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SYSTEM CONCEPTS
A system can be simply defined as a group ofinterrelated or interacting elements forming a
unified whole. Many examples of systems can
be found in the physical and biological
sciences, in modern technology, and in human
society. Thus, we can talk of the physical
system of the sun and its planets, the biological
system of the human body, the technological
system of an oil refinery, and the
socioeconomic system of a business
organization.
A system is a group of interrelated
components working together toward a
common goal by accepting inputs and
producing outputs in an organized
transformation process. Such a system
(sometimes called a dynamic system) has three
basic interacting components or functions:
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Input involves capturing and assembling
elements that enter the system to be
processed. For example, raw materials, energy,
data, and human efforts must be secured and
organized for processing.
Processing involves transformation process
that convert input into output. Examples are a
manufacturing process, the human breathing
process, or mathematical calculations.
Output involves transferring elements that
have been produced by a transformation
process to their ultimate destination. For
example, finished products, human services,
and management information must be
transmitted to their human users.
Example
A manufacturing system accepts raw
materials as input and produces finished goods
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as output. An information system also is a
system that accepts resources (data) as input
and process them into products (information)
as output.
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FEEDBACK AND CONTROL
A system with feedback and control
components is sometimes called a cyberneticsystem, that is, a self-monitoring, self-
regulating system.
Feedback is data about the performance of
a system. For example, data about sales
performance is feedback to a sales manager.
Control involves monitoring and evaluating
feedback to determine whether a system is
moving toward the achievement of its goal. The
control function then makes necessaryadjustments to a systems input and processing
components to ensure that it produces proper
output. For example, a sales manager exercises
control when he or she reassigns salespersons
to new sales territories after evaluating
feedback about their sales performance.
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Feedback is frequently included as part of the
concept of the control function because it is
such a necessary part of its operation.
Example
A familiar example of a self-monitoring,
self-regulating system is the thermostat
controlled heating system found in many
homes; it automatically monitors and regulates
itself to maintain a desired temperature.
Another example is the human body, which can
be regarded as cybernetic system thatautomatically monitors and adjusts many of its
functions, such as temperature, heartbeat, and
breathing.
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OTHER SYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS
A system does not exist in a vacuum;
rather, it exists and functions in and
environment containing other systems. If a
system is one of the components of a larger
system, it is a subsystem, and the larger
system in environment. Also, its environment.
Also, its system boundary separates a system
from its environment and other systems.
Example
Organizations such as businesses and
government agencies are good examples of the
systems in society, which is their environment.
Society contains a multitude of such systems,
including individuals and their social, political,
and economic institutions. Organizations
themselves consist of many subsystems, such
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as departments, divisions, process teams, and
other workgroups. Organizations are examples
of open systems because they interface and
interact with other systems in their
environment. Finally, organizations are
examples of adaptive systems, since they can
modify themselves to meet the demands of a
changing environment.
COMPONENTS OF AN INFORMATION SYSTEM
An information system is a system that
accepts data resources as input and processes
them into information products as output.
An information system depends on the
resources of people (end users and IS
specialists), hardware (machines and media),
software (programs and procedures), data
(data and knowledge basis), and networks
(communications media and network support)
to perform input, processing, output, storage,
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and control activities that convert data
resources into information products.
This information system model highlightsthe relationships among the components and
activities of information systems. It provides a
framework that emphasizes four major
concepts that can be applied to all types of
information systems:
People, hardware, software, data, and
networks are the five basic resources of
information systems.
People resources include end users and ISspecialists, hardware resources consist of
machines and media, software resources
include both programs and procedures, data
resources can include data and knowledge
bases, and network resources include
communications media and networks.
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Data resources are transformed by
information processing activities into a variety
of information products for end users.
Information processing consists of input,
processing, output, storage, and control
activities.
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INFORMATION SYSTEM RESOURCES
(i) PEOPLE RESOURCES
People are required for the operation of all
information systems. These people resources
include end users and IS specialists.
End users (also called users or clients) are
people who use an information system or the
information it produces. They can be
accountants, salespersons, engineers, clerks,
customers, or managers. Most of us are
information system end users.
