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Rank 3-4 Coxeter Groups, Quaternions and Quasicrystals
Mehmet Koca Department of Physics
College of Science
Sultan Qaboos University
Muscat-OMAN
kocam@squ.edu.om
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References
Polyhedra obtained from Coxeter groups and quaternions. Koca M., Al-Ajmi M., Koc R. 11, November 2007, Journal of Mathematical Physics, Vol. 48.
Catalan solids derived from 3D-root systems and quaternions. Koca M., Koca N.O, Koc R. 4, s.l. : Journal of Mathematical Physics, 2010, Vol. 51.
Chiral Polyhedra Derived from Coxeter Diagrams and Quaternions, Mehmet Koca, Nazife Ozdes Koca and Muna Al-Shueili, ", arXiv:1006.3149 [pdf], SQU Journal for Science, 16 (2011) 63-82, 2011.
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Outline
1. Rank-3 Coxeter Groups with Quaternions and Polyhedra
1.1. Rank-3 Coxeter Groups with Quaternions
1.2. Quaternionic construction of vertices of Platonic and Archimedean polyhedra with tetrahedral, octahedral and icosahedral symmetries
1.3. Catalan solids as duals of the Archimedean solids
1.4. Novel construction of chiral polyhedra and their duals.
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Outline
2. Rank-4 Coxeter Groups with Quaternions and 4D polytopes
2.1. Representations of the group elements of rank-4 Coxeter groups with quaternions 2.2. 4D polytopes with 4( )W A symmetry 2.3. 4D polytopes with 4( )W B symmetry 2.4. 4D polytopes with 4( )W F symmetry 2.5. 4D polytopes with 4( )W H symmetry 2.6. Maximal Subgroups of 4( )W H and associated 4D polytopes, snub 24-cell and Grand antiprism
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Outline
3. Quasicrystallography from higher dimensional lattices
3.1. Quasicrystals and aperiodic tiling of the plane
3.2. Maximal dihedral subgroups of the Coxeter groups
3.3. Projection of the lattices generated by the affine Coxeter groups onto the Coxeter plane
3.4. Affine A4 and decagonal quasicrystals
3.5. Affine D6 and Icosahedral quasicrystals
3.6. Conclusion
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1.1. Rank-3 Coxeter Groups with QuaternionsO(4) transformations with quaternions
The transformations : [ , ]r prq p q ; : [ , ]r prq p q
with 1qq pp define an orthogonal group O(4)
leaving rr invariant.
If q p then above transformations lead to O(3) transformations.
)(
2
1),( :productScalar pqqpqp
Let 0 , 1,2,3i iq q q e i be unit quaternion 1qq qq
1 2 3, , , i j ij ijk ke e e e i e j e k
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Reflections Quaternions can be used to represent reflections and
rotations in Coxeter Groups.
The reflection can be represented as:
α
-α
ʌ
2
2,
2222
1:
r
2
,2
,
Let be an arbitrary quaternionic simple root. Then the reflection of an arbitrary vector with respect to the plane orthogonal to the simple root is given by
*Notations :rotary reflection [ , ]
proper rotation [ , ]
where and are arbitrary unit quaternions
p q
p q
p q
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Finite Subgroups of Quaternions
(a) Cyclic group of order 2n generated by 1exp( )p en ,
(b) Dicyclic group of order 4n generated by
1 2exp( ),p e en ,
(c) Binary Tetrahedral Group:
1 2 3 1 2 31{ 1, , , , ( 1 )}2
T e e e e e e
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Finite Subgroups of Quaternions (d) Binary Octahedral Group
Denote the set 1 2 3( )T V V V with
1 11 1 2 32 2
{ ( 1 ), ( )}V e e e , 1 12 2 3 12 2
{ ( 1 ), ( )}V e e e ,
1 1
3 3 1 22 2{ ( 1 ), ( )}V e e e
Then O T T represents the elements of the binary octahedral group
(e) Binary icosahedral group ,I b c
1 21 ( )2
c e e , 1 21 ( ) 2
b e e
1 5
2
1 5,
2
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Coxeter Diagrams A3, B3 and H3 with quaternionic roots
3 :A
3( ) {[ , ] [ , ] }:Symmetry of TetrahedronW A T T T T
3:B
33 )( ) ( {[ , ] [ , ] [ , ] [ , ]}:Symmetry of CubeW B Aut A T T T T T T T T
3 :H
3( ) {[ , ] [ , ] }:Symmetry of IcosahedronW H I I I I
