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description
Report Compiled By:
Pur wa nto, Muhaj i r, Joa nne Wi lson , Riz ya Ardiwi ja ya , a nd Sa ngeet a Ma ng ubhai
August 2012
Indo-Pacific Division
Indonesia
Report No 6/12
Coral Reef Monitoring in Kofiau and Boo Islands Marine Protected Area, Raja Ampat, West Papua.
20092011
August 2012
Indo-Pacific Division
Indonesia
Report No 6/12
Report Compiled By: Report Compiled By: Report Compiled By: Report Compiled By:
Pur wa nto, Muhaj i r, Joa nne Wi lson , Riz ya Ardiwi ja ya , a nd Sa ngeet a Ma ng ubhai
Coral Reef Monitoring in Kofiau and Boo Islands Marine Protected Area, Raja Ampat, West Papua.
20092011
vii
Published by: Published by: Published by: Published by: TheNatureConservancy,Indo-PacificDivision
Purwanto:TheNatureConservancy,IndonesiaMarineProgram,Jl.Pengembak2,Sanur,Bali,Indonesia.Email:purwanto@tnc.org
Muhajir:TheNatureConservancy,IndonesiaMarineProgram,Jl.Pengembak2,Sanur,Bali,Indonesia.Email:muhajir@tnc.orgJoanneWilson:TheNatureConservancy,IndonesiaMarineProgram,Jl.Pengembak2,Sanur,Bali,Indonesia.
RizyaArdiwijaya:TheNatureConservancy,IndonesiaMarineProgram,Jl.Pengembak2,Sanur,Bali,Indonesia.Email:rardiwijaya@tnc.orgSangeetaMangubhai:TheNatureConservancy,IndonesiaMarineProgram,Jl.Pengembak2,Sanur,Bali,Indonesia.Email:smangubhai@tnc.org
Suggested Citation:Suggested Citation:Suggested Citation:Suggested Citation:
Purwanto,Muhajir,Wilson,J.,Ardiwijaya,R.,Mangubhai,S.2012.CoralReefMonitoringinKofiauandBooIslandsMarineProtectedArea,RajaAmpat,WestPapua.2009-2011.TheNatureConservancy,Indo-PacificDivision,Indonesia.ReportN,6/12.50pp.
2012012012012222 The Nature ConservancyThe Nature ConservancyThe Nature ConservancyThe Nature Conservancy
AllRightsReserved.Reproductionforanypurposeisprohibitedwithoutpriorpermission.
AllmapsdesignedandcreatedbyMuhajir.
CoverPhoto:DatacollectionactivityPurwanto/TNC
Availablefrom: IndonesiaMarineProgram Asia-PacificResourceCentre
TheNatureConservancy TheNatureConservancyJl.Pengembak2 245RiversideDriveSanur80228,Bali WestEnd,QLD4101Indonesia Australia
Orviatheworldwidewebat:www.nature.or.idwww.conservationgateway.org/
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Acknowledgements
TheauthorswouldliketothankAndreasMuljadi,ReinhartPaatandMarkusKrey,whoparticipatedinthe2009and2010monitoring,andKofiauresidentsNaftaliManggaraandNicoMambraku,whoactivelyparticipatedinthereefhealthmonitoringinKofiauandBooIslandsMarineProtectedArea.WewouldalsoliketothanktheRajaAmpatFisheriesandMarineAffairsAgency(DinasPerikanandanKelautan)andtheWestPapuaNatureResourceConservationAgency(BalaiBesarKonservasiSumberDayaAlam)whoarealsosupportthemonitoring.SpecialthankstoDariusAronggearandUsielWatem,whoinadditiontodrivingthespeedboatJou,frequentlyhelpedlaytransectswhencollectingdata.WearegratefultoAlisonGreenwhoprovidedextensivefeedbackandtrainingonfishdataanalyses.Lastly,wewouldliketothankourdonors,inparticulartheWaltonFamilyFoundationandprivatedonorswhosegeneroussupportallowedthesemonitoringactivitiestobeundertaken.
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Contents
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .................................................................................................................... VIII
CONTENTS .............................................................................................................................................. IX
LIST OF FIGURES ..................................................................................................................................... X
1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................. 1
2. METHODS ......................................................................................................................................... 2
2.1. Kofiau Marine Protected Area ...........................................................................................................2
2.2. Zoning plan ...............................................................................................................................................2
2.3. Location and site selection ...................................................................................................................2
2.4. Reef Health monitoring fish and benthic communities .........................................................2
2.4.1. Fish community surveys ............................................................................................................................ 3 2.4.2. Benthic community surveys ....................................................................................................................... 4 2.4.3. Data analysis comparing zones.............................................................................................................. 5
2.5. Location and site selection ................................................................................................................... 5
2.5.1. Field surveys .............................................................................................................................................. 5 2.5.2. Data analyses ............................................................................................................................................ 6
2.6. Surface water temperature .................................................................................................................. 6
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ............................................................................................ 9
3.1. Fish communities ................................................................................................................................... 9
3.1.1. Fish biomass by location and monitoring year ........................................................................................... 9 3.1.2. Fish communities in each zone ................................................................................................................. 12 3.1.3. Differences among zones for select families of fish ................................................................................... 14 3.1.4. Fish biomass, density and families recorded during long swims ................................................................. 15 3.1.5. Sharks and rays ....................................................................................................................................... 16
3.2. Benthic cover .......................................................................................................................................... 17
3.2.1. Benthic composition of reef communities in Kofiau MPA ...................................................................... 17 3.2.2. Benthic community composition by zone type ..........................................................................................19 3.2.3. Coral bleaching ....................................................................................................................................... 20
3.3. Surface water temperature ................................................................................................................ 23
4. CONCLUSIONS ...................................................................................................................... 26
5. RECOMMENDATIONS ...................................................................................................... 27
BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................................................................................................... 28
APPENDICES ............................................................................................................................................ 30
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List of Figures
Figure 1. Map of coral reef health monitoring locations and designated zones in Kofiau Marine Protected Area. Site pengamatan tambahan = Additional Site, Site pengamatan tetap = permanent site. .................................................................................................................................................. 7
Figure 2. The average biomass (kg/ha) and density (number/ha) of fish from all sites around Kofiau and Boo Islands from 2009-2011. Error bars = standard error. .....................................................10
Figure 3. Average fish biomass (kg/ha +SE) by location in Kofiau and Boo Islands in all monitoring years. Large schools of fish of the family Caesionidae in Lampu Bay and Tomna in 2010 are not included. .....................................................................................................................................................10
Figure 4. Biomass (kg/ha) of all families of fish in each survey year 2009-2011 at Kofiau Marine Protected Area. Error bars = standard error. .......................................................................................... 11
Figure 5. Average fish biomass (kg/ha) and density (number/ha) for sites in each zone of Kofiau Marine Protected Area from 2009-2011. Error bars = standard error. ....................................... 13
Figure 6. Annual average biomass of most important fish families in Kofiau MPA between no take and use zones, from 2009-2011. These fish are important to local communities as a source of food or income grouper, emperor, sweetlip, snapper, pelagic and/or important to the ecology of the reef (i.e. herbivore families surgeonfish, rabbitfish and parrotfish). The zones were designated and became locally enforced in October 2011, after the March 2011 monitoring. Error bars = standard error. ................................................................................................ 15
Figure 7. Average fish biomass (kg/ha +SE) and density (individuals/ha +SE) in all locations and all monitoring years.............................................................................................................................................. 16
Figure 8. Annual changes in percent benthic cover (average +SE) from 2009-2011 in Kofiau Marine Protected Area. ................................................................................................................................................ 18
Figure 9. Comparison of changes in annual benthic cover (average percent cover + SE) beteen Boo and Kofiau Islands from 20092011....................................................................................................... 19
Figure 10. Average percentage (%) benthic coverage in each zone for all monitoring years in Kofiau MPA (NTZ = No Take Zone, TUZ = Traditional Use Zone). ................................................. 20
Figure 11. Composition (%) of coral colonies by monitoring location and proposed zone in Kofiau Marine Protected Area. NTZ = No Take Zone, TUZ = Traditional Use Zone. ................... 22
Figure 12. Composition (%) of coral genera conditions. Only 20 coral genera shown in the figure. .... 22
Figure 13. Scatter plot of percentage of bleaching corals compare to percentage of susceptible genera. ............................................................................................................................................................................... 23
Figure 14. Fluctuations in average surface water temperature (C) by month and year for all monitoring sites in Kofiau Marine Protected Area. ............................................................................ 25
List of Tables
Table 1. Sampling details of Kofiau MPA from 2009-2011. ............................................................................... 2
Table 2. Fish families recorded during coral reef health monitoring in Kofiau MPA 20092011. (Key: + = recorded, - = not recorded, C = commercial fish, P = pelagic fish). ........................... 4
Table 3. Benthic categories recorded during coral reef health monitoring in Kofiau Marine Protected Area from 20092011. ................................................................................................................................... 5
Table 4. Coral condition categories. ............................................................................................................................. 6
Table 5. Locations of temperature loggers in Kofiau Marine Protected Area. ............................................... 6
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Table 6. Species of shark recorded in transects and during the long swims in Kofiau MPA from 20092011. .............................................................................................................................................. 17
Table 7. Surface water temperatures (C) in Kofiau Marine Protected Area, 2009 2011 (Max = maximum, Avg = average, Min = minimum, - = no data. Highest and lowest temperatures (across all years) are highlighted in grey. ..............................................................24
List of Appendices
Appendix 1. The names and GPS locations of sites sampled in Kofiau Marine Protected Area. ......... 30
Appendix 2. List of fish biomass constants used to calculate biomass ............................................................ 31
Appendix 3. Additional fish data analyses for Kofiau Marine Protected Area. .......................................... 40
Appendix 4. Additional benthic data analyses for Kofiau Marine Protected Area. ...................................42
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
KofiauandBooIslandsMarineProtectedArea(MPA)islocatedinRajaAmpatRegency,WestPapua,IndonesiaintheheartoftheCoralTriangle.ThereefsofRajaAmpathavetheworldshighestdiversityoffishandcoralsandalsosustainthelivelihoodsoflocalcommunitiesthroughfisheriesproduction,tourismandothermarineindustries.ManagementandzoningplansarecurrentlybeingdevelopedforallsevenoftheMPAsinRajaAmpat,includingKofiauandBooIslands.ReefhealthmonitoringwasconductedinKofiauandBooIslandsMPAin2009,2010and2011to:(a)obtaindataonthestateofthecoralreefstoguidethedesignofthezoningplanfortheMPA;and(b)establishastrongbaselinetoassesstheeffectivenessofthezoningandmanagementplansbycomparingchangesinbenthicandfishcommunitiesindifferentzonesovertime.CoralreefmonitoringfollowedtheprotocolbyWilsonandGreen(2009).Reefhealthwasassessedbydocumentingthecompositionofthebenthicandfishcommunitiesat10mdepthusingpointintercepttransectsandunderwatervisualcensusalongtransectsplusalongswim,respectively.Atotalof25permanentmonitoringlocationsand16additionalmonitoringlocationswereselected.Inaddition,seawatertemperaturesweremonitoredusingeightinsitutemperatureloggerspositionednearreefsthroughouttheMPA.
