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Principles of Economics
Session 13
Topics To Be Covered
Definition of InflationCategories of InflationClassical Theory of InflationDemand-Pull InflationCost-Push InflationImpacts of Inflation
Topics To Be Covered
Measuring UnemploymentCategories of UnemploymentVoluntary and Involuntary UnemploymentReasons for Above-Equilibrium WageImpact of UnemploymentOkun’s LawPhillips Curve
Inflation
Inflation is an increase in the overall level of prices.
The Inflation Rate
1001 Year in CPI
1 Year in CPI - 2Year in CPIYear2 inRate Inflation
The inflation rate is the percentage change in the price level from the previous period.
100GDP Real
GDP Nominal=Deflator GDP
Categories of Inflation
Low inflation is characterized by prices that rise slowly and predictably, usually by no more than 10% a year.
Galloping inflation is the rise of price level by double- or triple-digit a year.
Hyperinflation is inflation that exceeds 50 percent per month.
1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000-50
510
15
20
25
Inflation in China
Percentper Year
Hyperinflation
Germany
1
100 trillion
1 million
10 billion
1 trillion
100 million
10,000
100
19251924192319221921
Price level
Moneysupply
Poland
Money
supply
Price level
Index (Jan. 1921 = 100)
100
10 million
100,000
1 million
10,000
1,000
19251924192319221921
Index (Jan. 1921 = 100)
Classical Theory of Inflation
The quantity theory of money is used to explain the long-run determinants of the price level and the inflation rate.
Inflation is an economy-wide phenomenon that concerns the value of the economy’s medium of exchange.
When the overall price level rises, the value of money falls.
Quantity ofMoney
Value ofMoney (1/P) Price
Level (P)Money supply
(High)
(Low)1
1.33
2
4
A
Moneydemand
Money Supply and Demand and Price Level
Eq
uili
bri
um
v
alu
e o
f m
on
ey
Eq
uilib
rium
p
rice lev
el
0
1
(Low)
(High)
1/2
1/4
3/4
Quantity ofMoney
Value ofMoney (1/P) Price
Level (P)
A
MS1
0
1
(Low)
(High)
(High)
(Low)
1/2
1/4
3/4
1
1.33
2
4Moneydemand
Effects of Monetary Injection
M1
MS2
1. An increase in the money supply...
2. .
..de
cre
as
es
the
v
alu
e o
f m
on
ey
... 3
. …a
nd
increa
se
s th
e p
rice
lev
el
M2
B
Quantity Theory of Money
How the price level is determined and why it might change over time is called the quantity theory of money. The quantity of money available in the
economy determines the value of money. The primary cause of inflation is the growth
in the quantity of money.
Velocity and Quantity Equation
The velocity of money refers to the speed at which the typical dollar bill travels around the
economy from wallet to wallet.
Velocity and Quantity Equation
V = (P x Y)/M
V = VelocityP = Price levelY = Quantity of outputM = Quantity of money
M x V = P x Y
Velocity and Quantity Equation
The quantity equation shows that an increase in the quantity of money in an economy must be reflected in one of three other variables: the price level must rise,
the quantity of output must rise, or
the velocity of money must fall.
Quantity Theory of Money
The velocity of money is relatively stable over time.
When the central bank changes the quantity of money, it causes proportionate changes in the nominal value of output (P ×Y).
Quantity Theory of Money
When the central bank alters the money supply and induces parallel changes in the nominal value of output, these changes are also reflected in changes in the price level.
When the central bank increases the money supply rapidly, the result is a high rate of inflation.
Demand-Pull Inflation
The demand-pull inflation occurs when aggregate demand rises
more rapidly than the economy’s productive potential, pulling
prices up to equilibrate aggregate supply and demand.
Short-run AS2
AD2
AD1
Demand-Pull Inflation
Quantity ofOutput
PriceLevel
0
Short-run AS1
Long-run AS
Y1
In the long run, nominal wages rising causes AS to
decrease and the price level rises further.
AP1
An increase in AD increases the price level in the short
run
BP2
Y2
CP3
Cost-Push Inflation
The cost-push inflation originates on the supply side of markets from a sharp increase in costs.
The rise of Costs pushes AS upward and leads to a higher price level but a lower
output.
AS2
P2 B
Cost-Push Inflation
Quantity ofOutput
PriceLevel
0
Short-run AS1
AD1
Long-run AS
AP1
If the government fights the recession by increasing AD,
further inflation will occur.
P3 C
AD2
Impacts of Inflation
Shoeleather costs Menu costs Relative price variability Tax distortions Confusion and inconvenience Arbitrary redistribution of wealth
Shoeleather Costs
Shoeleather costs are the resources wasted when inflation encourages people to reduce their money holdings.