IS Specialists are people who develop and
operate information systems. They include
systems analysts, programmers, computer
operators, and other managerial technical, and
clerical IS personnel. Briefly, systems analysts
design information systems based on the
information requirements of end uses,
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midrange computer systems, and large
mainframe computer systems.
Computer peripherals, which are devicessuch as a keyboard or electronic mouse for
input of data and commands, a video screen or
printer for output of information, and magnetic
or optical disks for storage of data resources.
(iii) SOFTWARE RESOURCES
The concept of Software Resources includes
all sets of information processing instructions.
This generic concept of software includes not
only the sets of operating instructions called
programs, which direct and control computer
hardware, but also the sets of information
processing instructions needed by people,
called procedures.
It is important to understand that even
information systems that dont use computers
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have a software resource component. This is
true even for the information systems of
ancient times, or the manual and machine-
supported information systems still used in the
world today. They all require software
resources in the form of information processing
instructions and procedures in order to
properly capture, process, and disseminate
information to their users.
The following are the examples of
software resources:
System Software, such as an operating
system program, which con controls and
supports the operations of a computer system.
Application Software, which are programs
that direct processing for a particular use of
computers by end users. Examples are a sales
analysis program, a payroll program, and a
work processing program.
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Procedures, which are operating
instructions for the people who will use an
information system. Examples are instructions
for filling out a paper form or using a software
package.
(iv) DATA RESOURCES
Data is more than the raw material of
information systems. The concept of data
resources has been broadened by managers
and information systems professionals. They
realize that data constitutes a valuable
organization resource. Thus, you should view
data as data resources that must be managed
effectively to benefit all end users in an
organization.
Data can take many forms, including
traditional alphanumeric data, composed of
numbers and alphabetical and other characters
that describe business transactions and other
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events and entities. Text data, consisting of
sentences and paragraphs used in written
communications; image data, such as graphic
shapes and figures; and audio data, the human
voice and other sounds, are also important
forms of data.
The data resources of information systems
are typically organized into:
Database that hold processed and
organized data.
Knowledge bases that hold knowledge in
variety of forms such as facts, rules, and caseexamples about successful business practices.
For example, data about sales transactions may
be accumulated and stored in a sales database
for subsequent processing that yields daily,
weekly, and monthly sales analysis reports for
management. Knowledge bases are used by
knowledge management systems and expert
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systems to share knowledge and give expert
advice on specific subjects.
DATA VERSUS INFORMATION
The word data is the plural of datum, though
data commonly represents both singular and
plural forms. Data are raw facts or
observations, typically about physical
phenomena or business transactions. For
example, a spacecraft launch or the sale of an
automobile would generate a lot of data
describing those events. More specifically, dataare objective measurements of the attributes
(the characteristics) of entities (such as people,
places, things, and events).
Example
A spacecraft launch generates vast amounts of
data. Electronic transmissions of data
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NETWORK RESOURCES
Telecommunications networks like the Internet,
intranets, and extranets have become essential
to the successful operations of all types of
organizations and their computer-based
information systems. Telecommunications
networks consist of computers,
communications processors, and other devices
interconnected by communications media and
controlled by communications software. The
concept of Network resources emphasizes that
communications networks are a fundamental
resource component of all information systems.
Network resources include:
Communication media, Examples
include twisted pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-
optic cable, microwave systems, and
communication satellite systems.
Network Support, This generic category
includes all of the people, hardware, software,
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directly into a computer system. This usually
includes a variety of editing activities to ensure
that they have recorded data correctly. Once
entered, data may be transferred onto a
machine-readable medium such as a magnetic
disk until needed for processing.
For example, data about sales transactions
can be recorded on source documents such aspaper sales order forms. (A source document is
the original formal record of a transaction).
Alternately, salespersons can capture sales
data using computer keyboards or optical
scanning devices; they are visually prompted to
enter data correctly by video displays. This
provides them with a more convenient and
efficient user interface, that is, methods of end
user input and output with a computer system.
Methods such as optical scanning and displays
of menus, prompts, and fill-in-the-blanks
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formats make it easier for end users to enter
data correctly into an information system.
