Post on 01-Oct-2020
Runninghead:PROWRESTLING&PARASOCIALINTERACTION
ProWrestling&ParasocialInteraction:
AUses&GratificationsStudyintoWhytheWWEisSoPopular
DominicArieno
RochesterInstituteofTechnology
Runninghead:PROWRESTLING&PARASOCIALINTERACTION
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Abstract
Thisstudylooksatfans’motivationsforwatchingprowrestling.Theusesand
gratificationstheoryofcommunicationisusedtouncoverthesereasonsbehind
theirviewership.Levelsofparasocialinteractionfanshadforwrestlerswere
examined.FanslevelsofparasocialinteractionforWWESuperstarswerecompared
totheirlevelsofempathyandenjoymentforWWEcontent.Theoverallquestion
beingstudiediswhydopeopletuneintoprowrestling?Parasocialinteractionis
foundtobepositivelycorrelatedwithbothempathyandenjoyment.Thefindings
suggestthatprowrestlingorganizationsshouldspendmoretimeenhancingthese
perceivedone-wayrelationshipsiftheywanttomaximizetheirfansenjoyment.
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Introduction
Pro-Wrestlingisanathleticscriptedcompetition.Itpresentsanillusionofa
truecompetitionwhereopponentsoutfightandoutsmartoneanother,andwhere
theresultisofthebattleuncertain.Fansofprowrestlingknowthatthecompetition
isinasense“fake”,butthatdidnotstop78,133peoplefromattending
WrestleMania34inNewOrleansin2018(Dosh,2018a).TheWWEisthepremier
prowrestlingcompanyintheworld,havingrevenueofnearly$800millionin2017
(Dosh,2018b),andhasverylittleseriouscompetition.Forreference,twoprominent
wrestlingpromotions,RingofHonorandNewJapan,alsohadanevent
WrestleManiaweekend,SupercardofHonorXII,andtheyonlygeneratedroughly
6,000fans(Kreikenbohm,2018).ThetermprowrestlingandWWEwillbeused
interchangeablyinthisstudylikeonemightdowiththeNFLandprofootball.
TheWWEoftenreferstoitselfassportsentertainmentbecauseitisscripted,
butstillishighlyphysicalandrequirestrainedathletestobehighlyskilled.Noother
sportintheworldisscripted.Prowrestlingwalksthelineofsoapoperalikedrama
andMixedMartialArts(MMA)stylecombat.Storylinesareusedtoenhancethe
drama,butthefightingtakesyearsofpracticeandskilledtechniquetomaster.To
manythiscrossbetweensportsandentertainmentseemsstrange,butnoteveryone
believesthisbecausetheWWEisathrivingcompanyandhasmanyloyalviewers.It
isitsowngenreandtherehasbeenverylittleacademicresearcharoundit.This
studywillusecommunicationtheorytotryandlearnmoreaboutfansmotivation
forwatchingprowrestling.
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Usesandgratificationstheoryprovidesatheoreticalbasistostudy
motivationsformediausage(Blumler,Katz,&Gurevitch,1974)andisusedherein
theexaminationofprowrestlingpopularity.Parasocialinteractiontheorystates
thatmanyfansofpublicfigures,suchasacelebrityorathlete,formrelationships
withthemthroughmediaoutletsjustastheywouldinreallife(Laken,2009).Itisa
one-wayrelationshiphadbyonlytheviewerwithouttheknowledgeofthepublic
person.ManystudieshavebeendoneonparasocialinteractionwithTVcharacters
suchasLaken’s(2009)studythatlooksattheimpacttheserelationshipshadon
celebrities.Shin’s(2016)studylookedatsocialTV,butnonespecificallylookedat
prowrestling.Asidefromthebuildingoftheseone-wayrelationships,characters
havebeenfoundtoemotionallyimpactviewersthroughempathy.Empathyhasto
dowithbeingabletounderstandanother’sframeofreferenceandexperience
(Bellet,1991).Theculturearoundprowrestlingmakesitsothatwrestlersdonot
breakcharacter.ThiscultureisencompassedbyatermcalledKayfabe.
Kayfabeistheportrayingofastagedevent,suchasarivalry,match,orinjury,
asgenuine(Oz,2017).Wrestlerstaketheircharactershomewiththem.Theillusion
createdbyprofessionalwrestlingissowellkeptthatthecreationofanewtermwas
necessary.TheSapphireWhorfhypothesis(Whorf,1957)statesthatanideathatis
relevanttoaculturewillhavemorewordsforit.ThecreationofKayfabeis
distinctivetoprowrestlingandshowstheuniqueculturesurroundingwrestling.
Prowrestlingisunlikeanyothersportorshowintheworldandthatisevidentin
thiswordKayfabe.Amagicianwillacknowledgethatatrickisindeedanillusion,
butwillnotrevealhowitisdone;butawrestlerwillnotacknowledgetheexistence
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ofatrickandtheaudiencewillnotask.Thisstudywillaimtouncoverifthe
wrestlersbecomemorethanactorsandifthismakefansofwrestlinghaveempathy
towardsthem,aswellasiftherealandhumanisticportrayalsofthesecharacters
allowforrealandhumanisticempathytobeshowntothembytheaudience.