Inflation reduces the real value of money, so people have an incentive to minimize their cash holdings.
Shoeleather Costs Less cash requires more frequent trips to
the bank to withdraw money from interest-bearing accounts.
The actual cost of reducing your money holdings is the time and convenience you must sacrifice to keep less money on hand.
Also, extra trips to the bank take time away from productive activities.
Menu Costs
Menu costs are the costs of adjusting prices.
During inflationary times, it is necessary to update price lists and other posted prices.
This is a resource-consuming process that takes away from other productive activities.
Relative-Price Variability
Inflation distorts relative prices. Consumer decisions are distorted,
and markets are less able to allocate resources to their best use.
Inflation-Induced Tax Distortion
Inflation exaggerates the size of capital gains and increases the tax burden on this type of income.
With progressive taxation, capital gains are taxed more heavily.
Inflation-Induced Tax Distortion
The income tax treats the nominal interest earned on savings as income, even though part of the nominal interest rate merely compensates for inflation.
The after-tax real interest rate falls, making saving less attractive.
Confusion and Inconvenience
When the Fed increases the money supply and creates inflation, it erodes the real value of the unit of account.
Inflation causes dollars at different times to have different real values.
Therefore, with rising prices, it is more difficult to compare real revenues, costs, and profits over time.
Arbitrary Redistribution of Wealth
Unexpected inflation redistributes wealth among the population in a way that has nothing to do with either merit or need.
These redistributions occur because many loans in the economy are specified in terms of the unit of account – money.
Measuring Unemployment
Unemployment is measured by the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS). It surveys 60,000 randomly selected
households every month. The survey is called the Current Population
Survey.
Measuring Unemployment
Based on the answers to the survey questions, the BLS places each adult into one of three categories: Employed Unemployed Not in the labor force
Measuring Unemployment
The BLS considers a person an adult if he or she is over 16 years old.
A person is considered employed if he or she has spent most of the previous week working at a paid job.
A person is unemployed if he or she is on temporary layoff, is looking for a job, or is waiting for the start date of a new job.
Unemployed (6.2 million)
The Breakdown of the U.S. Population in 2000
Not in labor force
(67.5 million)
Employed(131.5 million)
Labor force(137.7 million)Adult
population (205.2 million)
Measuring Unemployment
The unemployment rate is calculated as the percentage of the labor force that is unemployed.
100force Labor
unemployed Number=rate ntUnemployme
Measuring Unemployment
The labor-force participation rate is the percentage of the adult population that is in the labor force.
100population Adult
force Labor=rate ionparticipatforce -Labor
Unemployment Rate Since 1960
10
8
6
4
2
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995
Percent of
Labor Force
Natural rate ofunemployment
19651960 2000
0
Unemployment rate
100
80
60
40
20
01950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 ’98
Lab
or-
forc
e
Part
icip
ati
on
Rate
(in
p
erc
en
t)Labor-force Participation Rates
for Men and Women
Men
Women
Categories of Unemployment
Natural unemployment
Cyclical unemployment
Frictional unemployment
Structural unemployment
Natural Rate of Unemployment
The natural rate of unemployment (lowest sustainable unemployment rate, LSUR) is unemployment that does not go away on its own even in the long run.
It is the amount of unemployment that the economy normally experiences.
Cyclical Unemployment
Cyclical unemployment refers to the year-to-year fluctuations in unemployment around its natural rate.
It occurs during recession as a result of an imbalance between AS and AD.
Frictional Unemployment
Frictional unemployment arises from the incessant movement of people between regions and jobs or through different stages of the life cycle.
It is often thought of as voluntary unemployment.
Structural Unemployment
Structural unemployment results from the regional or occupational pattern of job vacancies does not match the pattern of worker availability.
Government should offer some training programs to the unemployed.
Voluntary Unemployment vs.Involuntary Unemployment
Voluntary unemployment is a situation in which individuals are unemployed because they perceive the value of wages to be less than the opportunity use of time, say in leisure.
The vast majority of people don’t think the theory of voluntary unemployment can hold water.
Employment
A
Voluntaryunemployment
F
Voluntary Unemployment vs.Involuntary Unemployment
Labor0
WageLabor
supply
Labor demand
W*
E
Voluntary Unemployment vs.Involuntary Unemployment
Labor0
Wage
Labor demand
W*
Labor supply
E
Voluntaryunemployment
K
Involuntaryunemployment
J
Employment
HGW**
Three Possible Reasons for an Above-Equilibrium Wage
Minimum-wage laws Unions Efficiency wages
Minimum-Wage Laws
When the minimum wage is set above the level that balances supply and demand, it creates unemployment.