(ii) PROCESSING OF DATA INTO INFORMATION
Data is typically subjected to processing
activities such as calculating, comparing,
sorting, classifying, and summarizing. These
activities organize, analyze and manipulate
data, thus converting them into information for
end users. The quality of any data stored in an
information system must also be maintained by
a continual process of correcting and updatingactivities.
For example, data received about a
purchase can be (1) added to a running total of
sales results, (2) compared to a standard to
determine eligibility for a sales discount, (3)
sorted in numerical order based on product
identification numbers, (4) classified into
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How they support the business operations,
managerial decision-making, or competitive
advantage of a business.
This kind of understanding will help you be a
better user, developer, and manager of
information system.
THE EXPANDING ROLES OF INFORMATION
SYSTEM
You will also see that the roles given to theinformation systems functions have expand
significantly over the years.
TRENDS INFORMATION SYSTEMS
Until the 1990s, the role of information
systems was simple, transaction processing,
record-keeping, accounting, and other
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electronic data processing (EDP) applications.
Then another role was added, as the concept of
management information system (MIS) was
conceived. This new role focused on providing
managerial end users with predefined
management reports that would give managers
the information they needed for decision-
making purposes.
By the 1970s, it was evident that the pre-
specified information products produced by
such management information systems were
not adequately meeting many of the (DSS) was
born. The new role for information systems was
to provide managerial end users with ad hoc
and interactive support of their decision-
making processes.
In the 1980s, several new roles for
information systems appeared. First, the rapid
development of microcomputer processing
power, application software packages, and
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information are meetings, telephone calls, and
social activities. Thus, much of a top
executives information comes from non-
computer services. Computer generated
information ahs not played a primary role in
meeting many top executives information
needs.
OTHER CLASSIFICATIONS OF INFORMATION
SYSTEMS
(i) EXPERT SYSTEMS
An expert system is a knowledge-based
information systems; that is, it uses its
knowledge about a specific area to act as an
expert consultant to users. The components of
an expert system are a knowledge base and
software modules that perform inferences on
the knowledge and offer answers to a users
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questions. Expert systems are being used in
many different fields, including medicine,
engineering, the physical sciences, and
business. For example, expert systems now
help diagnose illnesses, search for minerals,
analyze compounds, recommend repairs, and
do financial planning. Expert systems can
support either operations or management
activities.
(ii) KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
Knowledge Management systems (KMS),
Workers create, organize, and share important
business knowledge wherever and whenever it
is needed. For example, many knowledge
management systems rely on Internet and
intranet Web sites, knowledge bases, and
discussion forums as key technologies for
gathering, storing, and disseminating business
knowledge. In this way, knowledge
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management systems facilitate organization
learning and knowledge creation and
dissemination within the business enterprise.
(iii) STRATEGIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS
The strategic role of information systems
involves using information technology to
develop products, services, and capabilities
that give a company strategic advantages over
the competitive forces it faces in the global
marketplace. This creates strategic information
system, information systems that support or
shape the competitive position and strategies
of an enterprise. So a strategic information
system can be any kind of information systems
(TPS, MIS, DSS, etc.) that helps an organization
gain a competitive advantage, reduce a
competitive disadvantage, or meet other
strategic enterprise objectives.
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Problems and opportunities are identified
in the first step of the systems approach. A
problem can be defined as a basic condition
that is causing undesirable results. An
opportunity is a basic condition that presents
the potential for desirable results. Symptoms
must be separated from problems. Symptoms
are merely signals of an underlying cause or
problem.
Example
Symptom: Sales of a companys products
are declining. Problem: Sales persons are
losing orders because they cannot get current
information on product prices and availability.
Opportunity: We could increase sales
significantly if sales persons could receive
instant responses to requests for price
quotations and product availability.
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POST IMPLEMENTATION REVIEW
The final step of the systems approach
recognizes that an implemented solution canfail to solve the problem for which it was
developed. The real world has a way of
confounding even the most well-designed
solutions. Therefore, the results of
implementing a solution should be monitoredand evaluated. This is called a postimple-
implemented. The focus of this step is to
determine if the implemented solution has
indeed helped the firm and selected
subsystems meet their system objectives. If
not, the systems approach assumes you will
cycle back to a previous step and make another
attempt to find a workable solution.