DespiteoverfishingpressurethefishcommunitiesinKofiauandBooIslandsMPAarestillinrelativelyhealthycondition,comparedtootherpartsofIndonesia.AveragetotalfishbiomassintheMPAwas35.4kg/ha,withanaverageof49.1kg/hainBooIslandandof27.7ha/kginKofiauIsland,withhighestfishbiomassrecordedin2010.TheMPAstillhaslargesizefishpredatorssuchassharks,groupersandNapoleonwrasse(Cheilinusundulatus).However,fishbiomassdecreasedatmostsitesfrom2009to2010,especiallyforherbivores,andthismayhavebeenduetointensivefishingbyoutsidefishersfromDecember2009toJanuary2010.TherehasbeenadecreaseinthenumberofsharksandraysintheMPAovermonitoringyears.Whitetipreef(Trianodonobesus),blacktipreef(Carcharhinusmelanopterus)andnursesharks(Nebriusferrugineus)wererecordedinKofiauandBooIslandsMPA,althoughnumbersofsightingsofhavedecreasedfrom2009to2011,indicatingfishersaretargetingsharkspecies.
ThemajorityofreefsinKofiauandBooIslandsMPAaregentlyslopingfringingreefssurroundingtheislands.Coralcoverrangedfrom9.2to78.0%withhighestcoverseeninfrontofDeerVillage(KampungDeer).SitesatBooIslandhadhighercoralcoverthanreefssurroundingKofiauIsland.TheaveragelivehardcoralcoverfortheMPAwas29.9%.TherewasnosignificantchangeinanyofthebenthiccategoriesintheMPAbetweenthemonitoringyears2009and2011.Adecreaseincoralcoverwasrecordedin2010,butthisislikelyaresultofusingadifferentobserverthatyear.Coralcoverinrecentlydeclarednotakezoneswashigherthaninzoneswherefishingandotherusesisallowed,whichsuggeststhatthezoningplanforKofiauandBooIslandsMPAhasbeenwelldesignedbylocalcommunities,governmentandpartners.
Minorcoralbleachingwasrecordedin2009,2010and2011buttherewasnoapparentmortality(recordedasincreaseinrockcover).Bleachingsurveysin2011showedthat
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TraditionalUseZones(TUZs)alsohavehighbiomassoffishfamiliesthatareatargetforKofiauresidentsandsotheyshouldstillbeabletohaveenoughfisheriesresourcesfortheirlocalneeds.However,toaddressthedecliningfishbiomassinKofiauandBooIslandsMPA,itisimportantforlocalcommunitiesandenforcementagenciestoactivelyenforcethezoningsystemtobothprotectNTZsfromanyfishingactivityandalsoensurethatthenumberofoutsidefishersandgeartypesareadequatelymanagedinTUZs.
Photographs(fromlefttorightandtoptobottom):AerialviewofWaloIslandandlagoon(M.Ammer/PapuaDiving),coralreefsadjacenttomangrovehabitats(M.Lazuardi/CI),exampleoftypicalfringingreeffoundatKofiau(J.Yonover),abundantfishlifeinKofiau(J.Yonover),coralreefmonitors(J.Yonover),coralandfishlifeinKofiauMPA(J.Yonover).
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1. INTRODUCTION
TheRajaAmpatIslandsencompasses4millionhectaresofseaandlandlocatedinWestPapua,Indonesia,rightintheheartoftheCoralTriangle.TheRajaAmpatIslandsareapartoftheBirdsHeadSeascape,whichhasthegreatestcoralreefbiodiversityontheplanet(Veronetal.2009,AllenandErdman2009,2012,Mangubhaietal.2012)andisaglobalpriorityforconservation.SurveyshaveshownthattheRajaAmpatwatersarehometo553speciesofcoral,or75%oftheworldsknownspeciesofhardcoral,699speciesofmollusc,and1,437speciesoffish(Donnellyetal.2002,Veronetal.2009,AllenandErdman2009,2012).
Coralreefsareextremelyimportanttolocalcommunitiesbecausetheysupportkeyfishandinvertebrate(e.g.seacucumberandTrochus)fisheries.LikemanyIndonesiancoastalpeople,thecommunitiesofRajaAmpatdependontheircoralreefsasasourceoffoodandincomethroughfishingandtourism(Larsenetal.2011).However,thehealthofcoralsandassociatedfisheriesinIndonesia,includinginRajaAmpat,arethreatenedbytheuseofdestructivefishingmethodssuchasexplosivesandpoison,andoverfishing(Ainsworthetal.2008,Varkeyetal.2010,Mangubhaietal.2012).Elevationsinwatersurfacetemperatureassociatedwithclimatechangealsoathreattoreefecosystems(Hoegh-Guldbergetal.2007).
Inrecognitionoftheconservationvaluesofcoralreefsandtheirimportancetosustainingthelivelihoodsoflocalpeople,anetworkofsevenmarineprotectedareas(MPAs)1coveringover1millionhawasestablishedinRajaAmpat.FiveofthesevenMPAsweredeclaredin2007byaHeadofRajaAmpatRegencydecree(No.66/2007),andformalizedbyaRegencyRegulation(No.27/2008),andarehereafterreferredtoasRegencyMPAs.In2009,theHeadoftheRajaAmpatRegencyissuedasecondRegencyRegulation(No.5/2009)toformthebasisforthemanagementoftheRajaAmpatMPAnetwork.ThemainaimofestablishingtheMPAnetworkwastoconservefishhabitats,reproductionfunctionandstocks,toensuresustainablefisheriesandwiseuseofothermarineresources,througheducation,researchandeco-tourismintheRajaAmpatRegency.KofiauandBooIslandsMPA,hereinafterreferredtoasKofiauMPA,isoneoftheseMPAs.
UnderIndonesianlaw,MPAsallowformultipleuseswhichareregulatedthroughmanagementandzoningplans.In2008,managementandzoningplanswereinitiatedforthefiveRegencyMPAs,includingKofiauMPA.InOctober2011,therewasatraditionaladatdeclarationofthezoningplanforKofiauMPAwhichwassupportedbytheRegencygovernment.TheKofiauMPAzoningplanisnowactivelybeingenforcedbylocalcommunitypatrolssupportedbylocalpolice.
Coralreefhealthmonitoringdataisusedtosupportthedevelopmentofmanagementandzoningplansand,whenrepeatedovertime,canbeusedtoassesstheeffectivenessofzoningandmanagementplansandinformadaptivemanagement.Thereforereefhealthmonitoringwasconductedannuallyfrom2009to2011inKofiauMPA.TheobjectivesofreefhealthmonitoringsurveysinKofiauMPAwereto:
a. GatherbasicdataonbenthicandfishcommunitiestoinformKofiauMPAmanagementandzoningplans.
b. ProvidebaselinedatatoevaluatetheeffectivenessofKofiauMPAzoningandmanagementsystems.
1Inthisreport,thetermMarineProtectedAreaorMPAisusedasitisstipulatedinLaw27/2009.
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2. METHODS
2.1. KOFIAU MARINE PROTECTED AREA
KofiauMPAislocatedinsouthernRajaAmpatandencompasses170,000hectaresofislands,reefsandsurroundingwaters(Figure1a-b).KofiauMPAprovidesfoodandlivelihoodstothe2000peoplelivinginfivevillagesonthelargerislandofKofiau.Ethnically,thepeopleofKofiauareBetieuwithstrongconnectionsandlanguagelinkstoBiakinthenorthernBirdsHead.TherearefewlivelihoodoptionsintheMPA,andthemajorityofresidentsfishorfarmcopra.
2.2. ZONING PLAN
TheKofiauMPAzoningplanwasgazettedinOctober2012andincludetwotypesofzones(Figure1b).TheFoodSecurityandTourismZonewhichprohibitsextractiveactivitiesiscalledanotakezone(NTZ)forthepurposesofthisreport.TheTraditionalUseZone(TUZ)allowsforfishingactivitiesbylocalKofiauresidents.Inthe2011zoningplan,fourareaswithinKofiauMPAweredesignatedasNTZsandallotherareasareclassifiedintwolargeTUZsTUZ1encompassesallthesitesaroundKofiauIslandsandtheotherwhileTUZ2includessitesfromBooIsland.