Unemployment from a Wage Above the Equilibrium Level
WE
Quantity of Labor
LE0
Labordemand
Wage
Surplus of labor = Unemployment
Minimum wage
LD LS
Laborsupply
Unions and Collective Bargaining
A union is a worker association that bargains with employers over wages and working conditions.
In the 1940s and 1950s, when unions were at their peak, about a third of the U.S. labor force was unionized.
A union is a type of cartel attempting to exert its market power.
Unions and Collective Bargaining
A strike makes some workers better off and other workers worse off.
Workers in unions (insiders) reap the benefits of collective bargaining, while workers not in the union (outsiders) bear some of the costs.
Unions and Collective Bargaining
By acting as a cartel with ability to strike or otherwise impose high costs on employers, unions usually achieve above equilibrium wages for their members.
Union workers earn 10 to 20 percent more than nonunion workers.
Are Unions Good or Bad
Critics argue that unions cause the allocation of labor to be inefficient and inequitable. Wages above the competitive level reduce
the quantity of labor demanded and cause unemployment.
Some workers benefit at the expense of other workers.
Are Unions Good or Bad
Advocates of unions contend that unions are a necessary antidote to the market power of firms that hire workers.
They claim that unions are important for helping firms respond efficiently to workers’ concerns.
Theory of Efficiency Wages
Efficiency wages are above-equilibrium wages paid by firms in order to increase worker productivity.
The theory of efficiency wages states that firms operate more efficiently if wages are above the equilibrium level.
Theory of Efficiency Wages
A firm may prefer higher than equilibrium wages for the following reasons: Worker Health: Better paid workers eat a
better diet and thus are more productive.
Worker Turnover: A higher paid worker is less likely to look for another job.
Theory of Efficiency Wages
A firm may prefer higher than equilibrium wages for the following reasons: Worker Effort: Higher wages motivate
workers to put forward their best effort.
Worker Quality: Higher wages attract a better pool of workers to apply for jobs.
Impact of Unemployment
Economic ImpactUnemployment is a waste of natural resources.
Social ImpactThe unemployed suffer psychologically and physically.
Okun’s Law
Okun’s Law is an empirical relationship, discovered by Arthur Okun, between cyclical movements in GDP and unemployment.
)( 11 tttt YYUU
Okun’s Law
Okun estimates that when actual GDP declines 3 percent relative to potential GDP, the unemployment rate increases by about 1 percentage point.
a = 3
However, recent studies show that:
a = 2
3
2
1
0
-1
-2
-1-2 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8-3-3
Okun’s Law
Percentage Change in Real GDP
Perc
en
tag
e C
han
ge
in U
nem
plo
ym
en
t
Unemployment and Inflation
The natural rate of unemployment depends on various features of the labor market.
The inflation rate depends primarily on growth in the quantity of money, controlled by the Fed.
The misery index, one measure of the “health” of the economy, adds together the inflation rate and unemployment rate.
Unemployment and Inflation
Society faces a short-run tradeoff between unemployment and inflation.
If policymakers expand aggregate demand, they can lower unemployment, but only at the cost of higher inflation.
If they contract aggregate demand, they can lower inflation, but at the cost of temporarily higher unemployment.
The Phillips Curve
The Phillips curve illustrates the short-run relationship between inflation and unemployment.
The Phillips Curve
Unemployment Rate
(percent)
0
Inflation Rate
(percent per year)
6
B6
Phillips curve
A5
8
AD, AS, and the Phillips Curve
The Phillips curve shows the short-run combinations of unemployment and inflation that arise as shifts in the aggregate demand
curve move the economy along the short-run aggregate supply curve.
AD, AS, and the Phillips Curve
The greater the aggregate demand for goods and services, the greater is the economy’s output, and the higher is the overall price level.
A higher level of output results in a lower level of unemployment.
Phillips Curve and AD-AS Model
Phillips curve
0
The Phillips Curve
Inflation Rate
(percent per year)
Unemployment Rate (percent)0
The Model of AD and AS
Price Level
Low AD
High ADB
6
6
(output is 7,280)
A
8
5
(output is
7,000)
A
7,000
105
(unemployment is 8%)
B
7,280
106
(unemployment is 6%)
Short-run AS
Shifts in the Phillips Curve: The Role of Expectations
The Phillips curve seems to offer policymakers a menu of possible
inflation and unemployment outcomes.
The Long-Run Phillips Curve
In the 1960s, Friedman concluded that inflation and unemployment are unrelated in the long run.
As a result, the long-run Phillips curve is vertical at the natural rate of unemployment.