THE SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT CYCLE.
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Systems
Investigatio
n
Systems
Analysis
Product
Systems
Design
Understand the
Business Problem or
Opportunity
Develop an
Information System
Solution
Determine whether a business
problem or opportunity exists.
Conduct a feasibility study to
determine whether a new or
improved information system is a
feasible solution.
Analyze the information needs of
end users, the organizational
environment, and any system
presently used.
Develop the functional
requirements of a system that can
Develop specifications for the
hardware, software, people,
network, and data resources, and
the information products that will
satisfy the functional requirements
of the proposed system.
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Economic feasibility is concerned with whether
expected cost savings, increased revenue,
increased profits, reductions in required
investment, and other types of benefits will
exceed the costs of developing and operating a
proposed system. For example, if a project
cant cover its development costs, it wont be
approved, unless mandated by government
regulations or other considerations.
Technical feasibility can be demonstrated if
reliable hardware and software capable of
meeting the needs of a proposed system can be
acquired or development by the business in the
required time. Finally, operational feasibility is
the willingness and ability of the management,
employees, customers, suppliers, and others to
operate, use, and support a proposed system.
For example, if the software for a new system
is too difficult to use, employees may make too
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many errors and avoid using it. Thus , it would
fail to show operational feasibility.
Cost/Benefit Analysis. Feasibility studiestypically involve cost/benefit analysis. If costs
and benefits can be quantified, they are called
tangible costs are the costs of hardware and
software, employee salaries, and other
quantifiable costs needed to develop andimplement an IS solution. Intangible costs are
difficult to quantity; they included the loss of
customer goodwill or employee morale caused
by errors and disruptions arising from the
installation of a new system.
Tangible. Benefits are favorable results,
such as the decrease in payroll costs caused by
a reduction in personnel or a decrease in
inventory carrying costs caused by a reduction
in inventory. Intangible benefits are harder to
estimate. Such benefits as better customer
service or faster and more accurate
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Systems analysis describes what a system
should do to meet the information needs of
users. Systems design specifies how the
system will accomplish this objective. Systems
design consists of design activities that
produce system specifications satisfying the
functional requirements developed in the
systems analysis stage.
Systems design consists of three activities:
user interface, data, and process design.
User Interface Design. The user interface
design activity focuses on supporting the
interactions between end users and their
computer-based applications. Designers
concentrate on the design of attractive and
efficient forms of user input and output, such
as easy-to-use Internet or intranet Web pages.
Or they may design methods of converting
human-readable documents to machine-
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Develop databases that use a relational
structure to organize access to all necessary
customers and merchandise data.
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THE PROTOTYPING PROCESS.
Prototyping can be used for both large and
small applications. Typically, large systems still
require using the traditional systems
development approach, but parts of such
systems can frequently by prototyped. A
[prototype of a business application needed by
an end user is developed quickly using a
variety of application development packages.
The prototype system is then repeatedly
refined until it is acceptable to an end user
o Investigation/Analysis: End Users identifytheir information needs and assess the
feasibility of several alternative informationsystem solutions
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Identify an End
Users Information
Requirements
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o Analysis/Design: End users and/or systems
analysts use application development packagesto interactively design and test prototypes ofinformation system components that meet enduser information needs.
o Design/Implementation: The informationsystem prototypes are tested, evaluated andmodified repeatedly until need users find themacceptable.
o Implementation/Maintenance: Theacceptable information system can be modifiedeasily since most system documentationsstores on disk.
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Develop
Revise the
Prototypes to
Use and Maintain
the Accepted
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Prototyping is an iterative, interface
process that combines steps of the traditional
systems development cycle. End users with
sufficient experience with application
development packages can be prototyping
themselves. Alternatively, an end user can
work with a systems analyst to develop a
prototype system in a series of interactive
sessions. For example, they could be develop,
test and refine prototypes of management
reports or data entry screens.
The Prototype is usually modified several
times until the end user finds it acceptable. Any
program modules that are not generated by the
application development software can then be
codes by programmers using conventional
programming languages. The final version of
the application system is then turned over to
the end user for operational use.
* Team. A few end users and IS developers
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form a team to develop a businessapplication.