Thisstudyaimstoprovideresearchfortheideathatheightenedlevelsof
parasocialinteractionandempathyisattherootofwhatmakesWWEsopopular.
Levelsofparasocialinteractionandlevelsofempathywillbelookedatinrelationto
enjoymentofprowrestling.Thesevariableswillbecrucialtounderstandingwhy
WWEispopular,whichistheaimofthisstudy.
LiteratureReview
ScriptedTVisariskybusinessandfarmoreexpensivetoproducethanother
genres.Manyscriptedshowsaredoomedtofailduetothesefactors(Chalaby,
2015).SomehowtheWWEhasbeenabletoairtheirflagshipshow,Raw,for25
years.Theirbiggestcompetitor,WCWNitro,onlyranforsixyearsandtheirrun
endedwiththeWWEpurchasingandburyingtheirassets(Greenburg,2017).
AccordingtoChalaby(2015)amajorfactorofhowsuccessfulashowwillbeishow
pureabrandcanbekept.Brandpuritydealswiththeideaofafranchisehavingtoo
manyspinoffsandsequelsthusdilutingandcheapeningitsname.TheWWEhashad
itstwoflagshipshowsRawandSmackdownfor25and19yearsrespectively.There
hasbeencontinuityandlittlechangethatmightdiluteanddistractviewersfromthe
maincontent.Thatcouldgiveusaclueastowhytheyhavebeensuccessful.Brand
purityandcontinuitymightalsoanswerwhysuchdeepparasocialrelationshave
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beenformed.Somecharactershaveremainedconstantfromthestart,suchasThe
Undertaker;someoftheseparasocialinteractionshaveexistedforovertwo
decades.OtherwrestlershavehadlesssuccessintheWWEandhadtoworktheir
buttsoffinTheIndies.TheIndiesisshortforIndependentCircuit,whichrefersto
anyprowrestlingpromotionthatissmallerthanmajortelevisedcompanies.A
washed-upwrestlertryingtomakealivinginTheIndieswasthemainstorylineof
anacademyawardnominatedfilmfrom2008.
TheWrestlerwasafilmstaringMickeyRourke.Itshowshowprowrestlers
become“brokendownpiecesofmeat”justlikeaboxerattheendoftheircareer
(Friedman,2015).Theseveryrealinjuriesandwornoutbodiesfurtherblurthe
linesbetweensportsandentertainment.Distinguishingbetweensportand
entertainmentbecomesdifficultbecausetheathletesaredoingharmtotheirbody
thatisveryreal.Mostactorsdonotinflictphysicaldamagetothemselvesforthe
sakeoftheircharactersandifaroleisthatdemandingastuntdoubleisbroughtin.
Wrestlersdon’thavestuntdoubles.
Asstatedpreviously,usesandgratificationstheorygivesatheoreticalbasis
tostudymotivationsformediause(Blumler,Katz,&Gurevitch,1974).Usesand
gratificationhasbeenusedtolookateverythingrangingfromTwitterandhowit’s
usedtogratifyaneedtoconnectwithothers(Chen,2011)tothefactorsthataffect
advertisementengagementinmagazines(Kim,2015).Thisstudylooksintothe
worldofprowrestlingandhopestodiscoverwhysomanypeoplehavetunedinto
WWEcontentforsolongandwhattheygetfromit.Thisisimportantbecause
monitoringandunderstandinghumanbehaviorallowsaresearchertogainadeeper
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understandingofhumans.Specificallywhypeopleactthewaytheydo.Thisalso
allowsonetoresearchwhatactionsornormativeshiftsmighttakeplaceinthe
future.Understandingtheshiftswillallowprowrestlingorganizationstobeahead
ofthecurveinmarketingefforts.
Parasocialinteractionsareone-wayrelationshipsformedbymanyfansof
publicfigures(Laken,2009).Centeno(2016)foundthat,becauseofparasocial
interactions,celebrity’sendorsementsofpoliticalcandidateswereimpactfulonthe
votinghabitsofindividuals.Parasocialinteractionsareveryseriousandcanhave
realimpactsonpeople’slives.Peoplewhoareinvolvedinparasocialinteractions
oftenattributetheirsuccessingettingthroughatoughtimetotheirfavorite
characters(Shin,2016).ThisisreallyimportantfortheWWE.Theydevelopreally
strongbondswiththeirviewersbecausetheircharacterscanbeseenonTV,butalso
intherealworld!WhatifJonSnowcouldwalkoutofyourTVscreen?JohnCena
can!Notonlydopeopledeveloptheseverytightparasocialrelationshipswiththese
characters,butfor$40thenexttimeRaworSmackdownrolesintotownyoucansee
theminperson.Thesewrestlersexistandtheywillcometoyourtown!Shin’s
findings,thatparasocialrelationshipsaffectpeopleintherealworld,areusedby
WWE.Theycreatewell-developedcharacters,whichfansreallyfeeltheygetto
knowandenjoy.Theseparasocialinteractionsblurthelinesbetweenone-waymass
communicationsaninterpersonalcommunicationforthosefans.JohnCenamightbe
inthesameroomwithafan,butthatdoesn’tmeantheirrelationshipismorethana
one-wayillusion.