2.3. LOCATION AND SITE SELECTION
WithinKofiauMPA,sitesforreefhealthsurveyswereselectedthatwererepresentativeofthemainreeftypefoundthoughouttheMPA.SiteswerechosentoencompassbothNTZsandTUZsalthoughin2009theexactconfigurationofthezoningplanhadnotbeendecided.In2009,25locationsweredesignatedaspermanentreefmonitoringlocations,whichareexpectedtobeincludedinlong-termmonitoringprograms.In2009,2010and2011,monitoringwascarriedoutinseven,fiveandoneadditionalsites,respectively,(Figure1a,Appnedix1)togetmoredetailedinformationaboutreefresilienceasinputtoKofiauMPAzoningandmanagementplans.Thedataaboutreefresiliencewillbeanalysedandpresentedinaseparatereport(Mangubhaietal.inprep.).
2.4. REEF HEALTH MONITORING FISH AND BENTHIC COMMUNITIES
ReefhealthwasassessedinKofiauMPAannuallyfrom2009-2011bymeasuringbenthicandfishcommunitiesfollowingcoralreefhealthmonitoringprotocolsdevelopedbyWilsonandGreen(2009).Surveysweretimedtooccuratthesametimeeachyearduringcalmweatherperiods(March-April)afterthenorthwestmonsoonseason(DecemberFebruary)andbeforethesoutheasttradewinds(JuneSeptember)(Table1).
Table1.SamplingdetailsofKofiauMPAfrom2009-2011.Year Datesofsampling No.ofsites
2009 15-26April 30
2010 16-26March 32
2011 22-31March 26
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2.4.1.Fish community surveys
Fishdensityandbiomassweremonitoredbyunderwatervisualcensus(UVC),usingacombinationofbelttransectandlongswimmethodsdetailedinWilsonandGreen(2009).Thetaxarecordedwerecommercialfishtargetedbyfishersandpelagicspeciesthathaveanassociationwithcoralreefs(Table2).Thenumberoffamiliesrecordedwasincreasedfrom12in2009to18in2010.In2011,thefamilyKyphosidaewasaddedinresponsetothepublicationoftheherbivoremonitoringprotocol(Greenetal.2009).
Belt transectsBelt transectsBelt transectsBelt transects
FishcommunitycompositionwasassessedbyUVCalongfivetransects,each50minlength,at10mdepthwithspecies,numberandestimatedlengthofeachfishrecorded.AllfishofthefamiliesinTable2wererecorded.Fishwithatotallengthof10-35cmwererecordedin5mwidetransects,2.5mtotheleftandrightofthetransecttapes.Fishwithatotallengthof>35cmwererecordedin20mwidetransects,10mtotheleftandright.In2009and2001,oneexperiencedfishobserverrecordedbothsizeclassesononepassofthetransects.In2010,twofishobserverswereavailableandonerecordedfishinsmallsizeclassesandtheotherrecordedfishinlargesizeclasses.
Long Long Long Long swimsswimsswimsswims
Longswimfishsurveyswereperformedafterthefifthfishsurveytransect,atthereefcrestatadepthof2-5m.Thenumberandsizeoflargefish>35cm(samefishfamiliesasfortransectsurveys)wererecordedwhileswimmingadjacenttothereefcrestforapproximately20minutes.Allfishseen10meithersideofthesurveyorwererecorded.Thetimingoftheswimwasadjustedtotheconditionstoensurethedistancecoveredwasatleast400m.Theexactlengthofthelongswimswascalculatedbyrecordingthepositionofbuoysatthebeginningandendofthelongswimwithaglobalpositioningsystem(GPS)device.Ifthereweredifficultiestrackingthelongswimdirectly(e.g.ifbuoyswerelost),thelengthofthelongswimwascalculatedbydrawingtherouteonthemappingprogramapplicationArcGIS10.Visibilitywasalsorecordedduringeachsurvey.
Observer trainingObserver trainingObserver trainingObserver training
Priortothefieldsurveys,theobserversweregiventraininginidentifyingfishspeciesandestimatingfishlengthtobringtheircapacityuptostandardof100%accuracyforidentificationofthefishfamiliesinTable2,and>75%accuracyoffishlengthestimationwithin5cmintervals.Iftheobserverwasunsureofthefishspecies,thefamilywouldberecordedinstead.
4
Table2.FishfamiliesrecordedduringcoralreefhealthmonitoringinKofiauMPA20092011.(Key:+=recorded,-=notrecorded,C=commercialfish,P=pelagicfish).Fishfamily Speciesrecorded Category Year2009 2010 2011Acanthuridae - C + + +Caesionidae + - - + +Carangidae + P + + +Carcharhinidae + C + + +Dasyatidae + - + + +Ephippidae + - - + +Haemulidae + C + + +Hemigaleidae + C - + +Kyphosidae + C - - +Labridae - C + + +Lethrinidae + C + + +Lutjanidae + C + + +Muraenidae + - - + +Myliobatidae + - - + +Scarini - C + + +Scombridae + P + + +Serranidae + C + + +Siganidae + C + + +Sphyraenidae + P - + +
Length to biomass conversionLength to biomass conversionLength to biomass conversionLength to biomass conversion
Estimatedfishlengthvalueswereconvertedintofishbiomassbasedontherelationshipbetweenlengthandweightforeachfishfamilyorspecies,usingtheformuladevelopedbyKulbickietal.(2005)ofW=aLb,whereW=fishweightingrams(g),L=fishlengthorforklength(FL)incentimetres(cm),andaandb=biomassconstantsforeachfishspeciesorgenus.Thevaluesforfishbiomassconstants(aandb)wereobtainedfromKulibickietal.(2005)orFroeseandPauly(2012),andarelistedinAppendix2.Inthisreport,totallengthisusedtocalculatetherelationshipbetweenfishweightandlengthbecausethiswaseasiertoestimateorcollectdataoninthefield.Fishbiomassismassperunitofarea,sofishbiomasscanbecalculatedbyconvertingfishweightinkilograms(1kg=1,000g)perunitofareainhectares(1ha=10,000m2).Thus,averagebiomasscanbecalculatedusingthefollowingformula:
() =()
()10.000
2.4.2.Benthic community surveys
Benthiccommunitydatawascollectedusingthepointintercepttransect(PIT)method,recording100substratepointsalongeachof3x50mtransectsonfringingreefslopesatadepthof10m(WilsonandGreen2009).Atotalof28typesofbenthiccoverwererecorded(Table3)whichweresubsequentlygroupedintosevencategoriesfordataanalysis:hardcorallive(HCL),softcoral(SC),algae(AL),availablesubstrateforcoralsettlement(AS),mobilesubstrate(MS),other(OTH),andbleachedcoral(BC).HardcoralwasrecordedtolifeformlevelasAcroporaornon-Acropora.Ineachyear,differentobserversrecordedbenthiccategories.Allweretrainedandexperiencedobserversofbenthiccommunitystructure.
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Table3.BenthiccategoriesrecordedduringcoralreefhealthmonitoringinKofiauMarineProtectedAreafrom20092011.
Typeofbenthos Code CategoryAcroporabranching ACB HardcoralliveAcroporaencrusting ACE HardcoralliveAcroporasubmassive ACS HardcoralliveAcroporatabulate ACT HardcoralliveHardcoralbranching CB HardcoralliveHardcoralencrusting CE HardcoralliveHardcoralfoliose CF HardcoralliveHardcoralmassive CM HardcoralliveHardcoralsubmassive CS HardcoralliveMushroomcoral CMR HardcoralliveTubipora(hardcoral) CTU HardcoralliveMillepora(firecoral) CME HardcoralliveHeliopora(bluecoral) CHL HardcoralliveSoftcoral SC SoftcoralXenia XN SoftcoralHalimedaspp. HA AlgaeMacroalgae MA AlgaeTurfalgae TA AlgaeCorallinealgae CA StablesubstrateRock RCK StablesubstrateDeadcoral DC StablesubstrateSand S MobilesubstrateRubble R MobilesubstrateSilt SI MobilesubstrateSponge SP OtherHydroid HY OtherOther OT OtherBleachedcoral BC Bleachedcoral
2.4.3.Data analysis comparing zones
Fishbiomassandbenthiccommunitydatawereanalysedstatisticallytodetermineiftherewereanysignificantdifferencesbetweenyearsandbetweenzones.Onlypermanentmonitoringsiteswereusedintheanalysis,wherethreeyearsofdatawereavailable.Forfishbiomassanalyses,wechosethosefamilieswhichwererecordedinallyears.Differencesweredetectedusingaonewayanalysisofvariance(ANOVA)usingSystatSoftware.Asthezoningplanhadnotyetbeenimplemented,theanalysiswassetuptocompareeachzoneareatoeveryotherzonearea(i.e.NTZ1,NTZ2etc.).Theanalysiswasunbalancedbecausetherewasavariablenumberofsiteswithineachzonearea.WhentheANOVAshowedsignificantdifferences,post-hoctestswereusedtodeterminewhichzoneareasweresignificantlydifferentfromeachother.WedidnotincludeNTZ4intheanalysisbecausethisisthesubmergedpinnacleandthehabitatisverydifferenttotheotherreefsaroundKofiauandBooanditwasonlysurveyedin2010.
2.5. LOCATION AND SITE SELECTION
2.5.1.Field surveys
Dedicatedcoralbleachingsurveysweredonein2011,atthe25permanentreefhealthmonitoringsites(Figure1a).Thegenera,sizeandbleachingconditionofallcoralcolonieswererecordedalongthree15mx1mbelttransectsat5and10mdepth.Eachcolonywasassignedasinglebleachingconditioncategorybyestimatingthepercentageofeachcolonysurfaceasnormal,pale,bleachingor
6
dead(Table4).Coralbleachingsurveyswerecarriedoutin2009and2010aspartofcoralreefresiliencesurveysinKofiauMPA(Mangubhaietal.inprep.).