* Schematic. The initial prototype schematic
design is developed* Prototype. The schematic is converted into asimple point-and-click prototype usingprototyping tools.
* Presentation. A few screens androutine/linkages are presented to users.
* Feedback. After the team gets feedbackfrom users, the prototype is reiterated.
* Reiteration. Further presentations andreiterations are made.
* Consultation. Consultations are held withcentral IT developers/consultants to identify
potential improvements and conformance toexisting standards of the organization.
* Completion. The prototype is converted intoa finished application.
* Acceptance. Users review and sign of ontheir acceptance of the new system.
* Installation. The new application software isinstalled on network servers.
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COMPUTER SYSTEM CONCEPTS AND
COMPONENTS.
The Computer System Concept.
A computer is more than a high-
powered collection of electronic devices
performing a variety of information processing
chores. A computer is a system, an interrelated
combination of components that performs the
basic system functions of input, processing,
output, storage, and control, thus providing
end users with a powerful information
processing tool. Understanding the computer
as a computer system is vital to the effective
use and management of computers.
A computer is system of hardware
devices organized according to the following
system functions.
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Input. The input devices of a computer
system include keyboards, touch screens, pens,
electronic mice, optical scanners, and so on.
Processing. The central processing unit(
CPU) is the main processing component of a
computer system. (In microcomputers, it is the
main microprocessor.) In particular, the
electronic circuits of the arithmetic-logic unitone of the CPUs major components, perform
the arithmetic and logic functions required in
computer processing.
Output. The output devices of a
computer system include video display units,
printers, audio response units , and so on, They
convert electronic information produced by the
computer system into human intelligible form
for presentation to end users.
Storage. The storage function of a
computer system takes place in the storage
circuits of the computers primary storage unit,
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Smart cards that embed a
microprocessor chip and several kilobytes of
memory into debit, credit, and other cards are
popular in Europe, and becoming available in
the United States. One example is Holland,
where over 8 million smart debit cards have
been issued by Dutch banks. Smart debit cards
enable you to store a cash balance on the card
and electronically transfer some of it to others
to pay for small items and services. The
balance on the card can be replenished in ATMs
or other terminals.
The smart debit cards used in Holland
feature a microprocessor and either 8 or 16
kilobytes of memory, plus the usual 200 byte
magnetic stripe. The smart cards are widely
used to make payments in parking meters,
vending machines, newsstands, pay
telephones, and retail stores.
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Digital cameras represent another fast
growing set of input technologies. Digital still
cameras and digital video cameras (digital
camcorders) enable you to shoot, store, and
download still photos or full motion video with
audio into your PC. Then you can use image-
editing software to edit and enhance the
digitized images and include them in new
letters, reports, multimedia presentations, and
Web pages.
The computer systems of the banking
industry can magnetically read checks and
deposit slips using magnetic ink character
recognition (MICR) technology. Computers can
thus sort and post checks to the proper
checking accounts. Such processing is possible
because the identification numbers of the bank
and the customers account are preprinted on
the bottom of the checks with an iron oxide-
based ink. The first bank receiving a check
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after it has been written must en-code the
amount of the check in magnetic ink on the
checks lower right-hand corner. The MICR
system uses 14 characters (the 10 decimal
digits and 4 special symbols) of a standardized
design. Equipment known as reader-sorters
read a check by first magnetizing the magnetic
ink characters and then sensing the signal
induced by each character as it passes a
reading head. In this way, data are
electronically captured by the banks computer
system.
OUTPUT TECHNOLOGIES AND TRENDS:
Computers provide information to you
in a variety of forms. Figure 4.30 shows you the
trends in output media and methods that have
developed over the generations of computing.
As you can see, video displays and printed
documents have been, and still are, the most
common forms of output from computer
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systems. But other natural and attractive
output technologies such as voice response
systems and multimedia output are
increasingly found alongwith video displays in
business applications.
VIDEO OUTPUT:
Video displays are the most common
type of computer output. Most desktop
computers rely on video monitors that use a
cathode ray tube (CRT) technology similar to
the picture tubes used in home TV sets.
