RE + SEARCH (TO SEEK OUT AGAIN)

What is a research paper?

What is a research paper?

In research, you are expected: to show a point of view toward your topic to take a stand to reflect your own strength in inquiry to make your own judgment, interpretation and

evaluation of what you put together as a studyto follow the steps that show the rigour of the

research process

Qualities of a good research

It has your voice about your discoveries about a topic.

Your research shows your originality of thought. It is your creation. Your research shows a truthful documentation of

all sources you have used.

What is NOT research

Summary of articles Using peoples’ ideas uncriticallyPutting together many quotationsUnsubstantiated personal opinionsCopying or accepting another person’s work

without acknowledgement is definitely not research.

PLAGIARISM.

Importance of Research

Become a perceptive readerDevelop a sense of achievement in working

independentlyOffers a chance to find out more about something

that interest you in a scholarly wayGain confidence.Establish yourself as an individual.Sharpen your critical thinking skills – the most

desirable goal of education.

Developing an Inquiring Mind

The foundations of understanding a phenomenon may rest on two paradigmatic approaches:

1. The empirical approach which indicates that information, knowledge and understanding are gathered through experience and direct data collection.

The methods used are systemic.

2. Non-empirical approaches rely on introspection, experiences and other people’s analysis of events usually those who are considered to be authorities.

• Non-empirical approaches have their value in pursuing the truth through a systematic way.

Reviewing the literature

Reviewing the literature

Now that you have identified several books and articles as useful, the next step is to start reading them critically to

pull together themes and issues that belong together.Once you have developed a rough framework, you need

to slot the findings from the material so far reviewed into that framework, using a separate sheet of paper for each

heading of that framework.

Reviewing the literature

As you read further, go on slotting the information where it logically belongs under the headings so far

developed. You may need to add more headings as you go. In doing so, read critically with particular

reference to the following aspects: note whether the knowledge relevant to your theoretical framework

has been confirmed beyond doubt; note the theories put forward, the criticisms of these and their basis,

the methodologies adopted (study design, sample size and its characteristics, measurement procedures, etc.) and the criticisms of

them;

Reviewing the literature

examine to what extent the findings can be generalised to other situations;

notice where there are significant differences of opinion among researchers and give your

opinion about the validity of these differences; ascertain the areas in which little or nothing is

known – the gaps that exist in the body of knowledge.

Developing a theoretical framework

Examining the literature can be never-ending task but as you have limited time, it is important to set parameters

by reviewing the literature in relation to some main themes pertinent to your research topic.

As you start reading the literature, you will soon discover that the problem you wish to investigate has its

roots in a number of theories that have been developed from different perspectives.

Developing a theoretical framework

The information obtained from different books and journals now needs to be sorted under main themes and

theories, highlighting agreements and disagreements among the authors and identifying the unanswered

questions or gaps. You will also realise that the literature deals with a

number of aspects that have a direct or indirect bearing on your research topic.

Developing a theoretical framework

Use these aspects as a basis for developing your theoretical framework. Your review of the literature should sort out the

information, as mentioned earlier, within this framework. Unless you review the literature in relation to this framework, you will not be able to develop a focus in your literature search:

i.e., your theoretical framework provides you with a guide as you read.

This brings us to the paradox mentioned previously: until you go through the literature you cannot develop a theoretical framework

and until you have developed a theoretical framework, you cannot effectively review the literature.

Developing a theoretical framework

The solution is to read some of the literature, then attempt to developed a framework, even a loose one, within which

you can organise the rest of the literature you read. As you read more about the area, you are likely to change

the framework. However, without it, you will get bogged down in a great deal of unnecessary reading and note-

taking that may not be relevant to your study.

Developing a conceptual framework

The conceptual framework stems from the theoretical framework and concentrates, usually, on one section of

that theoretical framework. The latter consists of the theories or issues in which your study is embedded whereas the former describes

the aspects you selected from the theoretical framework to become the basis of your study.

The conceptual framework is the basis of your research problem.

Writing up the literature reviewed

Now, all that remains to be done is to write about the literature you have reviewed.

Use sub headings to indicate the significance of the key aspects related to your research topic or questions.

The literature review should be written around relevant themes.

Writing up the literature reviewed

The headings displaying themes should be precise, descriptive of the contents, and should follow a logical

progression. Findings from the literature should be organised under these themes, providing references for substantiations or

contradictions. Your arguments should be conceptually clear,

highlighting the reasons for and against, and referring to the main findings, gaps, and issues.

Reviewing the literature

Reviewing the literature

Now that you have identified several books and articles as useful, the next step is to start reading them critically to

pull together themes and issues that belong together.Once you have developed a rough framework, you need

to slot the findings from the material so far reviewed into that framework, using a separate sheet of paper for each

heading of that framework.

Reviewing the literature

As you read further, go on slotting the information where it logically belongs under the headings so far

developed. You may need to add more headings as you go. In doing so, read critically with particular

reference to the following aspects: note whether the knowledge relevant to your theoretical framework

has been confirmed beyond doubt; note the theories put forward, the criticisms of these and their basis,

the methodologies adopted (study design, sample size and its characteristics, measurement procedures, etc.) and the criticisms of

them;

Reviewing the literature

examine to what extent the findings can be generalised to other situations;

notice where there are significant differences of opinion among researchers and give your

opinion about the validity of these differences; ascertain the areas in which little or nothing is

known – the gaps that exist in the body of knowledge.