Table4.Coralconditioncategories.Colonycondition OtherconditionmeasureNormal - 50-100%colonysurfaceishealthywithnormalcolorPale - 50-100%colonysurfaceisstillalivebutpalerthannormaldue to
lossofsomezooxanthallaeBleaching - Anypartofcolonysurfacehasbleachedtissuetissueisstillalive
butcompletelywhite
Dead - 50%ofthecolonysurfaceisrecentlydeadlikelyduetobleaching
2.5.2.Data analyses
Theincidenceofbleachingwasanalysedbycomparingdifferencesamongcoralfamiliesandsamplingsites.Inaddition,aregressionofthepercentofbleachedcoloniesversustheproportionofthecoralcommunitymadeupofbleachingsusceptiblegenerawasdoneusingExcel.BleachingsusceptiblegeneraweredefinedasAcropora,Montipora,Pocillopora,Seriatopora,Stylophora,MilleporaandAstreoporaasperMarshallandBaird(2000).
2.6. SURFACE WATER TEMPERATURE
SurfacewatertemperaturewasmeasuredusingHOBOProv2(U22-001)watertemperaturedataloggers.Eighttemperatureloggerswerepositionedatdepthsofbetween2mand25mineightseparatelocations(Table5)onreefsaroundKofiauandBooIslands.Thetemperatureloggerswereretreivedandreplacedatleastonceperyeartodownloadthedata.Thetemperatureloggersrecordedsurfacewatertemperatureat15-minuteintervals.Thisisthesamerecordingintervalastheother78temperatureloggersinstalledthroughouttheBirdsHeadSeascape,andmanagedbytheStateUniversityofPapuaandConservationInternational.ThesedatafromKofiauwereusedtoidentifyperiodswhencoralbleachingwaslikelytooccurintheMPA.
Table5.LocationsoftemperatureloggersinKofiauMarineProtectedArea.
Nameoflocation Depth(m) CoordinatesLatitude(South) Longitude(East)BooKecilLagoon 2 0110.760' 12926.840'Wamei 5 0110.106' 12958.375'Wamei 25 0110.106' 12958.375'GebeBesar 5 0112.873' 12938.811'TanjungLampuBooBesar 22 0110.578' 12917.955'TanjungLampuBooBesar 5 0110.578' 12917.955'JailoloBesar 5 01o08.809' 129o46.354'Rataitapor 5 0115.046' 12949.875'
7
Figu
re
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9
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1. FISH COMMUNITIES
FishcommunitiesinKofiauMPAareconsideredtoberelativelyhealthyduetogooddiversityandabundanceoffishandtheoccurrenceoflargeindividualsofsomepredatorssuchassharks,grouperandNapoleonwrasse(Cheilinusundulatus).HoweverthereisevidenceofoverfishingatKofiauindicatedbythefactthatitisrelativelyraretoencountertheseverylargepredatorsanddecliningbiomassofmanyfamiliesincludingherbivoresandsharksoverpastthreeyears.In2011,thefishcommunityofKofiauMPAwasdominated(intermsofbiomass)byherbivoresofthefamiliesScaridaeandAcanthuridae(parrotandrabbitfish),Casesoinidae(fusiliers),andpredatorsfromLutjanidae(snappers),Serranidae(grouper),Haemulidae(sweetlip),andLethrinidae(emperors).ThemostabundantfishcommunitieswerefoundontheeasterntipofKofiauIsland(WameiandWambongKecil)andthisareamaybeanimportantspawningaggregationsite.AtBooIsland,thehighestfishcountswererecordedonthewesterntipatTangjungLampu.
3.1.1.Fish biomass by location and monitoring year
Overall,therewasasignificantdeclineinbiomassanddensityintheMPAbetweenyears(p
10
Figure2.Theaveragebiomass(kg/ha)anddensity(number/ha)offishfromallsitesaroundKofiauandBooIslandsfrom2009-2011.Errorbars=standarderror.
InBoo,thegreatestfishbiomasswasrecordedinTanjungLampuandTapordoker,andinKofiau,inWambongKecilandWamei(Figure3).ThelowestfishbiomassinBoowasrecordedinWarmaret,andthelowestinKofiauwasinYenmandur(Figure3).Fishbiomassdecreasedfrom20092011at18ofthe25monitoringsites.Themoststrikingdecreaseinfishbiomassbetween2009and2011wasinJailoloBesaronthenorthsideofKofiauclosetoTolobiandDibalalvillagesandthereforemaybeduetointensiveuseofresourcesinthislocation.Fishbiomassincreasedat4sites(WambongKecil,Wamei,YendotandMaet)(Figure3).
Figure3.Averagefishbiomass(kg/ha+SE)bylocationinKofiauandBooIslandsinallmonitoringyears.LargeschoolsoffishofthefamilyCaesionidaeinLampuBayandTomnain2010arenotincluded.
11
Figure4.Biomass(kg/ha)ofallfamiliesoffishineachsurveyyear2009-2011atKofiauMarineProtectedArea.Errorbars=standarderror.
TanjungLampuinBooandWameiinKofiauhadthehighestfishbiomassandthesesiteshavebeenidentifiedaspotentialfishspawningandfeedinglocations(Muljadi2009).Thesetwositesarebaysorislandpoints,whicharecharacterisedoceanographicallybystrongcurrents,andhavewaterswithaspecificbasetopographywell-suitedtofishspawningsites(SadovyandDomeier2005).ThefishcommunityatTanjungLampuandTomnainBooweredominatedbyfusiliers(Caesionidae),at126kg/haand487kg/ha,respectively.Thisisthoughttobeduetoseveralfactors,includingthebiologicalcharacteristicsofthisfamily,oceanographiccharacteritics,andtheveryhealthycoralconditionatthesetwosites(Appendix1).
Thethreefamilieswiththehighestbiomassarefusiliers(Caesionidae),parrotfish(Scarini),andsurgeonfish(Acanthuridae)(Figure5).Fusiliersliveinlargegroupsinshallowwatersonreefs(FroeseandPauly2012).Althoughtheiraveragesizeissmall(
12
3.1.2.Fish communities in each zone
Figure5showsacomparisonoftheaveragebiomassanddensityoffishfamiliesforsitesincludedinareasdesignatedasnotakeandusezonesintheKofiauMPAzoningplantraditionallydeclaredinOctober2011.FishbiomassanddensitydeclinedinallzonesofKofiauMPAfrom2009to2011withtheexceptionofNTZ1wherefishbiomassincreasedfrom2010to2011.In2011,fishbiomasswashigheratsitesinusezonesandgenerallylowerinareaschosenasnotakezonesagainwiththeexceptionofNTZ1.Itisimportanttonotethatdeclinesinfishbiomasswerenotstatisticallysignificantforanyofthezones,whichsuggeststhateither(a)therearenodeclinesoccurringintheMPA,or(b)therearesomedeclinesthatarehappening,butthesearestillverysmallandifproperlyaddressedthroughmanagementcanbereversed.Ifmanagementfailstoaddressfishingpressureortoadequatelyimplementthezoningplan,wewouldexpectthatthenextmonitoringmaystarttorecordsignificantdeclines.
Therearevariationsinaveragefishbiomassacrossthezones,bothTUZandNTZ.Thisisthoughttobeduetothebiologicalcharacteristicsofthefishandalsothepressureoffishing,whichvariesacrossallthezonesinKofiauandBoo.ThehighfishbiomassinTUZ2orBooIslandandNTZ1ortheeasternpartofKofiauIslandisthoughttobeduetothedistanceoftheselocationsfromhumansettlement,andalthoughthereisuseofresourcesintheselocationsitisnotasintensiveasintheotherzones.TheselectionofareaswithhighfishbiomassontheeasterntipofKofiauandthewesterntipofBoo,wherefishcommunitiesareabundantandmayalsobethesiteofspawningaggregations,shouldsupportsustainablefisheriesastheseareasareexpectedtobethesourceoffishandlarvaeforthesurroundingareas.
PhotographsshowingfishingactivitiesinKofiauandBooIslandsMarineProtectedArea(D.AHandono./TNC).
13
Figure5.Averagefishbiomass(kg/ha)anddensity(number/ha)forsitesineachzoneofKofiauMarineProtectedAreafrom2009-2011.Errorbars=standarderror.
14
3.1.3.Differences among zones for select families of fish
TherearesomedifferencesinthebiomassofdifferentfishfamiliesinthedifferentzonesofKofiauMPA.AveragegrouperbiomasswassimilarinnotakeandusezoneswiththeexceptionofNTZ3wheregrouperbiomassisslightlylower,butthisisnotsignificant(p>0.05,Figure6).SomesiteswithinNTZ1andNTZ2havebeenidentifiedaspotentialgrouperspawningsites(Muljadi2009),andwitheffectivecomplianceandenforcementofNTZs,thenumberandbiomassofgroupershouldincreaseatthesesites.However,manygrouperhavelife-historypatternsthatmakethemvulnerabletoexploitationandslowtorecover,asseeninotherpartsofIndonesia(Mangubhaietal.2011).ThelownumbersofgrouperinNTZ3(Figure6)maybeduetounsuitablehabitatbecauseherethereefendsatapproximately10-12mdeepandthebenthosbecomessandy.
Foremperorsandsweetlips,thebiomassin2011wasgenerallylowerinNTZsthaninTUZs(Figure6).However,withtheexceptionofemperorsinNTZ3(p0.05).ThismeanstherearestillabundantfishresourcesinareaswherelocalcommunitiesarestillallowedtofishanditisexpectedthatthebiomasswillincreaseinNTZsafterprotectionfor5years.
Thebiomassofsnapperincreasedorwasstableinallzonesfrom2009-2011andtheaveragebiomassissimilarinallzones(Figure6).ThegreatestincreasesinsnapperswererecordedinTUZ1(p
15
Figure6.AnnualaveragebiomassofmostimportantfishfamiliesinKofiauMPAbetweennotakeandusezones,from2009-2011.Thesefishareimportanttolocalcommunitiesasasourceoffoodorincomegrouper,emperor,sweetlip,snapper,pelagicand/orimportanttotheecologyofthereef(i.e.herbivorefamiliessurgeonfish,rabbitfishandparrotfish).ThezonesweredesignatedandbecamelocallyenforcedinOctober2011,aftertheMarch2011monitoring.Errorbars=standarderror.