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Canella(2016)goesindepthabouthowtheWWEusescurrenteventsinits
storylines.Hemakestheassertionthatthisblursthelinesbetweenwrestlingand
therealworld.TheutilizationofrealworldeventsinthestorylinehasmadeRaw
oneofthelongestrunningshowsontelevision.Ithasbeenonsolongandstayedso
relevantthatfanshavehadthetimeandexposuretodevelopstrongparasocial
interactionswiththecharacters.Thetacticsofmirroringsocialissues,usedbythe
WWE,connectsthesefanstothewrestlerswhoholdsimilarvaluesasthem.Aneasy
waytoillustratethisisthroughJohnCenaandhisrecentfeudwithRusev.Rusevis
BulgarianandhatesAmerica;ontheflipsideCenaisanAmericanicon.Thosewho
expressprideinourcountryalsofeeladeepbondwithCenabecausetheyhold
similarvalues.
PeoplewatchrealityTVbecausewatchingordinarypeopleinthespotlight
makesviewersfeelliketheycouldbetheretoosometime(Reiss&Wiltz,2004).
WWEturnsalotofregularpeopleintosuperstars.SantinoMarellastartedinthe
storylineasanaudiencememberchosenoutofthecrowdtofightthebiggest
meanestsuperstarontheroster,Umaga.Santinomiraculouslywonandbecamethe
intercontinentalchampion.WWEwantspeopletothinkthatifagoofyItalianman
pickedrandomlyoutofthecrowdcanwinthechampionshipitisn’tridiculousto
thinkanyonesitingathomecandothesame.Storylineslikethiselicithighlevelsof
empathyfromfansbecausetheyareputtingthemselvesinthewrestlersshoesand
feelingtheemotionsthattheyfeel.
Whenviolenceispresentinashowtheviewerswatchmoreoftheprogram,
butfeellesssatisfied(Stanca,2013).WhileStanca’sfocuswasagenerallookat
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violencehealsostatedthattheseresultswouldholdupinalldifferenttypesof
violentmedia.TheWWE,likeanyprowrestlingorganization,hasalotofviolence.It
iscommonforonetofeelbadlyforanotherwhentheyarefacedwithaggressionor
threatsofharm.Empathyistheabilitytounderstandanother’sframeofreference
(Bellet,1991).Ifafanisempathetictowardsawrestlerandthatwrestlerendsup
beingthevictimofaviolentwrestlingactitstandstoreasonthatafanmight
experiencedissatisfaction.TheideaproposedbyStanca(2013)thatviolenceand
dissatisfactioncorrelateswithanincreasedviewershipcouldbeseenillustratedin
WWE.Afanfavoritegetshisbuttkickedandeveryoneissad,buttheytuneinnext
weektoseeiftherewillbesomeredemptionorretribution.
ResearchQuestions:
1.Willindividualsexperiencehigherparasocialinteractionforwrestlersthanother
TVcharacters?
2.Whatistherelationshipbetweenempathyandparasocialinteractionamongst
WWEfans?
3.Whatistherelationshipbetweenlevelsofparasocialinteractionsandenjoyment
amongstWWEfans?
Methodology
Toevaluatetheresearchquestionsdatawascollectedthroughonline
surveysdistributedusingFacebook,Reddit,andmTurk.Onlinemethodswere
chosenbecauseoftheglobaloutreachtheyconvenientlysupply.Alinktothesurvey
waspostedoneachoftheplatformswiththemessagethatencouragedpeopleto
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takethesurvey.Whenthelinkwasclickedaconsentformappearedandifaccepted
theyweretakentothesurvey.Thesurveycontained29questions.Prowrestling
sub-redditsweretargetedtoensureenoughwrestlingfanswerereached.Overall
twodemographicsweretargeted:self-identifyingWWEfansandTVviewers.WWE
fanswerechosenbecausetheywillbemostusefultogaugetheusesand
gratificationsofprowrestling.
LevelsofparasocialinteractionindividualshadforWWESuperstarswere
testedusinga5-pointLikertscalewith1beingstronglydisagreeand5being
stronglyagree.Thesamescalewasusedforlevelsofparasocialinteraction
individualshadwithTVcharacters(otherthanprowrestlers).Thesurveyquestions
usedwereadaptedfromthe10-itemversionoftheParasocialInteractionScale
(Rubinetal,1985).Forexample,“Ifindmyfavoritenewscastertobeattractive”
became“IfindmyfavoriteWWEsuperstartobeattractive”and“Ifindmyfavorite
TVcharacter(otherthanprowrester)tobeattractive.”
