotherpartsoftheworldwiththeirownregionalnarratives.Withthedepletionofgroundwater,riverwaterandlakes,bothindustrializedandemergingeconomieshavestartedtoemploypoliciesandregulationsthattreatwasteasaresource.Seekingtostretchtheglobalallotmentofriverwater,lakesandgroundwater,wateragenciesworldwidearestartingtorecyclesewageeffluent,legislatingrainwaterharvesting,promotingrenewabilityandefficiency,andresponsiblelifestyles.Additionally,theCaliforniacaststudy,highlightsissuesgroundedinhistoricalapproachestolarge-scaleland-basedinfrastructureforurbanprosperity,plusissuesarisingfromwaterscarcity,supportingthelackofcorrelationbetweenresourcevalue,societaluse,andlifestyle.

CAAS’researchmethodologies,involvingconsolidatingverydifferentscenariosandenvironmentstostudytheircommonalitiesandtoframereciprocities,offersameanstoenrichascientificwayofworkingwithacreativeculture,andtomergebothcultures.Closingthelooponwaterisapriorityandthispaperpresentscontentandappliesdesignresearchtoinformourunderstandingofsustainabilitythroughwater,whichisitselfaclosed-loopsystem.Asachallengeofglobalproportions,providingaconsistentsupplyofpotablewaterhasbecomeakeytalkingpointofpoliticians,philanthropists,citizenactivistsandpolicymakersalike.Architects,designersandengineershaveanimportantroletoplayinapplyingdesignstrategiestominimizetheuseofwaterandmaximizewatermanagementandrecovery–bothonandofftheplanet.InthewordsofDavidSchindler,oneofCanada’smostinfluentialenvironmentalscientists:“Wearegoingtoforgetallabouttheeconomywhenwerunoutofwater”.

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AbouttheAuthors:

SueFairburnMScMEDesisaDesignEducatorandResearcherwhoworksbetweentheboundariesofthebody,societyandenvironments.HerresearchandpracticeusesknowledgeexchangeinSocialDesignandDesignforExtremes–howthisfeedscreativity,resilienceandconceptualshiftsinhowwelive.

BarbaraImhof,PhDisaspacearchitectandtheco-founder/co-manageroftheLIQUIFERSystemsGroupaplatformforarchitecture,design,humanfactors,systemsengineering,physicsandspacetechnology.Sheworkstrans-disciplinary,cross-culturalandcross-generationalcollaborationsandwasamemberoftheAntarcticBiennale[2017]

SusmitaMohanty,PhDisaspaceshipdesignerandaerospaceentrepreneurwholivesarenaissancelifewithoutboundaries.ShewasamemberoftheAntarcticBiennale[2017]andshelivedinisolationonasimulatedMartianoutpostintheUtahdesert[2004].SheistheCEOofEarth2Orbit,India’sfirstprivatestart-up.