Developing a theoretical framework

Examining the literature can be never-ending task but as you have limited time, it is important to set parameters

by reviewing the literature in relation to some main themes pertinent to your research topic.

As you start reading the literature, you will soon discover that the problem you wish to investigate has its

roots in a number of theories that have been developed from different perspectives.

Developing a theoretical framework

The information obtained from different books and journals now needs to be sorted under main themes and

theories, highlighting agreements and disagreements among the authors and identifying the unanswered

questions or gaps. You will also realise that the literature deals with a

number of aspects that have a direct or indirect bearing on your research topic.

Developing a theoretical framework

Use these aspects as a basis for developing your theoretical framework. Your review of the literature should sort out the

information, as mentioned earlier, within this framework. Unless you review the literature in relation to this framework, you will not be able to develop a focus in your literature search:

i.e., your theoretical framework provides you with a guide as you read.

This brings us to the paradox mentioned previously: until you go through the literature you cannot develop a theoretical framework

and until you have developed a theoretical framework, you cannot effectively review the literature.

Developing a theoretical framework

The solution is to read some of the literature, then attempt to developed a framework, even a loose one, within which

you can organise the rest of the literature you read. As you read more about the area, you are likely to change

the framework. However, without it, you will get bogged down in a great deal of unnecessary reading and note-

taking that may not be relevant to your study.

Developing a conceptual framework

The conceptual framework stems from the theoretical framework and concentrates, usually, on one section of

that theoretical framework. The latter consists of the theories or issues in which your study is embedded whereas the former describes

the aspects you selected from the theoretical framework to become the basis of your study.

The conceptual framework is the basis of your research problem.

Writing up the literature reviewed

Now, all that remains to be done is to write about the literature you have reviewed.

Use sub headings to indicate the significance of the key aspects related to your research topic or questions.

The literature review should be written around relevant themes.

Writing up the literature reviewed

The headings displaying themes should be precise, descriptive of the contents, and should follow a logical

progression. Findings from the literature should be organised under these themes, providing references for substantiations or

contradictions. Your arguments should be conceptually clear,

highlighting the reasons for and against, and referring to the main findings, gaps, and issues.

Types of Research Studies Research projects take three basic forms:

1. Descriptive studies are designed primarily to describe what is going on or what exists.

Public opinion polls that seek only to describe the proportion of people who hold various opinions are primarily descriptive in nature.

2. Relational Studies look at the relationships between two or more variables.

A study that compares how a proportion of males and females perform in an English language test is essentially studying the relationship between gender and test performance.

3. Causal Studies are designed to determine whether one or more variables (for example, a program or treatment variable) causes or affects one or more outcome variables.

If you introduce two approaches to the learning of vocabulary, and measure its relative effectiveness, you would essentially be studying whether the treatment (cause) changed vocabulary ability

(effect).

The three study types can be viewed as cumulative.

A relational study assumes that you can first describe (by measuring or observing) each of the variables you are trying to relate.

A causal study assumes that you can describe both the causal and effect variables and that you can show that they are related to each other.

Causal studies are probably the most demanding of the three types of studies to perform.

So, why should we worry about the more difficult studies? Because for most social sciences, it is important to go beyond simply looking at the world or looking at the relationships.

Instead, you might like to be able to change the world, to improve it, and eliminate some of its major problems.

If you want to change the world (especially if you want to do this in an organized, scientific way), you are automatically interested in causes (for example, programs and treatments) which affect the outcomes of interest.

Aside from the types of studies that can be carried out, there are other concerns in carrying out research. What are some fundamental steps that are taken in research?

Two main procedures: top down and bottom up

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Figure 1: A Schematic Representation of Deductive Reasoning (top down)

Theory

Hypothesis

Observation

Confirmation

Sometimes this is informally called a top-down approach.

You might begin with thinking up a theory about your topic of interest.

You then narrow that down into more specific hypotheses that you can test. This can be done through observation and then the hypothesis can be confirmed or otherwise

Figure 2: A Schematic Representative of Inductive Reasoning (bottom up)

Observation

Pattern

Tentative Hypothesis

Theory

This is a reverse procedure, starting form observation to theory building

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TWO PHASES IN RESEARCH

Planning Stage1. State questions and hypothesis, identify

variables,2. Determine design structure 3. Identify population and sample4. Design instruments and classify operational

definitions5. Select statistical test(s) for resolving hypothesis

Execution Stage

1. Carry out the plan and collect data 2. Analyse data, draw conclusions3. Evaluate process

Fundamental Steps in Doing Research

1. Identifying the research problem2. Reviewing relevant information/literature review3. Designing a research plan/methodology 4. Collecting the data5. Analyzing the data6. Interpreting the data 7. Drawing conclusions8. Drafting the report9. Revising the draft10. Handing up of the report according to the deadline

given

Checklist of Main Research Activities

1. Identifying a research problem

Finding a SubjectHow do I identify an area for research? - start from interest - make observations of something unusual - note a difference between observations - note a difference in audience perception