Platonic solids (regular polyhedra) Platonic solids are the five convex regular polyhedra. They consist of regular
polygons (triangle, square or pentagon) meeting in identical vertices. They have identical faces of regular polygons and the same number of faces meeting at each corner
In geometry, polyhedra are formed in pairs called duals, where the vertices of one correspond to the faces of the other. The dual of each platonic solid is another platonic solid:
Tetrahedron is self dual Cube and Octahedron form a dual pair Dodecahedron and Icosahedron form
a dual pair
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Archimedean Solids (semi-regular polyhedra) Two or more types of regular polygons meet in identical vertices. There are 13 Archimedean solids. 7 of the Archimedean solids can be obtained by truncation of the platonic solids. 4 of the Archimedean solids are obtained by expansion of platonic solids and
previous Archimedean solids. The remaining 2 chiral solids are snub cube and snub dodecahedron
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Construction of polyhedra with Tetrahedral Symmetry
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.)(,),)(),(,), jijijijijjijjiijj CCCC 1ii
1i
ii
1,2,3.ji, ;( , (
productscalar esatisfy th ω vectorsdual their and α roots simple thediagram,Coxeter any For
1 1 2 1 2
1 1[ ( ), ( )]
2 2r e e e e 2 3 2 3 2
1 1[ ( ), ( )]
2 2r e e e e
3 2 1 2 1
1 1[ ( ), ( )]
2 2r e e e e
,
,
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A method used to construct the polyhedra
We construct polyhedra using a method based on applying the group elements of Coxeter-Weyl groups W(A3), W(B3) and W(H3) on a vector representing one vertex of the polyhedron in the dual space denoted as
This vector is called “highest weight” . It can be expressed as a linear combination of imaginary quaternionic units.
Certain choices of the parameters of the highest weight vector lead to the Platonic, Archimedean solids as well as the semi-regular polyhedra.
The set of vertices obtained by the action of Coxeter-Weyl group elements on the highest weight defines a polyhedron and is called the “orbit”.
Denote by W(G)(a1a2a3)=(a1a2a3)G , the orbit of W(G)
1 1 2 2 3 3 1 2 3( )a a a a a a
Construction of polyhedra with Tetrahedral Symmetry
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Construction of polyhedra with Octahedral Symmetry
The Cartan matrix of the Coxeter diagram 3B and its inverse matrix are given by
2 1 0
1 2 2
0 2 2
C
, 1
11 1
2
1 2 2
1 32
22
C
.
The generators,
1 1 2 1 2
1 1[ ( ), ( )]
2 2r e e e e , 2 2 3 2 3
1 1[ ( ), ( )]
2 2r e e e e , 3 3 3[ , ]r e e
) generate the octahedral group which can be written as
3 3 4 2( ) ( ) {[ , ] [ , ] [ , ] [ , ] }W B Aut A S C p p p p t t t t , ,p T t T .
Construction of polyhedra with Octahedral Symmetry
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Construction of polyhedra with Icosahedral symmetry
.
𝐶𝐻3
−1=12 (3𝜏
2 2𝜏3 𝜏3
2𝜏3 4𝜏2 2𝜏2
𝜏 3 2𝜏2 𝜏+2) .
2 0
2 1
0 1 2
C
Construction of polyhedra with Icosahedral Symmetry
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Catalan Solids (Duals of Archimedean Solids) Face transitive (faces are transformed to each other by the Coxeter-Weyl group) .
Faces are non regular polygons: scalene triangles, isosceles triangles, rhombuses, kites or irregular pentagons. Two Catalan solids are Chiral.
The method to generate the dual polyhedra
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It is based on examining the Coxeter-Dynkin diagram of the polyhedron which helps in determining the type of its faces and the center of a representative face which corresponds to the dual’s vertex.
The center is a vector that is left invariant under the action of the dihedral subgroup that generated the face
For example, the Coxeter-Dynkin diagram of can generate polyhedra with faces listed in Table depending on the components (Dynkin indices) of the highest weight and the dihedral subgroups of .