Usually, the clarity of the video display
depends on the type of video monitor you use
and the graphics circuit board installed in your
computer. These can provide a variety of
graphics modes of increasing capability. A high-
resolution, flicker-free monitor is especially
important if you spend a lot of time viewing
multimedia on CDs, or the Web, or complex
graphical displays of many software packages.
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statements, and printed versions of graphics
displays.
Inkjet printers, which spray ink onto apage one line at a time, have become the most
popular, low-cost printers for microcomputer
systems. They are quiet, produce several pages
per minute of high-quality output, and can print
both black-and-white and high-quality colorgraphics. Laser printers use an electrostatic
process similar to a photocopying machine to
produce many pages per minute of high-quality
black-and-white output. More expensive color
laser printers and multifunction inkjet and laser
models that print, fax, scan, and copy are other
popular choices for business offices.
STORAGE TRENDS AND TRADE-OFFS:
Data and information must be storeduntil needed using a variety of storage
methods. There are many types of storage
media and devices.
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nonconducting (OFF) state represents the
number zero. For magnetic media, the
magnetic field of a magnetized sport in one
direction represents a one, while magnetism in
the other direction represents a zero.
The smallest element of data is called a
bit, which can have a value of either zero or
one. The capacity of memory chips is usuallyexpressed in terms of bits. A byte is a basic
grouping of bits that the computer operates as
a single unit. Typically, it consists of eight bits
and represents one character of data in most
computer coding schemes. Thus, the capacity
of a computers memory and secondary storage
device is usually expressed in terms of bytes.
Computer codes such as ASCII (American
Standard Code for Information Interchange)
use various arrangements of bits to form bytes
that represent the numbers zero through nine,
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the letters of the alphabets, and many other
characters.
Storage capacities are frequentlymeasured in kilobytes (KB), megabytes (MB),
gigabytes (GB), or terabytes (TB). Although kilo
means 1,000 in the metric system, the
computer industry uses K to represents 1,024
or (210
) storage positions. Therefore, a capacityof 10 megabytes, for example, is really
10,485,760 storage positions, rather than 10
million positions. However, such differences are
frequently disregarded in order to simplify
descriptions of storage capacity. Thus, a
megabyte is roughly 1 million bytes of storage,
while a gigabyte is roughly 1 billion bytes and a
terabyte represents about 1 trillion bytes.
Database Management
Microcomputer versions of database
management programs have become so
popular that they are now viewed as general-
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purpose application software packages like
work processing and spreadsheet packages.
Database management packages such as
Microsoft Access, Lotus Approach, or Corel
Paradox allow you to set up and manage
databases on your PC, network server, or the
World Wide Web. Most database managers can
perform four primary tasks, which we will
discuss further in Chapter 7.
Database development. Define and
organize the content, relationships, and
structure of the data needed to build a
database, including any hyperlinks to data on
Web pages.
Database interrogation. Access the data in
database to display information in a variety of
formats. End users can selectively retrieve and
display information and produce forms, reports,
and other documents, including Web pages.
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Database maintenance. Add, delete,
update, and correct the data in a database,
including hyperlinked data on Web pages.
Application development. Develop
prototypes of Web pages, queries, forms,
reports, and labels for a proposed business
application. Or use a built-in 4GL or application
generator to program the application.
Operating Systems
The most important system software
package for any computer is its operating
system. An operating system is an integrated
system of programs that manages the
operations of the CPU, controls the
input/output and storage resources and
activities of the computer system, and provides
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Operating System Functions
An operating system performs five basic
functions in the operation of a computer
system: providing a user interface, resource
management, task management, file
management, and utilities and support
services.
The User Interface. The user interface is
the part of the operating system that allows
you to communicate with it so you can load
program , access files, and accomplish other
tasks. Three main types of user interfaces are
the command driven, menu driven, and
graphical user interfaces. The trend in user
interfaces for operating systems and other
software is moving away from the entry of brief
end user commands, or even the selection of
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choices from menus of options. Instead, the
trend is toward an easy-to-use graphical user
interface (GUI) that uses icons, bars, buttons,
boxes, and other images. GUIs rely on pointing
devices like the electronic mouse or trackball to
make selections that help you get things done.
