• Power of observation• Observational vs. experimental studies• Direct measures vs. indices• Data sheet basics• Sampling• Tools/Techniques--overview

Tools and Techniques - Overview

Ecological Methodology LEC-01 Althoff

Power of Observation

• Knowing what, when, where, and how to look for the needed information

• Requires ____________ of the species (biotic) and physical environment (abiotic)….and knowledge of the __________________ _______________ being used to make those observations

Power of Observation

• Requires practice: “keen eyes, ears, touch, etc.”

• Requires proper recording….including “____________” or “___________” observations. Separate “facts” from “interpretations”

• Avoid __________________ based on inadequate information

Power of Observation & Recording

• Key question: what to record?• Trust nothing to memory:

a) write it downb) record it on tapec) enter it into a data loggerd) capture it via picture/video

• Use standardized data sheets (for consistency…but don’t hesitate to record the trivial.

Observational vs. Experimental Studies

• Observational: _________ (usually), trying to determine basics, learn patterns, trends, characteristics

• Experimental: ________ (usually), have basic knowledge of subject that enables one to “separate” into treatment groups

Observational vs. Experimental Studies

• Observational: generally summarize data using _______________ statistics

• Experimental: determine if differences between treatments are “real” using ______________ statistics

Statistics • Descriptive statistics: central tendency: mean,

median, mode spread: range, variance, standard deviation, standard error

• Inferential statistics: t-test, sign test, Kruskal-Wallis test, F-test, Analysis of Variance (ANOVA), Friedman test….some are parametric, some are non-parametric

• Models: Akaikae Information Criterion (AIC),Structural Equation Modeling (SEM)

Direct Measure (estimates) vs. Index

• Direct measure: length of hind foot,mass (wt.), color of fur, contents of stomach, N content of feces, height of vegetation, stage of leaf-out, etc.

• Index: “some approximation” of what is exactly there. Assumes that the “index” is a true reflection of the actual measure.

Direct Measure TO PRODUCE AN Index• Sometimes, take a “direct” measure but use it

to produce an index:ex: measure fat around the kidney

as an indicator of overall body condition (weigh the fat, weigh thekidney): kidney fat index

ex: monitor breeding behaviors of birds to estimate proportion ofadults suspected of nesting andproducing young: reproductive success index

Data Sheet Basics

• Keep it simple• Date, time “slots”• Sequence on sheet for data entry should

match the “procedure” whenever possible• Use check boxes:

a) “repeated”/standard entriesb) avoiding lots of writingc) consistency

• Back-up/make copies of data !!!!!

Data sheet examples

Sampling

• Three basic types: randomsystematicstratified

Where are you? _____ = global positioning system

$200-600+/- 10 m accuracy $5,000 – 6,000

+/- 0.1 m accuracy

Locational/Directional “Tools”

• Compass• Topographic maps (“topos”)• Hand-drawn maps• Altimeter• Etc.

• GPS: position (on the face of earth, including altitude): UTM coordinates = X-Y coordinates

GPS / GIS

• Need GPS data to feed into GIS • _____ = geographical information system• Produce “layers”• Produce maps• Evaluate data ____________!!!• Satellite imagery reaching finer and finer scale:

was 3 m x 3 m resolution…almost commercially available at 1m x 1m or less

• Cautions: 1) garbage in, garbage out 2) “boots” on the ground

observations still needed

Cover boards

woodmetal

Monitor: salamanders snakes macroinvertebrates

Cover boards

Traps “box type”

Live capture (and release)

Monitor small mammalsa) Presence/absenceb) Species richnessc) Popn estimation (i.e., mark-recapture)

Sherman live-trap (H.B. Sherman)

cage trap

Pitfall traps

Monitor:a) small mammalsb) amphibiansc) arthropods (ex. beetles)

Mist nets

Nest boxes

Trip/Trail Cameras

Trip/Trail Cameras

• _____________ method• Constant monitoring or program to sample at

certain times• “Captures” the individual(s)… ID

individuals sometimesDate and time stamps (temp, too,?)Archive data

Visual Obstruction “Readings” (VOR)Robel Pole: in grassland habitat, high degree of correlation between “height” and biomass (vegetative) present

Robel PoleNudds Board

Daubenmire Frame Estimate % cover (vegetation?)

Estimate % bare ground (abiotic)

Sampling “frames”

• Daubenmire frame: 10 cm x 20 cm• Meter frame: 2.0 m x 0.5 m or

1.0 m x 1.0 m= 1 m2

• Estimate coverage: 0-5, 5-10, 10-25, 25-50, >50

• Estimate species density

• Estimate species richness

Sampling: Lines & Points

• Line transectcount plant

species on line or plants every 10 m,

measure distance coverage, etc.

• Distance sampling• Point-centered

Distance Sampling

• Work off of line transect• Measure distance individual (plant, animal,

bare ground, nest, etc.) is from the line• Software program DISTANCE can help

estimate density with confidence intervals (direct measure…not an index…to population density to measure abundance)

Point Center Sampling

• Bird counts using this approach known as “point counts”

• Plant/tree sampling using this approach that uses points is called “point-centered quadrats”

Point counts

-hear or see bird

Canopy Cover

_____________________(index to either lightpenetration and/or overhead cover…ordirect measure if photograph & analysis)

Tree sizes: DBH = diameter breast height

Biltmore stick

DBH tape

Distance to or height of an object: range finder

+/- 1 m accuracy for this type.

GPS unit could serveSame function if take 2 points

Finer scale: Fat-max it (+/- 0.02m…1/16”)

Soil Probes:measuring physical environment:

bulk density (soil compaction)pHN, C, etc.

Measuring biotic environment:nematodes (roundworms)annelids (earthworms)

Radiotelemetry: VHF & GPS units

Radiotelemetry…advantages include

• “Follow” the same individual “everywhere”• “Follow” the same individual at any time• Can minimize observer bias…but limitations, for

example: collar too tight, too heavy, too easy to be “restrictive”, and issue with

‘social’ species• Can generate “lots of data”

Sampling Arthropods

Kill jars

Sweep nets lights & sheets

Secchi Diskmeasuring physical environment:

“transparency” = turbidity, usually to the nearest 1 ft or. 0.25 m

Bottom sampler (substrate) “___ bottom sampler”

Pokar dredgeEckman dredge

Kick seines

Measuring biotic environment, by capturing: macroinvertebrates fishes turtles etc.

Substrate plates (Hester-Dendy multi-plate samplers)

Measuring biotic environment, by capturing: “small” macroinvertebrates that will “adhere” to the plates. Usually leave in water for ____ weeks

Electro-shockersStuns fish, fish rise to surface, net fish and then process….

Can: ID to species remove scale (to

age) release or harvest

___________ sampling(abiotic environment)

________or ________ (generally done in the field with ‘fresh’ samples)…otherwise use meter or take to lab

Aging and Sexing

Hair snares(using barbed wire or sticky substance)

•non-invasive•determine species (visual inspection or DNA)•If “really good”, individuals

Fecal Matter = Scats & Pellets

Fecal Matter = Scats & Pellets

Fecal & Urine Samples…

• Non-invasive sampling• Determine food habits• Determine presence/absence• Determine nutritional status (including N

content of diet)• Determine species, sometimes individuals• Determine reproductive status

Lots of room for innovation…

• Sampling/observing “something” different may require different method and/or equipment

• New technologies provide now opportunities (ex. barcodes)

• But….equipment still has limitations. Good field biologist ________ forget that!