Totestempathy,participantswereaskedfourquestionsaboutthe
emotionstheyfeelwhilewatchingwrestling.Threeemotionswereconsidered
anger,sadness,andjoybecauseifawrestlingfanisfeelingtheseemotionsthereis
reasontobelievethattheyareabletounderstandthewrestlersframeofexperience.
Participantswerealsoaskediftheyeverputthemselvesinthewrestler’sshoes.
Thesequestionswerealsoonthesame5-pointLikertscale(1=StronglyDisagree;5=
Stronglyagree).Anexampleofasurveyquestionthattestedempathyis“Ifeelsad
whenmyfavoriteWWESuperstarlosesamatch?”
Totestenjoymenttheparticipantswereonlyaskedonequestion.The
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promptwas“IgetenjoymentfromwatchingtheWWE.”Theywereaskedtoanswer
ona5-pointLikertscale(1=StronglyDisagree;5=Stronglyagree).Onlyone
questionwasusedbecauseenjoymentisacommonterm.Parasocialinteractionand
empathyaremorecomplextermsandhavescalestobeabletotestforthem,but
enjoymentisstraightforward.
Results
Atotalof230completedsurveyswerereturnedfromparticipantsofdiverse
backgrounds.Ofthe230,140oftheparticipantsidentifiedasmaleand90identified
asfemale.Withinthesample,152participantsidentifiedaswrestlingfans,while78
didnot.Thevastmajorityofparticipants,at70%,werebetween21-40yearsofage.
Only9%were0-20,17%were41-60,andonly3%were61orolder.
Researchquestiononesoughttofindwhetherindividualswouldhavehigher
levelsofparasocialinteractionforprowrestlersorTVcharacters.Apairedsamples
t-testwasconductedtocomparelevelsofparasocialinteractionforWWE
SuperstarsandTVcharacters.TherewasasignificantdifferencebetweenWWE
Superstars(M=3.36,SD=0.91)andTVcharacters(M=3.64,SD=0.79)andlevelsof
parasocialinteractiont(210)=-4.447,p<.001.ThedatashowsthatthatWrestlers
actuallydon’tcreatestrongerlevelsofparasocialinteractionwithindividualsand
thatTVcharactersseemtohavetheedge.
Basedonthesignificantdifferenceoverallitwasdeterminedimportantto
examinetoseeifthesamedifferencesexistwithineachdistinctgroupof
respondents.Asecondpairedsamplest-testwasconductedtocomparelevelsof
parasocialinteractionforWWESuperstarsandTVcharacters,butthistimeonly
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amongstwrestlingfans.TherewasnotasignificantdifferencebetweenWWE
Superstars(M=3.75,SD=0.55)andTVcharacters(M=3.68,SD=0.72)andwrestling
fanslevelsofparasocialinteractiont(139)=1.49,p=.140.Therewasnosignificant
differencebetweenlevelsofparasocialinteractionwrestlingfanshadwithWWE
SuperstarsandTVcharacters,butforbothgroupswrestingfansreportedhigher
thanneutrallevelsofparasocialinteraction.
AmongstNon-wrestlingfanstherewasasignificantdifferencebetween
WWESuperstars(M=2.59,SD=0.98)andTVcharacters(M=3.55,SD=0.91)and
individualslevelsofparasocialinteractiont(70)=-7.69,p<.001.Non-wrestlingfans
hadsignificantlyhigherlevelsofparasocialinteractionforTVcharactersoverWWE
Superstar,whichiswhatshouldbeexpected.Itstandstoreasonthatnon-wrestling
fansarefairlyneutralwhenitcomestoparasocialinteractionwithprowrestlers.
Therewasnotasignificantdifferencebetweenwrestlingfans(M=3.67,SD=0.71)
andnon-wrestlingfans(M=3.52,SD=0.94)andtheirlevelsofparasocialinteraction
forTVcharacters,t(219)=1.34,p=.183.Thedatashowsthatbothgroupsdevelop
highlevelsofparasocialinteractionforTVcharacters.Wrestlingfansarenotlimited
intheirparasocialinteractionstoonlywrestlers.
Afterthatanindependentt-testwasconductedtocomparelevelsof
parasocialinteractionforWWESuperstarsbetweenwrestlingfansandnon-
wrestlingfans.Thereasignificantdifferencebetweenwrestlingfans(M=3.76,
SD=0.56)andnon-wrestlingfans(M=2.60,SD=0.98)andtheirlevelsofparasocial
interactionforWWESuperstars,t(214)=11.08,p<.001.Wrestlingfanswere
significantlymorelikelytohavehigherlevelsofparasocialinteractionforWWE
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Superstars.Thisstandstoreason,asafanofwrestlingshouldhavestronger
relationshipswithwrestersthannon-fans.
Toseeifgenderplayedarole,anindependentt-testwasconductedto
comparelevelsofparasocialinteractionforWWESuperstarsbetweenmalesand
females.Therewasnotasignificantdifferencebetweenmales(M=3.46,SD=0.79)
andfemales(M=3.23,SD=1.06)andtheirlevelsofparasocialinteractionforWWE
Superstars,t(213)=1.81,p=.071.Genderwasnotasignificantfactorinlevelsof
parasocialinteractionforWWESuperstars,withbothmalesandfemalesreporting
highlevels.