Monetary policy could be effective in the short run but not in the long run.
The Long-Run Phillips Curve
Unemployment Rate0 Natural rate of
unemployment
Inflation Rate Long-run
Phillips curve
BHigh
inflation 1. When the Fed increases the growth rate of the money supply, the rate of inflation increases…
2. … but unemployment remains at its natural ratein the long run.ALow
inflation
Natural rate of unemployment
Long-run Phillips curve
0
The Phillips Curve
Inflation Rate
A
Natural rate of output
0
P1
Aggregate demand, AD1
Long-run aggregate supply
The AD-AS Model
Price Level
4. …but leaves output and unemployment at their natural rates.
How the Phillips Curve is Related to the AD-AS Model
P2
2. …raises the price level…
Quantity of Output
Unemploy-ment Rate
1. An increase in the money supply increases aggregate demand…
AD2
B
3. …and increases the inflation rate…
Expectations and the Short-Run Phillips Curve
Expected inflation (inertial inflation) measures how much people expect the overall price
level to change.
Expectations and the Short-Run Phillips Curve
In the long run, expected inflation adjusts to changes in actual inflation.
The Fed’s ability to create unexpected inflation exists only in the short run. Once people anticipate inflation, the only
way to get unemployment below the natural rate is for actual inflation to be above the anticipated rate.
Expectations and the Short-Run Phillips Curve
This equation relates the unemployment rate to the natural rate of unemployment, actual inflation, and expected inflation.
How much is a for the USA?
2.
Unemployment Rate
= Natural rate of unemployment
Actual Expected inflation inflation
-(a- )
How Expected Inflation Shifts the Short-Run Phillips Curve
Unemployment Rate
0 Natural rate of unemployment
Inflation Rate
B
Long-run Phillips curve
A
C
2. …but in the long-run, expected inflation rises, and the short-run Phillips curve shifts to the right.
Short-run Phillips curve with high expected inflation
Short-run Phillips curve with low expected inflation
1. Expansionary policy moves the economy up along the short-run Phillips curve...
The Cost of Reducing Inflation
To reduce inflation, the Fed has to pursue contractionary monetary policy.
When the Fed slows the rate of money growth, it contracts aggregate demand.
This reduces the quantity of goods and services that firms produce.
This leads to a rise in unemployment.
A
Short-run Phillips curvewith high expected
inflation
1. Contractionary policy moves the economy down along the short-run Phillips curve...
UnemploymentRate
0 Natural rate ofunemployment
InflationRate Long-run
Phillips curve
CB
Short-run Phillips curvewith low expected
inflation
2. ... but in the long run, expected inflation falls and the short-run Phillips curve shifts to the left.
Disinflationary Monetary Policy
The Cost of Reducing Inflation
To reduce inflation, an economy must endure a period of high unemployment and low output. When the Fed combats inflation, the
economy moves down the short-run Phillips curve.
The economy experiences lower inflation but at the cost of higher unemployment.
Unemployment of China
Year Number (million
Rate (%)
Year
Number (Million)
Rate (%)
1978 5.30 5.3 1991 3.52 2.3
1983 2.71 2.3 1992 3.64 2.3
1984 2.36 1.9 1993 4.20 2.6
1985 2.39 1.8 1994 4.76 2.8
1986 2.64 2.0 1995 5.20 2.9
1987 2.77 2.0 1996 5.53 3.0
1988 2.96 2.0 1997 5.70 3.1
1989 3.78 2.6 1998 5.71 3.1
1990 3.83 2.5 1999 5.75 3.1
Unemployment of China
Year Number (million
Rate (%)
Year
Number (Million)
Rate (%)
1978 5.30 5.3 1991 3.52 2.3
1983 2.71 2.3 1992 3.64 2.3
1984 2.36 1.9 1993 4.20 2.6
1985 2.39 1.8 1994 4.76 2.8
1986 2.64 2.0 1995 5.20 2.9
1987 2.77 2.0 1996 5.53 3.0
1988 2.96 2.0 1997 5.70 3.1
1989 3.78 2.6 1998 5.71 3.1
1990 3.83 2.5 1999 5.75 3.1
Problems With the Measurement of Chinese Unemployment
The statistics excludes the rural unemployment.The number doesn’t include the unemployed wo
rkers from the countryside.The statistics comes from the unemployment reg
istration agencies, thus the number of those who are not officially registered is not included.
Laid-off workers aren’t counted as unemployed.
Assignment
Review Chapter 29 and 30Answer questions on P576 and 601.Search for information on China’s price
level and unemployment in the recent years.
Go over Chapter 20—30.
Thanks