Resource Management. An operating
system uses a variety of resource managementprograms to manage the hardware and
networking resources of a computer system,
including is CPU, memory, secondary storage
devices, telecommunications processors, and
input/output peripherals, For example, memory
management programs keep track of where
data and programs are stored. They may also
subdivide memory into a number of sections
and swap parts of programs and data between
memory and magnetic disks or other secondary
storage devices. This can provide a computer
system with a virtual memory capability that is
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significantly larger than the real memory
capacity of its primary storage unit. So a
computer with a virtual memory capability can
process larger programs and greater amounts
of data than the capacity of its memory circuits
would normally allow.
File Management. An operating system
contains file management programs thatcontrol the creation, deletion, and access of
files of data and programs. File management
also involves keeping track of the physical
location of files on magnetic disks and other
secondary storage devices. So operating
systems maintain directories of information
about the location and characteristics of files
stored on a computer systems secondary
storage-devices.
Task Management. The task
management programs of an operating system
manage the accomplishment of the computing
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tasks of end users. They give each task a slice
of a CPUs time and interrupt the CPU
operations to substitute other tasks. Task
management may involve a multitasking
capability where several computing tasks can
occur at the same time. Multitasking may take
the form of multiprogramming, where the CPU
can process the tasks of several programs at
the same time, or time sharing, where the
computing tasks of several users can be
processed at the same time. The efficiency of
multitasking operations depends on the
processing power of a CPU and the virtualmemory and multitasking capabilities of the
operating system it uses.
New microcomputer operating systems
and most midrange and mainframe operating
systems provide a multitasking capability. With
multitasking, end users can do two or more
operations (e.g., keyboarding and printing) or
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applications (e.g., word processing and
financial analysis) concurrently, that is, at the
same time. Multitasking on microcomputers has
also been made possible by the development of
more powerful microprocessors (like the Intel
Pentium-II) and their ability to directly address
much larger memory capacities (upto 4
gigabytes). This allows an operating system to
subdivide primary storage into several large
partitions, each of which can be used by a
different application program.
In effect, a single computer can act as if
it were several computers, or virtual machines,
since each application program is running
independently at the same time. The number of
programs that can be run concurrently depends
on the amount of memory that is available and
the amount of processing each job demands.
Thats because a microprocessor (or CPU) can
become overloaded with too many jobs and
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to extract information, end users can ask
simple questions in a query language. Thus,
many DBMS packages provide fourth-
generation language (4GLs) and other
application development features. Examples of
popular mainframe and midrange packages are
DB2 by IBM and Oracle 8 by Oracle Corporation.
Other System Management Programs.
Several other types of system
management software are marketed as
separate programs or are included as part of an
operating system. Utility programs, or utilities,
are an important example. Programs like
Norton Utilities perform miscellaneous
housekeeping and file conversion functions.
Examples include data backup, data recovery,
virus protection, data compression, and file
defragmentation. Most operating systems also
provide many utilities that perform a variety of
helpful chores for computer users.
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Other examples of system support
programs include performance monitors and
security monitors. Performance monitors are
programs that monitor and adjust the
performance and usage of one or more
computer systems to keep them running
efficiently, Security monitors are packages that
monitor and control the use of computer
systems and provide warning messages and
record evidence of unauthorized use of
computer resources. A recent trand is to merge
both types of programs into operating systems
like Microsofts Windows NT Server, or intosystem management software like Computer
Associates CA-Unicenter, that can manage
both mainframe systems and servers in a data
centre.
PROGRAMMING PACKAGES
A variety of software packages are
available to help programmers develop
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computer programs. For example, programming
language translators are programs that
translate other programs into machine
language instruction codes that computers can
execute. Other software packages, such as
programming language editors, are called
programming tools because they help
programmers write programs by providing a
variety of program creation and editing
capabilities.
Language Translator Programs.
Computer programs consist of sets of
instructions written in programming languages
that must be translated by a language
translator into the computers own machine
language before they can be processed, or
executed, by the CPU. Programming language
translator programs (or language processors)
are known by a variety of names. An assembler
translates the symbolic instruction codes of
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programs written in an assembler language
into machine language instructions, while a
compiler translates high-level language
statements.