Again,anindependentt-testconductedwastocomparelevelsofparasocial
interactionforTVcharactersbetweenmalesandfemales.Therewasasignificant
differencebetweenmales(M=3.53,SD=0.76)andfemales(M=3.77,SD=0.84)and
theirlevelsofparasocialinteractionforTVcharacters,t(218)=-2.21,p=.028.
GenderdidplayaroleinlevelsofparasocialinteractionforTVcharacterswith
femalesreportinghigherlevels.
Thelasttestwasruntoseeiftheamountofcontentwatchedwouldaffectthe
levelsofparasocialinteraction.Aone-wayanalysisofvariancewasconductedto
examinethedifferencesinlevelsofparasocialinteractionbetweenamountsof
contentwatchedamongstfansofprowrestling.Therewasnotasignificant
differencebetween0-2hours(M=3.72,SD=0.51),3-4hours(M=3.83,SD=0.50),5-6
hours(M=3.68,SD=0.72),or7+hours(M=3.92,SD=0.72),suchthatF(3,140)=0.83,
p=.478.Whilethehighestviewinggrouphadthehighestlevelsofparasocial
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interactionthenon-significantfindingshowsthattheamountofcontentfans
watcheddidnotaffecttheirlevelsofparasocialinteractionfortheWWESuperstars.
Researchquestiontwoexaminesempathy.Theinternalconsistencyofthe
fourquestionsrelatedtoempathyneededtobetestedbecausetheywerenot
adaptedfromapreviousstudy.ACronbach’salphawasruntofindareliability
coefficientof.73,thismeansthereisgoodinternalconsistencyandtherefore
reliability.
ASpearman’srhowasconductedtoexaminetherelationshipbetween
WWEfansparasocialinteractionforWWESuperstarsandEmpathy.Asignificant
relationshipwasfoundsuchthatr(144)=.553,p<.001.Therewasasignificant
positivecorrelationbetweenparasocialinteractionandempathyamongstWWE
fans.
Researchquestionthreelooksatparasocialinteractionandhowitrelatesto
enjoyment.ASpearman’srhowasconductedtoexaminetherelationshipbetween
WWEfansparasocialinteractionforWWESuperstarsandenjoyment.Asignificant
relationshipwasfoundsuchthatr(144)=.316,p<.001.Therewasasignificant
positivecorrelationbetweenparasocialinteractionandenjoymentamongstWWE
fans.
Discussion
Overall,participantshadstrongerlevelsofparasocialinteractionwithTV
charactersthanprowrestlers.Thiswasaninterestingfinding.Noonehad
previouslyrunteststoseethelevelsofparasocialinteractioninwrestlingsothe
resultswereunpredictable.Anothertestwasruntofindoutifthenon-wrestling
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fanswereweighingdownthelevelsofparasocialinteractionfortheWWE
Superstars.ThistestgreatlyshiftedthelevelsofparasocialinteractionfortheWWE
Superstars,butnotenoughtosupporttheideathatwrestlingfanshavestronger
levelsofparasocialinteractionforWWESuperstarsratherotherTVcharacters.
Withthiscomingassomewhatofasurpriseanothertestwasruntoseeifnon-
wrestlingfanshadhigherlevelsofparasocialinteractionforTVcharactersorWWE
superstars.Thiswasmoreofatestofvaliditybecausetheobviousanswerwould
thattheydid.Therewassignificanceinthedatathatshowedthistobetrue.Laken
(2009)definedparasocialinteractionasone-wayrelationshipsformedbymany
fansofpublicfigures.Akeywordinthatdefinitionisfans.Ifanindividualisnotafan
ofafigureoraprogramacharacterisonthentheywillnotformaparasocial
interaction.
Theresultsmentionedaboveraisedthequestionthatmaybewrestingfans
havestrongerlevelsofparasocialinteractionforanyTVcharacters,including
wrestlers.Thedatawasnotsignificantenoughtoprovethisidea.Whilewrestling
fansdohavehighlevelsofparasocialinteractionforallTVcharacters,thedatadoes
notshowthattheyarehigherthannon-wrestlingfans.Anothertestwasdonetosee
ifwrestlingfanshadhigherlevelsofparasocialinteractionwithWWEsuperstars
thannon-wrestlingfans.Thiswasanothertestofvalidityandtheresultswere
significant.GoingbacktoLaken(2009)andtheideathatonemustbeafantohavea
strongparasocialinteraction,itwouldbeconcerningifthedatashowedthatnon-
wrestlingfanshadstrongerrelationshipswithwrestersthanwrestlingfans.
