Post on 29-May-2018
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Research Methodology The means by which researchers are
able to make conclusive statements
about their studies with a minimum of
bias
Organized Inquiry
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Why Research? Hudson Maxim (US Scientist):
All progress is born of inquiry
Doubt is better than overconfidence
Leads to inquiry
Inquiry leads to invention
Research is the foundation of invention Research encourages scientific and inductive
thinking
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Research Methodology TWO TYPES:
Scientific
Historical
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Research Methodology TWO TYPES:
Scientific
Identification of TOPIC AREA
Formulation of the HYPOTHESIS
TESTING the hypothesis
CONLUSION Historical
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Research Methodology TWO TYPES:
Scientific
Historical
Identification of SOURCES
Confirmation of AUTHENTICITY &
PROVENANCE Testing RELIABILITY
SYNTHESIS
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BIAS
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BIAS
There are three kinds of lies:
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BIAS
There are three kinds of lies:
Lies
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BIAS
There are three kinds of lies:
Lies
Damned lies
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BIAS
There are three kinds of lies:
Lies
Damned lies
Statistics!
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BIAS
There are three kinds of lies:
Lies
Damned lies
Statistics!
Benjamin Disraeli as quoted by Mark Twain
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Unscientific Method
Imagination
Opinion
Blind belief
Vague and inaccurate
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Basis of Scientific Method
Reliance on Empirical Evidence
Use of Relevant Concepts
Commitment of Objectivity
Ethical Neutrality
Science and with that, accurate data states facts
without imposing any good or bad Generalization within a group/segment
Verifiability
Logical Reasoning Process (for drawing inference)
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Reasoning
Deduction:
Is a form of inference
For a deduction to be correct, it must be
true and valid
Premises (reasons) given for conclusionmust agree with the real world (true)
The conclusion must necessarily follow
from the premises (valid)
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Reasoning
Deduction: Example
Suburban HH interviewing is difficult and
expensive: Premise 1
This survey involves substantial suburban
HH interviewing: Premise 2
The interviewing in this survey will be
difficult and expensive: Conclusion
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Reasoning
Induction:
Induction occurs when we observe a fact
and ask 'why is this?'
We give a tentative explanation (hypothesis)
Deduction is the process by which we testwhether hypothesis is capable of explaining
the fact
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Reasoning
Combining Induction and Deduction:
We advertise a product, but sales don't increase
(Fact)
We ask why didn't sales increase?' (Induction)
We infer to answer the question: the
advertisement was poorly executed (Hypothesis) We use this hypothesis to conclude that the sales
will not increase during a poorly executed
promotion (Deduction)
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Concepts
Are mental representation and are typically basedon experience
Concepts can be of real phenomena (clouds,pain, dogs)
Concepts can be agreed-upon phenomena (truth,
beauty, justice, prejudice, value etc) Concepts can be measured
Concepts develop over shared usage
Travel time and distance
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Constructs
Constructs are combination of concepts and
difficult to measure
Things such as IQ, leisure, satisfaction
environmental values etc are constructs
Construct is central to research and
questionnaire is built around concepts
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Variables
Dependent variable
Independent variable
Moderating variable: a second independent
variable included for better fit/explanation
Extraneous variable: can be included asindependent or moderating variable
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Variables
Intervening variable: factor which
theoretically affects the observed phenomena
Introduction 4-day workweek (Ind. Var.) will leadto higher productivity (Dep. Var.) by increasing
job satisfaction (Int. Var.)
A promotion campaign (IV) will increase savingsactivity (DV), especially when free prizes are
offered (MV), but chiefly among smaller savers
(EV-control). The results come from enhancing
the motivation to save (IVV)
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Purpose of Research
Knowledge extension
Establishes generalization to help in:
Building laws
Specific knowledge in different fields
Make reliable predictions
To verify and test existing facts & theory tohandle emerging situations
To find out inter-relationships between
variables
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Purpose of Research
Finding solution to problems related to:
Socio-economic
Human relations
Health etc
Research provides data input to business and
national planning activities Provides in developing new concepts and
theories for better understanding of unknown
phenomena
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Types of Research
Pure Research
Basic or fundamental: Science, Medicine etc
New or refinement
Applied Research:
Practical-Problem-Oriented and Action-
Oriented Testing of theory or to get conceptual clarity
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Types of Research
Exploratory Research
Study of an unfamiliar problem
Done at two levels Discovering significant variables of influence
Discovery of relationship between variables
Descriptive Study: More specific than exploratory
Fact-finding involving interpretations
Useful for planning social action programs
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Types of Research
Diagnostic Study
Extension to descriptive method
Requires some prior knowledge about variables Useful for identifying causes of a problem and possible
solutions for it
Evaluation Studies
Type of applied research
To assess impact of projects to be implemented or
after implementation on benefits of projects
Also concerned with study of change over time
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Types of Research
Action Research
Extension to evaluation studies
Is a concurrent study of actions under way duringimplementation
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Classification by Methods of Study
Experimental Research
Laboratory / Field
Pretest Posttest studies
Analytical Study:
Data analysis
Mathematical models or statistical tools Tests hypothesis and interpret relationships
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Classification by Methods of Study
Historical Research
Past data analysis to discover trends
Depends upon logical analysis of past data andindirect evidence
Survey:
Fact finding study
From the population or representative samples
Establish cause-effect relationship for making
predictions
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Research Approaches
Qualitative
Subjective assessment of opinion, behaviour
and attitudes Influenced by researcher's insights and
interpretations
Involves depth interviews, focus-groupinterviews and projective techniques
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Research Approaches
Quantitative:
Collection of quantitative data
Includes qualitative factors measured onscales
Put to quantitative analysis for interpretation
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Significance of Research
Business & Economy:
Explore alternatives for strategies and policy
formulation Information for decision making in operational
process
Understand process of change
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Significance of Research
Social System:
Information about demographic structure,
behaviour and shifts Understand changes in social system
Find explanation to social problems
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Significance of Research
Government:
Investigation of economic structure through
continual compilation of data Diagnosis of progress of projects
The Prognosis: prediction for future
development