3.1.4.Fish biomass, density and families recorded during long swims
Duringthelongswims,stingrayorDasyatidaeandsharksofthefamiliesCharcharinidaeandGynglymostomatidaehadthegreatestbiomass(Figure7a).FishoftheKhyposidae,Sphyraenidae(barracuda)andLutjanidae(snapper)familieshadthehighestdensity(Figure7b).Napoleonwrasse(Cheilinusundulatus,familyLabridae)hadthelowestbiomass.Fishbiomassisdeterminedbythenumberandsizeofthefish.Rayandshark,whichhavelargebodies,haveahighbiomassbutalowdensity,becausetheyarefoundinsmallnumbers.AdditionalanalysesoffishdatacollectedareavailableinAppendix3.
16
Figure7.Averagefishbiomass(kg/ha+SE)anddensity(individuals/ha+SE)inalllocationsandallmonitoringyears.
3.1.5.Sharks and rays
Atotalof51individualsofthreespeciesofsharkwererecordedforallmonitoringyears.Blacktipreefshark(Carcharinusmelanopterus)wasthespeciesmostfrequentlyrecordedinKofiau.Onlyoneindividualofnurseshark(Nebriusferrugineus)wasrecorded,in2010(Table6).TwospeciesofrayorDasyatidaewererecorded:bluespottedribbontailstingray(Taeniuralymma)andwhitetailstingray(Himanturagranulata).Atotalof42individualsofthespeciesTaeniuralymmawererecordedin2009,nonein2010,andonein2011.OnlyoneindividualofthespeciesHimanturagranulatawasrecorded,in2010.
0
30
60
90
120
150
180
210
240
Da
sya
tid
ae
Ca
rch
arh
inid
ae
Gin
gly
mo
sto
ma
tid
ae
Sca
rin
i
Sco
mb
rid
ae
He
mig
ale
ida
e
Ca
ran
gid
ae
Leth
rin
ida
e
Lutj
an
ida
e
Kyp
ho
sid
ae
Ep
hip
pid
ae
Sp
hyr
ae
nid
ae
Ha
em
uli
da
e
Aca
nth
uri
da
e
Se
rra
nid
ae
Lab
rid
ae
Bio
ma
ss (
kg
/ha
)
Fish family
a)
0
4
8
12
16
Da
sya
tid
ae
Ca
rch
arh
inid
ae
Gin
gly
mo
sto
ma
tid
ae
Sca
rin
i
Sco
mb
rid
ae
He
mig
ale
ida
e
Ca
ran
gid
ae
Leth
rin
ida
e
Lutj
an
ida
e
Kyp
ho
sid
ae
Ep
hip
pid
ae
Sp
hy
rae
nid
ae
Ha
em
uli
da
e
Aca
nth
uri
da
e
Se
rra
nid
ae
Lab
rid
ae
De
nsi
ty (
ind
ivid
ua
ls/h
a)
Fish family
b)
17
Table6.SpeciesofsharkrecordedintransectsandduringthelongswimsinKofiauMPAfrom20092011.
Species Commonname
2009 2010 2011 TotalTranse
ctsLongswim
Transects
Longswim
Transects
Longswim
Carcharhinusmelanopterus Blacktip 13 6 11 10 5 1 46
Nebriusferrugineus Nurse 0 0 0 1 0 0 1Trianodonobesus Whitetip 0 1 1 1 1 0 4Total 13 7 12 12 6 1 51
Sharksareatargetforfishers,especiallyoutsidefishersfromButon,Seram,SuluwesiandHalmahera(Muhajiretal.2012).Theyhaveahigheconomicvalueandaretakenfortheirfins,whichfetchIDR800,0001,000,000perkg,dependingonspeciesandquality(Mangubhaietal.2012).Thehighpricetheyfetchislikelyencouragedmoreintensivefishingofsharks,whichhasinturn,ledtoadecreaseinthenumberofsharksinKofiauMPA.MostfisherswhofishforsharkarenotlocalsfromKofiau,andtheyuselonglinesandnets.SharkarenotaprimarytargetforlocalKofiaufishers,andonlyoccasionallydotheycatchsharkunintentionally,trappedinnetsortakingbaitmeantforotherspeciesoffish(Muhajiretal.2012).
3.2. BENTHIC COVER
3.2.1.Benthic composition of reef communities in Kofiau MPA
ThereefsofKofiauMPAarehealthyasindicatedbyabundantlivecoral(30%)andsoftcorals(13%)growingonthereefslopesandlowalgalcover(
18
Temporal differencesTemporal differencesTemporal differencesTemporal differences
Onaverage,thecompositionofthebenthiccommunityinKofiauMPAwasrelativelystablefrom2009-2011(Figure8).HardcoralcoverwasloweratKofiauin2010(18%)comparedwith2009and2011(around27%).InBoo,hardcoralcoverdeclinedslightlyfrom43%in2009toaround37%in2010and2011(Figure9).AveragesoftcoralcoverageatBoodecreasedfrom15%in2009to10%in2010-2011.Stablesubstratewhichprovidessurfacesforcoralsettlementincreasedslightly,from11%in2009to15%in2010and2011(Figure9).Thepercentcoverofmobilesubstratesuchasrubblewasrelativelystableoverthemonitoringyears(around28%),whichindicatesthatthereisrelativelylittleuseofexplosivesforfishingorofotheractivitiesdamagingtothereefsinKofiauMPA.Thisisconfirmedbytheabsenceofanysightingsoftheuseofexplosivesduringresourceusemonitoring(Muhajiretal.2012),orduringroutineenforcementpatrols.ItisnotedthoughthatasmallgroupofbombfishersfromSulawesiwerecaughtinFebruary2012inKofiauMPA,andsuccessfullyprosecutedwhichwillsendastrongmessagetootherpotentialoffenders.
Whilesmall(5-10%)variationisexpectedbetweensurveysduetonaturalvariabilityinhabitatandthelocationoftransects,largeinterannualvariationsarenotexpectedunlessthereareeventssuchascrownofthorns,severebleachingorstormswhichmayhavedamagedreefs.ThesewerenotrecordedinKofiauduringthestudyperiod.In2010,adifferentobserverconductedPITinKofiauMPA.Giventhecoralcoverin2011wassimilarandnotsignificantlydifferentwithcoverrecordedin2009(p>0.05),andgiventhatcoralshaveslowgrowthrates,itislikelythatthedeclinerecordedin2010relatestoobserverbias(Figure8and9).Thereforeingeneral,someofthedifferencesseenin2010,mayrelatetoobserverdifferencesinrecordingbenthiccategories.Thismayalsoexplainapproximately5%ofthevariabilitybetweenyears.
Figure8.Annualchangesinpercentbenthiccover(average+SE)from2009-2011inKofiauMarineProtectedArea.
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Hard Coral Soft Coral Algae Available
Substrate
Mobile
Substrate
Other Bleach
Coral
Co
ve
r (%
)
Benthic categories
2009
2010
2011
19
Figure9.Comparisonofchangesinannualbenthiccover(averagepercentcover+SE)beteenBooandKofiauIslandsfrom20092011.
3.2.2.Benthic community composition by zone type
ThecompositionofthebenthiccommunityineachzoneandeachyearofsamplingisshowninFigure10.Thisprovidesinformationonthebaselineconditionsineachzonetypeandareajustpriortoimplementationofthezoningplan.Thesedataalsoshowthelevelofvariabilityamongsamplingyearsduetonaturalandobservervariability(adifferentobserverwasusedin2010).TheresultsofcomparisionsofbenthiccommunitiesindifferentzonetypesshowtherewerefewdifferencesamongzonesandmostdifferencesreflectspatialorhabitatdifferencesbetweensitesaroundtheBooIslandcomparedtoKofiauIsland.ThisistobeexpectedbecausethezoningplanwasnotimplementedandenforceduntilOctober2011,afterthelastsamplinginMarch2011,andreefsareverysimilarthroughoutKofiauMPA.Additionalanalysesofbenthicdata(e.g.individualsites)areavailableinAppendix4.Usingthe2011data,statisticaltestswereruntolookatdifferencesbetweendifferentzonesforthethreebenthiccategoriesbelow.Thefewdifferencesinbenthiccommunitiesamongzonesinclude:
a. Hard coral cover: significantly higher coral cover in both NTZ 3 and TUZ 2 around BooIslandthanintheTUZ1aroundKofiau(TUZ1)(p
20
Figure10.Averagepercentage(%)benthiccoverageineachzoneforallmonitoringyearsinKofiauMPA(NTZ=NoTakeZone,TUZ=TraditionalUseZone).
3.2.3.Coral bleaching
Bleachedcoralswereobservedin2009and2010althoughinlownumbersandonlyincoloniesoutsidethetransects(Mangubhaietal.inprep.).In2011,bleachedcoralswereobservedontransectsforthefirsttimeandtheresultsofdedicatedsurveysin2011arereportedhere.ThepresenceofbleachedcoralinKofiauin2011isthoughttobeduetowarmerthannormalsurfacewatertemperaturesfromNovember2010February2011inmanypartsofKofiauMPAwhichwasdocumentedbyinsitutemperatureloggers(Section3.3).
21
Overall,thenumberofcoloniesaffectedbybleachingin2011waslow.Fromthe17,402coloniesthatweresurveyedfrom25sites,onaveragemorethan95%wereinnormalcondition,lessthan2%pale,lessthan3%bleached,andlessthan1%dead.Howeverthereweresomespatialdifferenceswithmorecoralsaffectedinshallowtransects(5%)comparedtodeepertransects(3.5%).Therewerealsodifferencesamongsiteswith25%ofcoloniesrecordedasbleachedorpaleatTwanyauhner,9%atYenmandurand6%atWamei(Figure11).AtYenimafanalmost10%ofthecolonieswerepale.