- Notee a difference among experts - Make a possible prediction - Do a follow-up of something read - Note situational differences - Propose a need for change - Take stock of what you know - Look through table of content of textbooks,

index pages, glossary, bibliography,

preface/introduction

Identifying variables in research

Very simply, a VARIABLE is a measurable characteristic that varies. It may change from group to group, person to person, or even within one person over time. There are six common variable types:

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TYPES OF VARIABLES

http://linguistics.byu.edu/faculty/henrichsenl/

ResearchMethods/RM_2_14.html

DEPENDENT VARIABLES

show the effect of manipulating or introducing the independent variables. For example, if the independent variable is the use or non-use of a new language teaching procedure, then the dependent variable might be students' scores on a test of the content taught using that procedure. In other words, the variation in the dependent variable depends on the variation in the independent variable.

INDEPENDENT VARIABLES

are those that the researcher has control over. This "control" may involve manipulating existing variables (e.g., modifying existing methods of instruction) or introducing new variables (e.g., adopting a totally new method for some sections of a class) in the research setting.

Whatever the case may be, the researcher expects that the independent variable(s) will have some effect on (or relationship with) the dependent variables

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INTERVENING VARIABLES

refer to abstract processes that are not directly observable but that link the independent and dependent variables. In language learning and teaching, they are usually inside the subjects' heads, including various language learning processes which the researcher cannot observe. For example, if the use of a particular teaching technique is the independent variable and mastery of the objectives is the dependent variable, then the language learning processes used by the subjects are the intervening variables.

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MODERATOR VARIABLES

affect the relationship between the independent and dependent variables by modifying the effect of the intervening variable(s).

Unlike extraneous variables, moderator variables are measured and taken into consideration.

Typical moderator variables in TESL and language acquisition research (when they are not the major focus of the study) include the sex, age, culture, or language proficiency of the subjects.

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CONTROL VARIABLES

Language learning and teaching are very complex processes. It is not possible to consider every variable in a single study.

Therefore, the variables that are not measured in a particular study must be held constant, neutralized/balanced, or eliminated, so they will not have a biasing effect on the other variables.

Variables that have been controlled in this way are called control variables.

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EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES

are those factors in the research environment which may have an effect on the dependent variable(s) but which are not controlled.

Extraneous variables are dangerous. They may damage a study's validity, making it impossible to know whether the effects were caused by the independent and moderator variables or some extraneous factor.

If they cannot be controlled, extraneous variables must at least be taken into consideration when interpreting results.

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IMPORTANCE OF CONTROLLING VARIABLES

We need to control the variables as much as possible , especially those that have a potential on influencing the outcomes of the research.

e.g. in establishing causal relationships, we must be able to attribute the result of the cause to an identified variable(s).

In this way, we are helping to establish a high internal validity for the study.

To ensure internal validity, other decisions are also relevant at the various steps of the planning stage.

-design structure-identifying population and sample-designing of instruments-selecting the statistical tests

Internal validity is also relevant at the execution stage that involves data collection.

6. Developing Hypothesis

Hypotheses are statements of expected outcome which can be later tested.

Hypotheses set a direction for research.Design approaches are determined based on the

research questions and/or hypotheses.

The Directional HypothesisBased on a strong hunch that there is an effect

due to treatment

Examples 1. Reading more improves writing.2. Using class readers will improve the writing of

narratives.3. Test Strategy training would improve test scores.

The Null Hypothesis The null hypothesis states that there is no

significant difference to be expected as an outcome.

Examples 1. Reading more does not improve writing.2. Method A does not differ significantly from

Method B in the learning of vocabulary Not all research need a clear statement of a

hypothesis, though it does lurk in the back-ground of most social science research.

7. Selecting a Design

Research Design is a plan or a blueprint for guiding data collection and interpretation.

It offers a set of rules that the researcher can refer to in order to help him conceptualise and observe the problems under study.

Design Approaches 1. Qualitative descriptionDescriptions of results and impressions of events

2. Quantitative description Use of descriptive statisticsQuantitative data, presenting the data only

descriptively, often through charts and graphsDoes not supply evidence to support evidence of the

existence of relationships.

Correlative Quantitative approach that investigates

relationships as pairs of variables to see how they vary with respect to each other.

Experimental/quasi- experimentalVariables are carefully controlled through highly

structured designs. Have the greatest potential to indicate causality. Difficult to conduct in real life situations.

When samples are not completely random and subject to practical considerations, the designs could be referred to as quasi-experimental.

Research Designs

Survey research Experimental research Case studies

Design When Used Why Survey Snapshots of Speed of setting/views/ gaining attitudes information

Identify relation- Large amount of

ships data can be

gained with

relatively little effort

Design When Used WhyExperimental Testing No other purposes

design can test for

causation

To identify causation

Design When Used WhyCase Study In-depth study Allows past and present

study of

individuals/ area/setting, and for

chronology to be established.