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Inanefforttobethoroughandexpandknowledgetestsonwhetherornot
genderplaysanyroleinparasocialinteractionwithWWEsuperstarswererun.The
resultssuggestedthatgenderplayednorole.Gender,however,didplayaroleinthe
levelsofparasocialinteractionwithTVcharacters,withfemaleshavingthehigher
levels.One-wayrelationshipswithwrestlersarenotconfinedtoanygender
limitations.GenderdifferencesinlevelsofparasocialinteractionforWrestlershave
notbeenlookedatbeforeinotherstudies.Laken(2009)didincludeathletesasa
categoryforcelebritiesthatindividualshadparasocialinteractionswith.Shefound
that30%ofwomenchoseathletes,howeveronly7.5%ofmendid.Thisdiscrepancy
couldbeexplainedbywrestlersnotfallingintoanyonecategory,butinstead
somewhereinbetweenathleteandentertainer.Overall,bothstudiesdidfindthat
womenhavehigherparasocialinteractionlevelsingeneral.Anotherreasonthatthe
WWEmaynotseehigherlevelsofparasocialinteractionamongstwomenwhenthe
generaltrendwouldbetomaybebecauseoftheirunfairandunequaltreatmentof
theirfemalesuperstars.Forexample,atWrestleMania31in2015therewasnine
matches,butonlyonewomen’smatch.Ifthatweren’tenoughitwastheshortest
matchonlylastingfor6minutesand42seconds(Slimmer,2015).IftheWWE
wantedtoraisetheirlevelsofparasocialinteractionamongstwomentheycouldtry
makingtheplayingfieldmorelevel.
ThelasttestforthefirstresearchquestiondealtwiththeamountofWWE
contentwatchedonaverageeachweek.Thiswouldanswerthequestionofwhether
ornotamountofcontentconsumedreallymatteredwhenitcametoparasocial
interactions.Atestwasruntoseeiftheamountofcontentfanswatchedwould
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affecttheirlevelsofparasocialinteraction.Thisalsowasfoundtohaveno
significancemeaningthatamountofcontentconsumeddidn’tmatter.Intermsof
establishingtheseparasocialrelations,consuminganycontentatallismore
importantthantryingtogetfanstoconsumelargeramountsofcontent.Previous
studiesdidnotlookatlevelsofexposure,butjustthefactthatviewerswere
exposed.Thefindingthatamountofcontentwatcheddoesnotsignificantlyaffect
thelevelofparasocialinteractionsofwrestlingfansisnovel.
Thedatacollectedforresearchquestiononefoundnoreasontobelievethat
individualshavehigherlevelsofparasocialinteractionforWWESuperstarsthan
anyothercharactersonTV.Amongstthegeneralpopulationtheyactuallyhadabit
lowerlevels,butthatistobeexpectedbecauseifanindividualdoesn’twatch
wrestlingthereisnowaytoestablisharelationshipwithawrestler.Amongstjust
wrestlingtherewasnosignificantdifferencebetweentheparasocialinteraction
theyhavewithWWESuperstarsandTVcharacterswhichmeanstheWWEisableto
createWWEsuperstarswhobuildstronglevelsofparasocialinteractionthatrivals
otherTVcharacters.Becausethereeffectinthisareaislimitedtojusttheirfanbase
thismaysuggestthattheWWEhaslittletonoinfluenceonthosewhodonot
identifyasfansofprowrestling,certainlynotenoughfortheirSuperstarsto
develophighlevelsofparasocialinteraction.Thismeansthatanymediatryingto
establishparasocialinteractionsisofcourselimitedtothosewhoactuallywatch
theirshow.ThisissportedbythekeywordinLaken’s(2009)study,aswellasmany
others,fan.Anindividualwhoisnotafanofanycontentacharacterisincannotbe
expectedtohavehighlevelsofparasocialinteraction.
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Thesecondresearchquestionlookedatempathyandhowitrelatedto
parasocialinteraction.Therewasasignificantpositivecorrelationbetween
empathyandparasocialinteraction.ThiswouldsuggestthatiftheWWEcangetfans
tounderstandtheirsuperstar’sframeofreferencethentheycangetthemtofeellike
theyhaveastrongrelationshipwiththem.Thismeansthatmakingasuperstarbe
morerelatabletothegeneralpopulation,orattheveryleasttofansofprowrestling,
isimportantinreallydevelopingparasocialinteraction.Thisisconsistentwithwhat
ReissandWiltz(2004)foundaboutrealitystars.Peopleenjoyedwatchingthem
becausetheywererelatabletothem.Thismaybethereasonwhywrestlerssuchas
JohnCena,DeanAmbrose,andAJStylesworksowell,butcharacterslikeGoldust,
Konnor,andViktorhavenotgottenover.Whiletheyareentertainingtheyarenot
relatable.Entertainingmaygetthemamidcardspot,butreliabilitycouldgivethem
thepushtobeaheadliner.Shin(2016)talkedabouthowcelebritiesindirectly,
throughparasocialinteraction,helpgettheirfansthroughtoughtimes.JohnCena
hasgrantedwellover500wishesfortheMake-A-WishFoundation.Thefoundation
grantswishesforkidswithcriticalillness(Hill,2015).Thiscanbeatleastpartially
attributedtofansstrongabilitytorelatetohimandtheirhighlevelsofparasocial
interaction.