Somecoralgeneraaremoresusceptibletobleachingthanothers.In2011,Acropora(Acroporidae)andPorites(Pocilloporidae)werethedominantgeneraintermsofcoralcoveratKofiauMPA.AcroporidaeandPocilloporidaearetwocoralfamiliesknowntobesusceptibletobleaching(MarshallandBaird2000).InKofiau,Poriteswasthegenuswiththehighestpercentageofpalecoloniesrecorded.Poritesisagenusthatismoderatelysusceptibletobleaching(MarshallandBaird2000).Stylophora(alsofromthefamilyPocilliporidae)whichformssmallcoloniescommononthereefsofKofiauMPA,wasthemostaffectedbybleachingwithmorethan60%ofallcoloniesrecordedasbleached.Bleachingwasalsorecordedinseveralothergenera,includingMontipora(foliose&encrusting),Acropora,Hydnophora(encrusting),andPhysogrya(massive)(Figure12).
Thecompositionofthecoralcommunityexplainspartofthevariationinbleachingimpactamongsites.Aregressionofpercentcompositionofgeneraagainstthepercentofcoralsbleachedorpaleshowsthat36%ofthevariationinamongsitescanbeexplainedbydifferencesinthepercentageofsusceptiblegenera(Figure13).AtTwanyauhner,YenmandurandYenimfan,morethan50%ofcolonieswerebleachingsusceptiblegenerafromfamilyAcroporidae.Wameihadfewercoloniesofsusceptiblegenerae.g.Acropora,butasligthlyhigherincidenceofbleachingcomparedtoothersites.Itisnotknownwhythissiteexperiencedmorebleachingthanothersitesbecauseithasgoodwatermovementandsometimesexperiencesstrongcurrents.
In2011,therewasadifferenceinthevaluesforbleachedcoralbetwenthereefhealthsurveysusingPITandbelttransects.Thisisbecausealargernumberofcoralcolonieswassurveyed(averageof120coloniesperbelttransect)comparedwithanaverageof20-30coloniespertransectusingPIT.
22
Figure11.Composition(%)ofcoralcoloniesbymonitoringlocationandproposedzoneinKofiauMarineProtectedArea.NTZ=NoTakeZone,TUZ=TraditionalUseZone.
Figure12.Composition(%)ofcoralgeneraconditions.Only20coralgenerashowninthefigure.
70%
75%
80%
85%
90%
95%
100%
0%
60%
Wa
me
i
Wa
mb
on
g K
eci
l
Ma
et
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r
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lo S
ou
th
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all
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ret
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No
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eci
l
To
mn
a
Ta
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koye
r
NTZ 1 NTZ
3
NTZ 4 NTZ 5 TUZ 1 TUZ 2 TUZ 3
Normal Pucat Memutih Mati
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Stylophora
Diploastrea
Montipora
Physogyra
Acropora
Pocillopora
Gardineroseris
Acanthastrea
Seriatopora
Hydnophora
Symphyllia
Ctenactis
Mycedium
Porites
Goniopora
Merulina
Pectinia
Echinopora
Echinophyllia
Goniastrea
Composition (%)
Co
ral G
en
era
Pale
Bleach
Dead
Normal
23
Figure13.Scatterplotofpercentageofbleachingcoralscomparetopercentageofsusceptiblegenera.
3.3. SURFACE WATER TEMPERATURE
FromFebruary2009toMarch2011,surfacewatertemperatureinKofiauMPAvariedbetween24.40Cand34.70C,withanaverageof27.90C.Thehighesttemperatureatadepthof2mwasrecordedinBooKecilinMay2009,andthehighesttemperatureatadepthof5mwasrecordedinGebeBesarinSeptember2009(Table7).
TheseasonaltemperaturepatternrecordedbytheeighttemperatureloggersshowedtemperaturesincreasedfromFebruarytotheirpeakinAprilfollowedbyadeclineoverwinterwithminimumtemperaturesinJuly-AugustandgraduallyincreasingtoDecember(Figure14).Januarywasusuallycoolerduetowesterlywindsandcloudwhichcoolthearea.Temperaturesin2010weregenerallyhotterthanin2009andnotablytherewasverylittledifferencebetweensummerandwintertemperatures.InDecember2010February2011,surfacewatertemperaturewas11.5oChigherthanotheryearsandstayedbetweeen2930oCinmanylocations.ThecoralbleachingdocumentedinApril2011isthoughttobeassociatedwiththisextendedperiodofwarmerthannomaltemperaturesin2010andearly2011.
Acomparisonoftemperaturerecordsfromloggersat25mand5mdepthatWameiandBooBesarindicatedtherewasnodifferenceinthetemperaturepatternsbetweendepths(Figure14)indicatinggoodmixingatthesesites.TemperaturefluctuationsinBooKecilarealittledifferentfromthoseinotherlocations,becauseheretherearelargefluctuationsinashortperiodoftime.Thisisbecausethetemperatureloggersarepositionedatadepthof2minashallowlagoon,whichmeansthatsunlightisabsorbedmorequicklyintothewatercolumnanddispersesmorequicklyfromthesea.Thismeansthatfluctuationsinsurfacewatertemperatureoccurmorequicklythaninotherlocationsthataremoreopenandhavedeeperwaters.Coralslivingintheseenvironmentswhichexperiencelargetemperaturefluctuationsandelevatedtemperaturesmayhaveincreasedtolerancetobleaching.
Althoughpersonalobservationindicatesthatseverallocationswherethetemperatureloggersarepositioned,suchasinWameiandTanjungLampu,havestrongcurrents,therearenorapiddecreasesintemperatureinanyofthemonitoringsites,includingthesetwolocations.ThissuggeststhatthereisnoupwellinginthelocationswherethetemperatureloggersarepositionedinKofiau.
R = 0.3582
-
5.0
10.0
15.0
20.0
25.0
30.0
- 20 40 60 80
% b
lea
chin
g
% susceptible genera
24
Tabl
e7.
Su
rface
w
ater
te
mpe
ratu
res
(C)i
n
K
ofia
u
M
arin
ePr
ote
cted
A
rea,
20
09
20
11
(M
ax
=
m
axim
um
,
A
vg
=
av
erag
e,
M
in
=
m
inim
um
,
-
=
n
o
da
ta.
H
ighe
st
and
low
estt
empe
ratu
res
(acro
ss
al
lyea
rs)a
re
hi
ghlig
hted
in
gr
ey.
Ye
ar
Mo
nth
Sit
e -
Te
mp
era
ture
(0 C
)
Bo
o K
eci
l 2
m
Jail
olo
5 m
G
eb
eB
esa
r 5
m
Ra
tait
ap
or
5 m
B
oo
Be
sar
5 m
B
oo
Be
sar
25
m
Wa
me
i 5
m
Wa
me
i 2
5 m
Ma
x
Av
g
Min
M
ax
A
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.9
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33
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33
.1
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30
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34
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31
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28
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28
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28
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28
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32
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32
.8
29
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-
- -
29
.2
28
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26
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29
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28
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29
2
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28
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29
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26
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29
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28
.7
27
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29
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26
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27
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29
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28
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28
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28
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31
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29
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28
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29
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27
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32
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25
Figure14.Fluctuationsinaveragesurfacewatertemperature(C)bymonthandyearforallmonitoringsitesinKofiauMarineProtectedArea.
2009 2010
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
Jan
ua
ry
Fe
bru
ary
Ma
rch
Ap
ril
Ma
y
Jun
e
July
Au
gu
st
Se
pte
mb
er
Oct
ob
er
No
vem
be
r
De
cem
be
r
Te
mp
era
ture
(oC
)
Location : Boo Besar Island
Depth : 5 meters
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
Jan
ua
ry
Fe
bru
ary
Ma
rch
Ap
ril
Ma
y
Jun
e
July
Au
gu
st
Se
pte
mb
er
Oct
ob
er
No
vem
be
r
De
cem
be
r
Te
mp
era
ture
(oC
)
Location : Boo Besar island
Depth : 25 meters
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
Jan
ua
ry
Fe
bru
ary
Ma
rch
Ap
ril
Ma
y
Jun
e
July
Au
gu
st
Se
pte
mb
er
Oct
ob
er
No
vem
be
r
De
cem
be
r
Te
mp
era
ture
(oC
)
location : Wamei
Depth : 25 meters
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
Jan
ua
ry
Fe
bru
ary
Ma
rch
Ap
ril
Ma
y
Jun
e
July
Au
gu
st
Se
pte
mb
er
Oct
ob
er
No
vem
be
r
De
cem
be
r
Te
mp
era
ture
(oC
)
Location : Wamei
Depth : 5 meters
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
Jan
ua
ry
Fe
bru
ary
Ma
rch
Ap
ril
Ma
y
Jun
e
July
Au
gu
st
Se
pte
mb
er
Oct
ob
er
No
vem
be
r
De
cem
be
r
Te
mp
era
ture
(oC
)
Location : Boo Kecil lagoon
Depth : 2 meters
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
Jan
ua
ry
Fe
bru
ary
Ma
rch
Ap
ril
Ma
y
Jun
e
July
Au
gu
st
Se
pte
mb
er
Oct
ob
er
No
vem
be
r
De
cem
be
r
Te
mp
era
ture
(oC
)
Location : Jailolo island
Depth : 2 meters
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
Jan
ua
ry
Fe
bru
ary
Ma
rch
Ap
ril
Ma
y
Jun
e
July
Au
gu
st
Se
pte
mb
er
Oct
ob
er
No
vem
be
r
De
cem
be
r
Te
mp
era
ture
(oC
)
Location : Rataitapor
Depth : 5 meters
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
Jan
ua
ry
Fe
bru
ary
Ma
rch
Ap
ril
Ma
y
Jun
e
July
Au
gu
st
Se
pte
mb
er
Oct
ob
er
No
vem
be
r
De
cem
be
r
Te
mp
era
ture
(oC
)
Location : Gebe Besar island
Depth : 5 meters
26
4. CONCLUSIONS
FromthefindingsanddiscussionofthecoralreefhealthmonitoringinKofiauMPA,thefollowingconclusionscanbemade:
The fish community in Kofiau MPA still in health condition due to good diversity andabundanceof fish and theoccurrenceof large individualsof somepredators suchas sharks,grouperandnapoleonwrasse.