Example: is left unchanged by because
.
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The method to generate the dual polyhedra
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Catalan Solid Possessing Tetrahedral Symmetry
There is only one Catalan solid that possesses tetrahedral symmetry. It is the triakis tetrahedron (dual of truncated tetrahedron)which has 8 faces (4 triangles and 4 hexagons).
The vertices of the truncated tetrahedron were obtained as the orbit A triangle of the truncated tetrahedron is generated as the orbit , so its representative center will
be . On the other side a hexagon is generated by and its center will be . The line joining the two centers should be orthogonal to , so one of the centers should be scaled by .
We can determine
The triakis tetrahedron vertices are the union of the following two orbits
the two orbits comprising the triakis tetrahedron are the vertices of two mirror images tetrahedra.
Catalan Solid Possessing Octahedral Symmetry
There are 5Catalan solids that possesses octahedral symmetry. Example:Rhombic dodecahedron (dual of cuboctahedron) The cuboctahedron was obtained as the orbit . A triangle will be generated as with a center represented by Asquare is obtained as with a center . For the orthogonality condition, the scale factor multiplying can be calculated to be
The vertices of the dual are given as the union of the following two orbits
,
The first orbit contains vertices of an octahedron and
the second orbit contains vertices of a cube. The two orbits lie on two concentric spheres.
Since 4 faces of the cuboctahedron meet at one vertex, then the dual’s face will be of 4 vertices (that is a rhombus).
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Chiral Archimedean and Catalan solids
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Chirality Objects or molecules which cannot be superimposed with their mirror image are
called chiral. Human hands are one of the example of chirality. Achiral (not chiral) objects are objects that are identical to their mirror image.
In three dimensional Euclidean space the chirality is defined as follows: The object which can not be transformed to its mirror image by proper rotations
and translations is called a chiral object.
Chirality is a very interesting topic in i) molecular chemistry A number of molecules display one type of chirality; they are either left-oriented
or right-oriented molecules. ii) In fundamental physics chirality plays very important role. For example:
A massless Dirac particle has to be either in the left handed state or in the right handed state.
The weak interactions which is described by the standard model of high energy physics is invariant under one type of chiral transformations
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Snub Cube
3 2 4
3 4 21 2 2 3
1 1 2 2 3 3 1 2 3
The proper rotational subgroup is (Symmetric group of order 4!=24)
They can be generated by the generators
Let
( )
and , ( ) 1.
be a vector in the d( )
W B C S
a r r b r r a b ab
a a a a a a
2 2 31 2 1 2 2 3 2 3 2 3
21 1 2
ual space.
The following sets of vertices form an and respecti
( , , ( ) ), ( , , ( )
equ vely
with the respective
square of edge len
), ( ) )
2(
ilateral triangle a sq
+
uare
t
g hs:
r r r r r r r r r r
a a a
2 2 22 2 2 3 3
1 3 3 1
2 2 2 2 2 21 1 2 2 2 2 3 3 1 3
22
and
We have another vertex . To have all edge
length equal the fol
) 2( + 2 ).
( + ) (
lowing equations must be satisfied
Factoring by a
+ 2 ) ( )
nd d
a a a a a
r r r r
a a a a a a a a a a
a
2
31
2 2
3 2
efining and one obtains and the cubic equation
which has one
1
2
1 0 1 real solu .83tio 3.n 9
aa xx y y
a a
x x x x
32rr
223 )( rr
31rr 23rr
12rr
21rr 1
54
32
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Snub Cube
The first vertex and its mirror image can be derived from the vector and
can be written in terms of quaternionic units as
deleting the overall scale factor the orbits can easily be determined as
The snub cubes represented by these sets of vertices are shown
212
1 2 3
( 1)( +e )
2I
a xxe x e
1 1 11 2 3 2 3 1 3 1 2( ) {( e ), ( e ), ( e )} IO xe x e xe x e xe x e
1 1 11 2 3 2 3 1 3 1 2( ) {( e ), ( e ), ( e )} IIO e x x e e x x e e x x e
I III
r1
)()( and )()(II23I23
C/BWC/BW
212
1 2 3
( 1)( )
2II
a xe xe x e
2 1 2 3( + ) I a x y
1 2 1 1 2 3( ( - ) + ) II Ir a x y
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Dual solid of the snub cube We can determine the centers of the faces in figure below: The faces 1 and 3 are represented by the vectors and up to some scale factors. is invariant under the rotation represented by r1r2 . In other words the triangle 3 is rotated to itself by a rotation around the vector .