Thethirdresearchquestionlookedatenjoymentasitrelatestoparasocial
interaction.Therewasalsoasignificantpositivecorrelationfoundhere.Thismeans
thatifasuperstarhashighlevelsofparasocialinteractionthenfansaregoingto
enjoythemandtheshowasawholemore.TheWWEhasalwaysbeenknownfor
superstarswhoareoverthetopintheirgimmicksandbodysize,fromHulkHogan
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19
toTheUndertakertoBrayWyatt.Thesesuperstarshavealwaysbeengiventhe
push.IfthisiswhattheWWEUniversewantsthenhowdoesashortguywhois
barleybreaking200poundsandhasnooverthetopgimmickcomeinand
immediatelyearnstheloveandrespectofthewholefanbase,ofcoursethatmanis
DanielBryan.Forthosewhoarenotfansofwrestling,DanielBryanisundersized,
butthathasn’tstoppedhimfrombeingWWEChampion,WorldHeavyweight
Champion,UnitedStatesChampion,IntercontinentalChampion,andWWETag
TeamChampionallinthecourseofthreeyears.Thisresearchsuggeststhatthe
WWEandallthesmallerpromotionsshouldfocustheirattentionawayfromthe
gimmicksandfocusonmakingtheirwrestlersseemmorelikerealpeople.Vince
McMahonlovesthebigguysandoftengivesthemthebiggestpushes.Whilethere
maynotbeexplicitproofstatingthis,itbecomesevidentwhenlookingatstarslike
BigShow,Kane,andBigCasswhoareall7’0tall(Benigno,2017).Whilethesestars
doverywell,itmaybetimetogivetheaverageheight,weight,andlooking
superstarsabigpush.Theymightjustwindupbeingfanfavoritesandleadinga
movementjustlikeDanielBryan.
AnotherreasontheWWEshouldmoveawayfromgivingsomany
championshipopportunitiestotheirgiantsuperstarsisbecausemostpeopleinreal
lifehavetoworkveryhardforwhattheyhave.Mostpeoplecannotrelateto
dominatingandconqueringeveryobstacleinfrontofthemwithease,inthereal
worldpeopleworktowardstheirgoals.Giantsmayreceivelessempathybecauseof
theeaseinwhichtheydothings.Smallersuperstarshavetoearntheirshotandthat
mirrorspeople’sreallives.Thedatasuggeststhatfanswillgetmoreenjoyment
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20
seeingsomeoneworkhardjustliketheydo.Thisisnottosaythatgiantshaveno
place.Thegiantscanbethebarriersinthewaythataveragesuperstarshaveto
overcome,butatsomepointtheyshouldovercomeandbegivenchampionships.
Thiswillleadtomoreempathyandoverallenjoymentinthelongrun.Opportunity
formoreaverageandrealisticlookingsuperstarsisnotlimitedtomalesuperstars;
thefemalesshouldbegivenshotsaswell.
FormanyyearstheDiva’sdivisionwasgivenshortmatchesandskimpy
outfits.RecentlytheWWEhasrebrandedtheirfemaledivisioninamovetheyare
callingthewomen’srevolution.TheyrenamedtheDiva’sdivisiontotheWomen’s
division,gavethewomenlongermatches,andgavethembetterstorylines(Fannin,
2017).ThisshouldhelptheWomen’sdivisionimmensely.Itwillhelpmakethe
womenmorerelatableandlesslikedisplayitems.Itshouldincreasetheempathy
viewer’sfeeltowardsthesewomen,thus,increasingparasocialinteractionand
enjoyment.
Conclusion
Theaimofthisstudyistoidentifytheusesandgratificationsofpro
wrestling.ThosewhohaveattendedaWWEeventknowshowdeeplypassionate
wrestlingfansareandhowdeeplyembeddedinthestorylinestheybecome.The
researchbeingpresentedofferscluesastowhythismaybe.Thereisevidencethat
fansofwrestlingfeelarelationshipwiththeirfavoritesuperstars.Thisrelationship
isstrongenoughthattheyfeelempathy.Therelationshiptheyfeelasthoughthey
havewithSuperstarsincreasetheirenjoymentoftheprograming.IftheWWEcan
continuetonurturetheseparasocialrelationshipstheycancontinuetoraisetheir
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21
fansenjoymentlevels.Soyes,it’strue,wrestlingisfake,butformanyofthefansitis
muchmorethanthat.Itisaplacewherefansgettoseetheirfavoritesuperstars
fightoneanotherinsomeofthebiggestarenastheworldhastooffer,Itiswere
dreamsaremadeandruinedonepinfallatatime,anditiswherefanscanimmerse
themselvesintoanewreality.