An interpreter is a special type of
compiler that translates and executes each
statement in a program one at a time, instead
of first producing a complete machine languageprogram, like compilers and assemblers do.
Java is an example of an interpreted language.
Thus, the program instruction in Java applets
are interpreted and executed on-the-fly as the
applet is being executed by a client PC.
Programming Tools.
Many language translator programs are
enhanced by a graphical programming interface
and a variety of built-in capabilities or add-onpackages. Language translators have always
provided some editing and diagnostic
capabilities to identify programming errors or
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bugs. However, many language translator
programs now include powerful graphics-
oriented programming editors and debuggers.
These programs help programmers identify and
minimize errors while they are programming.
Such programming tools provide a computer-
aided programming environment or workbench.
Their goal is to decrease the drudgery of
programming while increasing the efficiency
and productivity of programmers. Other
programming tools include diagramming
packages, code generators, libraries or
reusable objects and program code, andprototyping tools. Many of these same tools are
part of the toolkit provided by computer-aided
software engineering (CASE) packages.
Technology Trends.
Open systems with unrestricted
connectivity, using Internet networking
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technologies as their technology platform, are
the primary telecommunications technology
drivers of the late 1990s. This trend is self-
evident in the rapid and continually changing
development of thousands of hardware,
software, and networking products and
services. Their primary goal is to promote easy
and secure access by business end users and
consumers to the resources of the Internet,
especially the World Wide Web, and corporate
intranets and extranets. Web browser suites,
HTML Web page editors, Internet and intranet
servers and network management software,TCP/IP Internet networking products, and
network security fire walls are just a few
examples. These technologies are being
applied in many types of business networks
and applications, especially those for electroniccommerce and collaboration. This trend has
reinforced previous industry and technical
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moves toward building client/server networks
based on an open systems architecture.
Open systems are information systemsthat use common standards for hardware,
software, applications, and networking. Open
systems, like the Internet and corporate
intranets and extranets, create a computing
environment that is open to easy access by endusers and their networked computer systems.
Open systems provide great connectivity, that
is, the ability of networked computers and
other devices to easily access and communicate
with each other and share information. Any
open systems architecture also provides a high
degree of network interoperability. That is,
open systems enable the many different
applications of end users to be accomplished
using the different varieties of computer
systems, software packages, and databases
provided by a variety of interconnected
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networks. Frequently, software known as
middleware may be used to help diverse
systems work together. Network architectures
like the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
model of the International Standards
Organization and the Internets TCP/IP protocol
suite promote open, flexible, and efficient
standards for the development of open
telecommunications networks.
Telecommunications is also being
revolutionized by a change from analog to
digital network technologies.
Telecommunications has always depended on
voice-oriented analog transmission systems
designed to transmit the variable electrical
frequencies generated by the sound waves of
the human voice. However, local and global
telecommunications networks are rapidly
converting to digital transmission technologies
that transmit information in the form of
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holding real time conversations with other
Internet users are also popular uses of the
Internet. We will discuss business uses of the
Internet, including electronic commerce.
One of the most important and popular
uses of the Internet is gathering information.
You can make online searches for information
in a variety of ways, using your Web browserand search engines such as Alta Vista, Excite,
and directories like Yahoo! Thousands of Web
sites, business and government databases, and
catalogs from university libraries to the Library
of Congress are available, as are electronic
versions of numerous consumer, business, and
academic publications. You can point and click
your way to thousands of Web sites and their
databases, downloading everything from the
latest satellite weather photos from NASA to
world almanac excerpts from the U.S. Central
Intelligence Agency.
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THE INFORMATION SUPERHIGHWAY.
The trends toward open, high-speed,
digital networks with fiber optic and satellitelinks and the widespread use of the Internet
and its technologies have made the concept of
an information superhighway technically
feasible and captured the interest of both
business and government. In this concept,local, regional, nationwide, and global networks
will be integrated into a vast network of
networks, with more advanced interactive
multimedia capabilities than the Internet. The
information superhighway system would
connect individuals, households, businesses,
news and entertainment media, government
agencies, libraries, universities, and all other
institutions, and would support interactive
voice, data, video, and multimedia
communications.
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