However,fishbiomasshasdecreasedatmostsitesfrom2009to2010especiallyforherbivoresandthismayhavebeenduetointensivefishingbyoutsidefishersinDecember2009-January2010.
Thenumberofsharksightingswasverylowin2011comparedto2009and2010andthismaybe due to the continued high fishing pressure on sharks in Kofiau and the wider the RajaAmpatregency.
Three speciesof sharkhavebeen recorded fromKofiauMPAblack tip reef (Carcharinusmelanopterus),whitetipreef(Trianodonobesus)andnurse(Nebriusferrugineus)sharkswererecorded.FromtherayorDasyatidaefamily,twospecieswererecordedbluespottedribbontailstingray(Taeniuralymma)andwhitetailstingray(Himanturagranulate).
Therehasbeennosignificantchange inbenthiccoverage inKofiauMPAbetween theyears2009and2011.
Totalaveragepercentagecoverageoflivehardcoralwas30%,ofsoftcoralwas13%,andofotherbenthoswas10%,withalittlevariationbutnosignificantdifferencebetweenmonitoringyearsandproposedzones.
Mild coral bleaching was recorded in 2009 and 2010 during reef resilience surveys(Mangubhaietal.inprep.),andwasalsodocumentedinbelttransectsattwodepthsin2011.However,lessthan5%ofcoralswereaffectedin2011.
Stylophora was the genus of coral most commonly affected by bleaching (57% of 559colonies).Othergenera,suchasMontipora(folioseandencrusting),Acropora(sub-massive),Hydnophora(encrusting)andPhysogrya(massive)werebleachedbetween3%and7%.
SurfacewatertemperatureinKofiauMPAvariesbetween24.40Cand34.70C,withanaverageof27.90C.AnextendedperiodofwarmerthannormalwatertemperaturesthroughoutKofiauMPAin2010andearly2011probablycausedthemildcoralbleachingseeninApril2011.
27
5. RECOMMENDATIONS
Fromfindingsanddiscussionofthereefhealthmonitoring,thefollowingrecommendationscanbemade:
The Kofiau MPA zoning plan protects a number of sites with good fish and benthiccommunitiesinNTZsandthesewillactasfishbanksandreservesforthespilloveroflarvaeandadultstootherareas.
TheTUZsalsohavehighbiomassoffishfamiliesthatareatargetforKofiauresidentsandsotheyshouldstillbeabletohaveenoughfisheriesresourcesfortheirlocalneeds.
ToaddressthedecliningfishbiomassinKofiauMPA,it is importanttoenforcethezoningsystemtobothprotectNTZsfromanyfishingactivityandalsoensurethatoutsidefishersareprohibitedfromfishinginTUZs
It is especially important to protect the sites which are likely fish spawning and feedinggroundssuchasNTZ1andNTZ3.
It is essential to maintain and strengthen the local patrols and outreach activities to ensurecompliancewiththezoningsystem.
ThebestsitefortourismactivitiesisisNTZ3becauseofthedramaticunderwaterlandscapefeatures.
FuturemonitoringatsitesinNTZandTUZsinKofiauMPAwillprovideinformationontheeffectivenessofthezoningplanie.Iffishbiomassandcoralhealtharestableorincreasing.Itisrecommendedthisbeundertakenevery2-3years.
InformationaboutfishdensityandbiomasscanbefurthercombinedwithinformationaboutcatchesfromresourceusemonitoringtoobtainclarificationaboutthestatusoffishresourcesinKofiauMPA.
28
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30
APPENDICES
Appendix1.ThenamesandGPSlocationsofsitessampledinKofiauMarineProtectedArea.SiteID SiteName Island Zone ReefType Exposure Latitude(S) Longitude(E
2200 KampungDeer Kofiau TUZ1 slope sheltered 109.267 12950.7032201 Warmariar Kofiau TUZ1 slope exposed 109.361 12949.9602202 TanjungDeer Kofiau TUZ1 slope exposed 108.553 12951.0332203 Twanyauhner Kofiau TUZ1 slope exposed 108.723 12952.7252204 Yenmandur Kofiau TUZ1 slope exposed 109.770 12955.7852205 Wamei Kofiau TUZ1 slope exposed 110.106 12958.3752206 WambongKecil Kofiau NTZ1 slope exposed 110.997 12958.3232207 Maet Kofiau NTZ1 slope exposed 112.233 12956.3022208 Yenpapir Kofiau TUZ1 slope exposed 112.672 12954.2602209 Rataitapor Kofiau TUZ1 slope exposed 115.040 12949.8252210 Warturenmyotkuer Kofiau TUZ1 slope semi-exposed 113.413 12947.1032211 WaloBommoes Kofiau NTZ2 patch semi-exposed 116.255 12940.0972212 Walosouth Kofiau NTZ2 slope exposed 116.514 12939.5022213 GebeKecilWall Kofiau NTZ2 wall exposed 113.721 12938.7722214 Karabas Kofiau TUZ1 slope exposed 113.818 12942.1762215 Tabek Kofiau TUZ1 slope exposed 116.937 12943.6262216 Pamali Kofiau TUZ1 slope exposed 116.306 12946.1832217 Walo Kofiau NTZ2 slope exposed 115.601 12939.5782218 Cina Kofiau NTZ2 slope exposed 114.878 12940.8802219 GebeKecil Kofiau NTZ2 slope exposed 113.568 12938.9992220 GebeBesar Kofiau TUZ1 slope exposed 112.189 12939.2722221 Tolobi1 Kofiau TUZ1 slope exposed 110.558 12940.6482222 Tolobi2 Kofiau TUZ1 slope exposed 109.786 12942.1532223 Tolobi3 Kofiau TUZ1 slope exposed 109.395 12944.3752224 JailoloBesar Kofiau TUZ1 slope exposed 108.792 12946.2022225 Taupadwar Boo TUZ2 slope exposed 110.748 12928.5242226 NorthBooKecil Boo TUZ2 slope exposed 110.051 12927.2692227 Tomna Boo TUZ2 slope exposed 108.958 12926.5522228 Taroiukoyer Boo TUZ2 slope exposed 109.156 12925.2382229 Warmaret Boo NTZ3 slope exposed 109.866 12922.0272230 Yenimfan Boo NTZ3 slope exposed 109.388 12920.8432231 Tapordoker Boo NTZ3 slope exposed 109.279 12919.0902232 TanjungLampu Boo NTZ3 slope exposed 110.578 12917.9552233 BooBarrierReef Boo TUZ2 barrier exposed 112.502 12925.7892234 Donakarmalita DonaKarmalita NTZ4 patch exposed 117.753 12926.8552235 LagunaWalo Kofiau NTZ2 lagoon sheltered 116.024 12939.9752236 WallGebeBesar Kofiau NTZ2 wall exposed 112.175 12938.8392237 KorMangKwan Kofiau TUZ1 slope exposed 113.655 12952.8972238 Yendot Kofiau TUZ1 slope exposed 114.508 12951.3982239 Tampagula Kofiau TUZ1 slope semi-exposed 112.239 12942.3722240 Huriba Kofiau TUZ1 slope exposed 112.320 12940.9482241 BajuLagoon Boo TUZ2 slope semi-exposed 110.930 12923.780