Thestudyisnotwithoutconfounds.First,thesamplewasabitsmallatonly
230participants.Ifthestudyweretobedoneoveralargersamplesizewouldbe
preferred.Therewasonlyonesurveyquestionwhichmeasuredenjoyment,whileit
wassufficient,infuturestudiesmorequestionstestingthisvariablemayincrease
thevalidity.Ifthestudyweretobedoneagainabroaderscopemaybeused.Instead
offocusingonWWEthefocuscouldhavebeenonprowrestlingorganizations.This
isnotahugedealbecauseofthelargediscrepancyinsizeandreachbetweenindie
promotionsandtheWWE.
Interestingavenuesforfutureresearchmightbetoexploresocialmedia’s
influenceonparasocialinteractionwithprowrestlers.Onecouldseeifthereisa
linkbetweenlevelsofsocialmediacontentrelatedtotheWWEconsumedandlevels
ofparasocialinteraction.Anotherinterestingavenueforfurtherresearchwouldbe
toseeifattendinglivetapingsorcommunityeventshaveanyimpactonparasocial
interaction.Surveyscouldbedistributedatoneofthemanytapings,houseshows,
andfaninteractionsWWEputson.Thatdatacouldbecomparedtoparticipantswho
haveneverbeentoanyliveeventstoseeifthereareanydiscrepancies.
Sowhyarepeoplefansofprowrestling?Thereisnoeasyexplanation,but
thedataseemstosuggestthatfansbecomeveryinvestedinthewrestlerstheyare
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watching.Theyfeelrealemotionsandgetrealenjoyment,evenifthestoriesbeing
toldarefake.WhiletheBigShow’sknockoutpunchmightlookalotworsethanit
feels,somewhereafaniscringingorholdingtheirbreathtobesurethesuperstar
thatwasattheotherendofitisuninjured.
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AppendixSurveyAdaptedfromParasocialInteractionScale(Rubinet.al,1985)DoyouconsideryourselfaWWEFan?
o Yeso No
HowmuchWWEcontentdoyouwatcheachweek?
o 0-2hourso 3-4hourso 5-6hourso 7+hours
PleasethinkaboutyourfavoritemaleorfemaleWWESuperstarwhenreplyingtothefollowingitems:
Stronglydisagree
Somewhatdisagree
Neitheragreenordisagree
Somewhatagree
Stronglyagree
Ifeelsadwhenmy
favoriteWWESuperstar
losesamatch.o o o o o
Igetangrywhenmy
favoriteWWESuperstarloses.
o o o o o Iget
enjoymentfrom
watchingWWE.
o o o o o Ifeeljoyseeingmy
favoriteWWE o o o o o
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Superstarwinamatch.
Sometimeswhen
watchingprowrestlingIputmyselfinmyfavoritewrestlersshoes.
o o o o o
Ifeelsorrywhenmy
favoriteWWEsuperstar
losesamatch.o o o o o
MyfavoriteWWE
superstarmakesme
feelcomfortable,asifIamwithafriend.
o o o o o
MyfavoriteWWE
superstarseemslikeanatural,downtoearthperson.
o o o o o
Ilookforwardtoseeingmy
favoriteWWESuperstarperform.
o o o o o
IfmyfavoriteWWE
superstarweretobeonanotherTVshow,Iwouldwatchtheprogram.
o o o o o
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WhenmyfavoriteWWEsuperstarisperforming,heorsheseemsto
performthemovesIwant
tosee.
o o o o o
IftherewereastoryaboutmyfavoriteWWE
SuperstarinanewsarticleIwouldreadit.
o o o o o
ImissseeingmyfavoriteWWE
Superstarwhenheorsheisinjuredoroutforalongperiodof
time.
o o o o o
IfindmyfavoriteWWESuperstartobeattractive.
o o o o o IwouldliketomeetmyfavoriteWWEsuperstarinperson.
o o o o o PleasethinkaboutyourfavoritemaleorfemaleTVcharacter(otherthanprowrestling)whenreplyingtothefollowingitems:
Stronglydisagree
Somewhatdisagree
Neitheragreenordisagree
Somewhatagree
Stronglyagree
Ifeelsorryformy
favoriteTV o o o o o
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characterwhentheymake
mistakes.
MyfavoriteTVcharactermakesme
feelcomfortable,asifIamwithafriend.
o o o o o
MyfavoriteTVcharacterseemslikeanatural,downtoearthperson.
o o o o o
IlookforwardtoseeingmyfavoriteTVcharacterontheirshow.
o o o o o
IfmyfavoriteTVcharacterweretobeonanotherTVshow,Iwouldwatchtheprogram.
o o o o o
WhenmyfavoriteTVcharactertalks,heorsheseemstounderstandthekindsofthingsIwanttoknow.
o o o o o
IftherewereastoryaboutmyfavoriteTVcharacterinanewsarticleI
o o o o o
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30
wouldreadit.
ImissseeingmyfavoriteTVcharacterwhentheshowisonhiatus.
o o o o o
IfindmyfavoriteTVcharactertobeattractive.
o o o o o IwouldliketomeetmyfavoriteTVcharacterinperson.
o o o o o
Whatagerangedoyoufallinto?
o 0-20o 21-40o 41-60o 61+
Whatisyourgender?
o Maleo Female