The vectors representing the centers of the faces 2, 4 and 5 can be determined by averaging the vertices representing these faces and they lie in the same orbit under the proper octahedral group.
The vector representing the center of the face 2 is
The scale factors multiplying the vectors can be determined as and when represents the normal of the plane containing these five points .
2
x
1
3
32rr
223 )( rr
31rr 23rr
12rr
21rr 1
54
32
1 3 2 , and c
22 1 2 3(2 1) +e c x e x e
2
2
x
3
3
I
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Dual solid of the snub cube
Then 38 vertices of the dual solid of the snub cube, the pentagonal icositetrahedron, are given in three orbits
1 1 2 3
3 1 2 3
22 2 2
2 1 2 3 2 3 1 3 1 2
( ) { , , }2
1( ) ( )
2
( ) {[ (2 1) ],[ (2 1) ],[ (2 1) ]}2
xO e e e
O e e e
xO c x e e x e x e e x e x e e x e
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Snub Dodecahedron The proper rotational subgroup W(H3)/C2 is the simple finite subgroup of order 60. They can be generated by the generators Let be a general vector in the dual basis.
The following sets of vertices form a pentagon and an equilateral triangle
with the respective square of edge lengths:
We have another vertex :Let all edge lengths be the same. The following equation is satisfied
The equation has the real solution
1 2 2 3 and ,a r r b r r 5 3 2( ) 1 a b ab 1 2 3( )a a a
2 3 4 21 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 2 3 2 3( , , ( ) , ( ) , ( ) ), ( , , ( ) ),r r r r r r r r r r r r
2 2 2 21 1 2 2 2 2 3 32( ) and 2( )a a a a a a a a
1 3 3 1r r r r
2 2 2 2 2 21 1 2 2 2 2 3 3 1 3( ) ( ) ( )a a a a a a a a a a
3 2 0x x x 1.94315x
12
3
45
32rr
23rr
21rr 31rr
12rr
221 )( rr
321 )( rr
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Snub Dodecahedron
The first orbit and its mirror image can be obtained from the vectors expressed in terms of quaternionic units as
The snub dodecahedrons represented by the orbits of these vectors
are shown:
)()( and )()(II23I23
C/HWC/HW
2 321 2 3[ ( 1) e (1 ) ]
2I
ax e x x e 2 32
1 2 3[ ( 1) e (1 ) ] 2
II
ax e x x e
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Dual solid of the snub dodecahedron
The vertices of the dual solid of the snub dodecahedron represented by can be given as the union of three orbits of the group W(H3)/C2. The first orbit consists of 20 vertices of a dodecahedron.The second orbit consists of 12 vertices of anicosahedron where
The third orbit involves the verticesincluding the centers of the faces 2, 4 and 5 wherethe vector is given by
)()(I23
C/HW
12
3
45
32rr
23rr
21rr 31rr
12rr
221 )( rr
321 )( rr
1( )O
3( )O
2( )O c
2
2
3 2
(2 ) 1
x x
x x
2 32
2 12
1 3 2{[(2 1) 1]
(21 20) (21 17) 21 112
x xc x x e
x x
2 3 3
2 3
( 3 3) ( ) }x x e x e
2c
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Dual solid of the snub dodecahedron
Applying the group on the vector one generates an orbit of size 60. The 92 vertices consisting of these three orbits constitute dual solid of the snub dodecahedron, pentagonal hexecontahedron. It is one of the face transitive Catalan solid which has 92 vertices, 180 edges and 60 faces.
5 [ , ]A I I2c
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Summary
In this work a systematic construction of all Platonic, Archimedean and Catalan solids and chiral polyhedra, the snub
cube, snub dodecahedron and their duals have been presented.
The Coxeter diagrams A3, B3 and H3 were used to represent the symmetries of the polyhedra.
A number of programs were developed to generate Coxeter group elements in terms of quaternions, quaternionic
vertices of polyhedra and to plot the polyhedra.