31
Appendix2.Listoffishbiomassconstantsusedtocalculatebiomass
FishID Species_name Family Biomass constant a Biomass constant b Reference Notes
1 Acanthurus bariene Acanthuridae 0.028 2.983 Kulbicki etal 2005 Used Acanthurus spp.
2 Acanthurus blochii Acanthuridae 0.0251 3.032 Kulbicki etal 2005 Used A. blochii
3 Acanthurus dussumieri Acanthuridae 0.0426 2.868 Kulbicki etal 2005
4 Acanthurus fowleri Acanthuridae 0.028 2.983 Kulbicki etal 2005 Used Acanthurus spp.
5 Acanthurus leucocheilus Acanthuridae 0.028 2.983 Kulbicki etal 2005 Used Acanthurus spp.
6 Acanthurus lineatus Acanthuridae 0.0126 3.064 Fishbase (www.fishbase.com)
7 Acanthurus mata Acanthuridae 0.0222 3.008 Kulbicki etal 2005
8 Acanthurus nigricans Acanthuridae 0.067 2.669 Fishbase (www.fishbase.com)
9 Acanthurus nigricauda Acanthuridae 0.0168 3.168 Kulbicki etal 2005
10 Acanthurus nigrofuscus Acanthuridae 0.0264 3.028 Kulbicki etal 2005
11 Acanthurus olivaceus Acanthuridae 0.007 3.398 Fishbase (www.fishbase.com)
12 Acanthurus pyroferus Acanthuridae 0.0051 3 Fishbase (www.fishbase.com)
13 Acanthurus spp. Acanthuridae 0.028 2.983 Kulbicki etal 2005
14 Acanthurus spp. (ringtail) Acanthuridae 0.028 2.983 Kulbicki etal 2005
15 Acanthurus triostegus Acanthuridae 0.0831 2.57 Kulbicki etal 2005
16 Acanthurus xanthopterus Acanthuridae 0.0267 2.984 Kulbicki etal 2005
17 Ctenochaetus binotatus Acanthuridae 0.0392 2.875 Kulbicki etal 2005
18 Ctenochaetus cyanocheilus Acanthuridae 0.0237 3.056 Kulbicki et al 2005 Used Ctenochaetus spp.
19 Ctenochaetus spp. Acanthuridae 0.0237 3.056 Kulbicki etal 2005
20 Ctenochaetus striatus Acanthuridae 0.0231 3.063 Kulbicki etal 2005
21 Ctenochaetus tominensis Acanthuridae 0.0237 3.056 Kulbicki et al 2005 Used Ctenochaetus spp.
22 Naso annulatus Acanthuridae 0.051 2.715 Kulbicki etal 2005
23 Naso brevirostris Acanthuridae 0.0107 3.243 Kulbicki etal 2005
24 Naso hexacanthus Acanthuridae 0.0202 2.956 Kulbicki etal 2005
25 Naso lituratus Acanthuridae 0.0497 2.839 Fishbase (www.fishbase.com)
26 Naso lopezi Acanthuridae 0.0594 2.854 Fishbase (www.fishbase.com)
27 Naso minor Acanthuridae 0.0085 3.25 Kulbicki etal 2005 Used Naso spp.
28 Naso spp. Acanthuridae 0.0085 3.25 Kulbicki etal 2005
29 Naso unicornis Acanthuridae 0.0179 3.035 Kulbicki etal 2005
30 Naso vlamingii Acanthuridae 0.0753 2.843 Fishbase (www.fishbase.com)
31 Zebrasoma scopas Acanthuridae 0.0291 2.993 Kulbicki etal 2005
32 Zebrasoma spp. Acanthuridae 0.0378 2.857 Kulbicki etal 2005
33 Zebrasoma veliferum Acanthuridae 0.0343 2.866 Kulbicki etal 2005
34 Albula spp. Albulidae 0.0205 2.869 Kulbicki etal 2005
35 Antennarius spp. Antennariidae 0.0236 3.293 Kulbicki etal 2005
36 Apogon angustatus Apogonidae 0.0049 3.78 Kulbicki etal 2005
37 Apogon aureus Apogonidae 0.0064 3.509 Kulbicki etal 2005
38 Apogon bandanensis Apogonidae 0.014 3.25 Kulbicki etal 2005
39 Apogon catalai Apogonidae 0.0052 3.935 Kulbicki etal 2005
40 Apogon compressus Apogonidae 0.0186 2.984 Kulbicki etal 2005
41 Apogon cookii Apogonidae 0.0058 3.689 Kulbicki etal 2005
42 Apogon cyanosoma Apogonidae 0.0074 3.563 Kulbicki etal 2005
43 Apogon doderleini Apogonidae 0.009 3.46 Kulbicki etal 2005
44 Apogon ellioti Apogonidae 0.0172 2.991 Kulbicki etal 2005
45 Apogon exostigma Apogonidae 0.0164 3.069 Kulbicki etal 2005
46 Apogon fraenatus Apogonidae 0.013 3.165 Kulbicki etal 2005
47 Apogon fuscus Apogonidae 0.0407 2.699 Kulbicki etal 2005
48 Apogon hyalosoma Apogonidae 0.0071 3.449 Kulbicki etal 2005
49 Apogon kallopterus Apogonidae 0.0101 3.314 Kulbicki etal 2005
50 Apogon lateralis Apogonidae 0.0184 3.051 Kulbicki etal 2005
51 Apogon lineolatus Apogonidae 0.0045 3.683 Kulbicki etal 2005
52 Apogon nigrofasciatus Apogonidae 0.0086 3.51 Kulbicki etal 2005
53 Apogon norfolcensis Apogonidae 0.0102 3.277 Kulbicki etal 2005
54 Apogon novemfasciatus Apogonidae 0.0086 3.414 Kulbicki etal 2005
55 Apogon spp. Apogonidae 0.0155 3.121 Kulbicki etal 2005
56 Apogon trimaculatus Apogonidae 0.0217 2.971 Kulbicki etal 2005
57 Archamia fucata Apogonidae 0.0089 3.323 Kulbicki etal 2005
58 Archamia leai Apogonidae 0.0072 3.48 Kulbicki etal 2005
59 Archamia lineolata Apogonidae 0.0485 2.586 Kulbicki etal 2005
60 Archamia spp. Apogonidae 0.0084 3.395 Kulbicki etal 2005
61 Cheilodipterus artus Apogonidae 0.0038 3.59 Kulbicki etal 2005
62 Cheilodipterus lachneri Apogonidae 0.0022 3.858 Kulbicki etal 2005
63 Cheilodipterus macrodon Apogonidae 0.0054 3.433 Kulbicki etal 2005
64 Cheilodipterus quinquelineatus Apogonidae 0.0161 2.999 Kulbicki etal 2005
65 Cheilodipterus spp. Apogonidae 0.0132 3.085 Kulbicki etal 2005
66 Fowleria aurita Apogonidae 0.0376 2.776 Kulbicki etal 2005
67 Fowleria marmorata Apogonidae 0.0024 4.136 Kulbicki etal 2005
68 Fowleria spp. Apogonidae 0.0082 3.567 Kulbicki etal 2005
69 Fowleria variegata Apogonidae 0.0134 3.35 Kulbicki etal 2005
70 Atherinomorus lacunosus Atherinidae 0.0064 3.298 Kulbicki etal 2005
71 Aulostomus chinensis Aulostomidae 0.0002 3.514 Kulbicki etal 2005
72 Abalistes stellaris Balistidae 0.0472 2.76 Kulbicki etal 2005
73 Balistapus undulatus Balistidae 0.0058 3.5540 Fishbase (www.fishbase.com) Used Balistoides spp.
74 Balistoides conspicillum Balistidae 0.019 3.078 Kulbicki et al 2005 Used Balistoides spp.
75 Balistoides spp. Balistidae 0.019 3.0780 Kulbicki etal 2005
76 Balistoides viridescens Balistidae 0.0244 3.018 Kulbicki etal 2005
77 Belonidae semi-elongated Balistidae 0.0008 3.203 Kulbicki etal 2005
78 Melichthys vidua Balistidae 0.0058 3.554 Fishbase (www.fishbase.com)
79 Odonus niger Balistidae 0.0366 3 Fishbase (www.fishbase.com)
80 Pseudobalistes fuscus Balistidae 0.0726 2.76 Kulbicki etal 2005
32
81 Sufflamen bursa Balistidae 0.0326 3 Fishbase (www.fishbase.com)
82 Sufflamen fraenatus Balistidae 0.0287 2.966 Kulbicki etal 2005
83 Sufflamen spp. Balistidae 0.0324 2.929 Kulbicki etal 2005
84 Strongylura incisa Belonidae 0.0016 2.996 Kulbicki etal 2005
85 Strongylura spp. Belonidae 0.0011 3.101 Kulbicki etal 2005
86 Strongylura urvilli Belonidae 0.0005 3.361 Kulbicki etal 2005
87 Tylosurus crocodilus Belonidae 0.0006 3.285 Kulbicki etal 2005
88 Atrosalarias fuscus Blenniidae 0.0149 3.018 Kulbicki etal 2005
89 Cirripectes chelomatus Blenniidae 0.0147 3.099 Kulbicki etal 2005
90 Cirripectes spp. Blenniidae 0.013 3.15 Kulbicki etal 2005
91 Cirripectes stigmaticus Blenniidae 0.0183 2.969 Kulbicki etal 2005
92 Ecsenius bicolor Blenniidae 0.0239 2.5830 Kulbicki etal 2005
93 Ecsenius spp. Blenniidae 0.0239 2.584 Kulbicki etal 2005
94 Meiacanthus spp. Blenniidae 0.0009 4.47 Kulbicki etal 2005
95 Petroscirtes spp. Blenniidae 0.0097 3.016 Kulbicki etal 2005
96 Plagiotremus rhinorhynchos Blenniidae 0.0012 3.792 Kulbicki etal 2005
97 Plagiotremus spp. Blenniidae 0.0018 3.581 Kulbicki etal 2005
98 Plagiotremus tapeinosoma Blenniidae 0.0057 2.908 Kulbicki etal 2005
99 Salarias fasciatus Blenniidae 0.0138 2.98 Kulbicki etal 2005
100 Arnoglossus spp. Bothidae 0.0002 4.811 Kulbicki etal 2005
101 Asterorhombus intermedius Bothidae 0.001 4.075 Kulbicki etal 2005
102 Bothus pantherinus Bothidae 0.002 3.751 Kulbicki etal 2005
103 Engyprosopon grandisquama Bothidae 0.0168 2.894 Kulbicki etal 2005
104 Grammatobothus polyophthalmus Bothidae 0.0148 2.895 Kulbicki etal 2005
105 Dinematichthys spp. Bythitidae 0.0072 3.155 Kulbicki etal 2005
106 Caesio caerulaurea Caesionidae 0.02 2.991 Kulbicki etal 2005
107 Caesio cuning Caesionidae 0.0149 3.121 Kulbicki etal 2005
108 Caesio lunaris Caesionidae 0.0149 3.121 Kulbicki etal 2005
109 Caesio spp. Caesionidae 0.0093 3.253 Kulbicki etal 2005
110 Caesio teres Caesionidae 0.0149 3.121 Kulbicki etal 2005
111 Pterocaesio diagramma Caesionidae 0.0069 3.341 Kulbicki etal 2005
112 Pterocaesio marri Caesionidae 0.0092 3.234 Kulbicki etal 2005 Used Pterocaesio spp.
113 Pterocaesio pisang Caesionidae 0.0092 3.234 Kulbicki etal 2005
114 Pterocaesio spp. Caesionidae 0.0092 3.234 Kulbicki etal 2005
115 Pterocaesio tile Caesionidae 0.01120606 3 Fishbase (www.fishbase.com)
116 Pterocaesio trilineata Caesionidae 0.0107 3.